Massachusetts 쳤߲⤫ Martha's Vineyard ϡLabov μҲؤĴͭ̾Ǥ롥Labov ϡ̱ΤǿʹԤƤ2첻 [aɪ], [aʊ] [əɪ], [əʊ] ؤѲμ֤ȸõäʲ1972ǯ Labov ǾܽҤƤĴƤ⤷ Aitchison (60--67) ˽ä롥

ꥫڤ3ޥۤɤβ⤫ Martha's Vineyard ʤϡDz Jaws ȤʤäȤ⤢ꡤ¿ο͡ε˻ĤäƤ롥ο6ͤۤɤļˤϲƤˤʤڤ4ͤĶѸҤĤ褦ˤʤꡤϤȤƤγȯʤޤä¦ˤڤ꽻Ԥ¿ޤ褦ˤʤä̤ȤơϿԤ̩٤ι⤤ϰȤʤꡤϸṮ̌ŪϰȤʤä
Labov ϡ30ǯĴεϿӤơ̱ [aɪ], [aʊ] ȯ [əɪ], [əʊ] ѲƤƤ뤳ȤܤѲĴ뤳Ȥ˷ˡ̱¿ΥǡȡLabov ̡ǯϰʬ̱ۡ²ʬۡʸŪѰۤʤɤΥѥˤʬϤʤޤ̱ȤϤѲʹǤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤƤʤȤȤȽ
ʬϷ̤ϼ̤äǯΥѥˤĤơ75ФǯؤǤϤѲϺǤ⾯ʤ31--45ФǯؤǺǤ¿ä30аʲǤ31--45ФۤɤѲѻʤäŪˤϡѲļǰŪˤ褯ʹԤƤޤMartha's Vineyard ϤȤȵȤäޤ˻ĤäƤʤ̱ΤۤȤɤ Chilmark ˽Ǥꡤε̱ѲαƶǤ⸲˼Ƥ뤳ȤȽΤޤȤȡѲϤ餯ε̱ξĤϤޤꡤ30--45ФǯؤعäƤä餷Ȥ¬롥
ʤΤ褦ʤȤäΤLabov ϡԤѻȹͻˤꡤΤ褦ʶڽֿȯǤ [əɪ], [əʊ] ϡºݤˤϤष̱θŤŪѼ¸ߤƤѰ۷äΤ18--19ΥꥫڤǤ [əɪ], [əʊ] ʹ줿ΤǤꡤθŤȯҶ˻ĤäƤȤƤԻĤϤʤ19ʹߡꥫڤ [əɪ], [əʊ] [aɪ], [aʊ] ؤѲư˸ƱơMartha's Vineyard ǤʿԤѲȻפ뤬ǤϸŤȯˤ϶व줺ˡݼŪѰ۷Ȥƻ¸ȤLabov ĴȤݼŪѰ۷ǤϺƤϤ֤ĥϤƤ褦Ǥ롥
ŤȯȳĥˤĤƤϡβ⤬ΩƤƤ롥Ūʵ̱ϡ˲ڤδѸҤˤϤӤѸӥͥ˷ƤΤǤϤʤѸȤȤΩŪĤǤε̱ˤϡʬ Martha's Vineyard 餷θ̱ɽǤȤ餬ꡤμˤݼŪѰ۷ξ [əɪ], [əʊ] Ѥ뤳Ȥ̵ռΤǤΤǤϤʤơΤ褦ʵ̱Ū̱ȤƤΥǥƥƥ˶뼡̱30--45СˤƤƤꡤ餬ħŪ [əɪ], [əʊ] Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤƤΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison (65) ΤޤȤɤǤߤ褦
On Martha's Vineyard a small group of fishermen began to exaggerate a tendency already existing in their speech. They did this seemingly subconsciously, in order to establish themselves as an independent social group with superior status to the despised summer visitors. A number of other islanders regarded this group as one which epitomized old virtues and desirable values, and subconsciously imitated the way its members talked. For these people, the new pronunciation was an innovation. As more and more people came to speak in the same way, the innovation gradually became the norm for those living on the island.
Labov ˤ Martha's Vineyard Ĵϡ#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) θȤȤˡҲػ˾塤פʥǥȤǧƤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ѲˤĤ͡ƤѲͻǤνڤ椹ǴƤ٤ΥѥƤߤˤȤäѲܼŪǤʤСѲ椳츦γȤ⤤ϤǤ롥
ʲ˸Ѳڤܥ֥ؤΥĥĤġ10ΩƤޥɥޥåˤޤȤPDF뤤ϥΡɤĤǤFLASHɤνϡǤפ3Τߤ˸¤äƱͤλߤȤơ#729. ѲΥޥɥޥåס ([2011-04-26-1]) ⻲ȡ

ѲѰۤΤ˼ҲŪװŻ뤹Ҥ1 James Milroy θѤˤĤƤϡ#1264. ˸ؤθ³ȡιؤƻ ([2012-10-12-1])#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) 䤽¾εǾҲ𤷤ƤϤȤ櫓ѲװȤ˴ؿꡤҲؤΩ줫餳ˤĤѶŪȯƤ Milroy ˤĹ餯ܤƤƤ롥
Milroy ϡѲͻݤ3Ĥθ§ǤƤ롥
Principle 1 As language use (outside of literary modes and laboratory experiments) cannot take place except in social and situational contexts and, when observed, is always observed in these contexts, our analysis --- if it is to be adequate --- must take account of society, situation and the speaker/listener. (5--6)
Principle 2 A full description of the structure of a variety (whether it is 'standard' English, or a dialect, or a style or register) can only be successfully made if quite substantial decisions, or judgements, of a social kind are taken into account in the description. (6)
Principle 3 In order to account for differential patterns of change at particular times and places, we need first to take account of those factors that tend to maintain language states and resist change. (10)
3§Ū˲᤹ȡ§1ϡϼҲΤʤѤƤѻʤΤ顤Ҳθʤ츦ʤɤȤΤϤꤨʤȤĥ§2ϡġθѼϼҲŪˤǤʤΤ顤٤Ƥθ츦ϲ餫μҲŪȽǤ˴ŤƤǧ٤Ȥĥ§3ϡѲװǤϤʤ֤ݻװѲװõ٤Ȥĥ
ճȤǡȤ櫓§3ܤͤ롥ġθѲθõߤϿ¿Ѳ˰ݻϤʤѲʤΤ뤤ϤʤѲΤ䤦ϾʤۤȤơݻǥեȤǤꡤѲȤˤϤѲ٤Ȥͤ롥Milroy ϡषѲΤۤǥեȤǤꡤݻ٤ݤǤȸФ
Therefore, as a historical linguist, I thought that we might get a better understanding of what linguistic change actually is, and how and why it happens, if we could also come closer to specifying the conditions under which it does not happen --- the conditions under which 'states' and forms of language are maintained and changes resisted. (11--12)
ŪʴϡݻȸѲؤȤռϳΤˤѤ뤳ȤǥեȤǤꡤѤʤȤפΤȤҲŪȯۤžϡİ٤Ȼפ
ϢơѲװˤĤƤϡ#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1])#2065. ʸμѼ (2) ([2014-12-22-1]) ʤɤǾ夲ΤǡȤ줿
Milroy, James. Linguistic Variation and Change: On the Historical Sociolinguistics of English. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
ǧθؤθѲ˴ؤǥȤơѴץǥ (usage-based model) ȤΤƤƤ롥ëˤȿ (106, 105) 狼䤹
뤳ȤФˡζȤʤ륹 [A] 顤餫ǰæȤäˡ (B) 롥Ϥᡤ(B) ϥ [A] ˹פʤ(B) ˡ֤夹ˤĤơ(B) [A] ȶˤθΥƥ˼ޤ褦ˤʤ롥ȡ(B) Ǥ餿ʥ [A'] Ф졤ˤä (B) ǧ褦ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥Τ褦ѲΥƥֻѴץǥפ뤤ϡˡץǥ (usage-based model) Ȥ (Langacker 2000) ë106

ޤϽФϡݲǤȤǡʸˡ§ϽФȤӤ롥̾ʸˡ§ŪǤΤФơޤưŪǤꡤǤȤ㤤롥ޤϡæ㤬夹ˤĤơѹƤޤѲβˤơæ㤬夹ٹ礤ˤϸĿͺ뤿ᡤɬŪ˥ΤθĿͺ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѲΤ褦˰֤ŤƤȤ館ѴץǥˤƤϡηϤΤΤήưŪʤΤˤߤ
ޤ٤˸ĿͺȤȤϡѲ® (speed_of_change) ľ뤹뤷θλ (frequency) 䶦 (collocation) ȤϢѴץǥϡδطˤܤƤ롥ѲʥߥåʤΤǤϤ뤬줽ΤΤ˥ʥߥåʤΤǤꡤΥʥߥθλѤΤʤˤȤȤƶĴɾǤ
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ
μ (borrowing) ȼѸ (loanword) Ȥϰۤʤ롥ԤϲǤꡤԤϷ̤Ǥ롥ξԤ̤ɬפˤĤơ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǰäƤ̤Ǥ롥
ܿʬ餳ζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤĥƤԤ1ͤˡWeinreich (11) 롥
In speech, interference is like sand carried by a stream; in language, it is the sedimented sand deposited on the bottom of a lake. The two phases of interference should be distinguished. In speech, it occurs anew in the utterances of the bilingual speaker as a result of his personal knowledge of the other tongue. In language, we find interference phenomena which, having frequently occurred in the speech of bilinguals, have become habitualized and established. Their use is no longer dependent on bilingualism. When a speaker of language X uses a form of foreign origin not as an on-the-spot borrowing from language Y, but because he has heard it used by others in X-utterances, then this borrowed element can be considered, from the descriptive viewpoint, to have become a part of LANGUAGE X.
ȤƤμѤȷ̤ȤƤμѸϸ촳 (interference) 2Ĥΰۤʤ̤Ǥ롥Ԥ parole ˡԤ langue °ȸƤ褤⤷ʤ³ Weinreich Ʊڡεǡζ̤νǧƤԸϾʤȤʤ顤ʲθ˿Ƥ롥
The only one to have drawn the theoretical distinction seems to be Roberts (450, 31f.), who arbitrarily calls the generative process "fusion" and the accomplished result "mixture." In anthropology, Linton (312, 474) distinguishes in the introduction of a new culture element "(1) its initial acceptance by innovators, (2) its dissemination to other members of the society, and (3) the modifications by which it is finally adjusted to the preexisting culture matrix."
ä˿ؼ Linton ΰʬܤʸޤȹͤʸŪǤƳˤ3ʳ̤ȤŦ뤬ϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ (1) potential for change, (3) diffusion, (2) implementation ˴ˤ䤫бƤ褦˻פ롥ѤϡѸμơ硤ȤʳФʤʹԤƤȤμѤˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʣŪưŪʤȤ館ɬפǤ롥"dissemination" "diffusion" ΥơȴϢơóȻ (lexical_diffusion) γƵȤ櫓#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2020. ۩Ѳθ "expressivity" Ǥ ([2014-11-07-1]) εǡϢꥢؤ夲ƤؤǤϡѲˤĿͤ䤬̤˲Ф롥ɤϳƼȤʬۤ˶ؿäɤǤ⤢뤬Ȥ¼ñ̤ǰۤʤѤȤ̤˭˶òʬŪʵǤĿ (idiolect) ؤδؿ˹Ԥ夤ΤȻפ롥ѲθĿͤɽϤΤʤ˸ȤΤϡˤȤäɬǤä
ѸˤΤ褦˸̸ˤ礭Ȥ館Ω줫ϡѲˤüԸĿͤαƶϤϤۤ礭ʤȤȤ롥㤨С#257. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ ([2010-01-09-1]) #298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ Chaucer αѸ˾䤬ɾƤ餤뤳ȤŦƤ롥ʸػ˾ȸ˾ϡΤ̸Ĥ˹ͤ٤
Ǥ⡤#1412. 16Ⱦ˸Ū2ͤ Thomas ([2013-03-09-1]) #1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) ʤɤεǤߤ褦ˡθĿͤΤʤۤȤɤξϸáˤˤƸŪʤܤ˸Ȥ¤ϻĤ롥¿ζĤ Shakespeare Ϥᡤʸػˤ˻Ĥ褦ʸͤϱѸ˲餫αƶĤƤΤǤ롥
Ѹˤ̾ Bradley ϡѲˤĿͤαƶȤˤĤơŪȤ٤ȤäƤ롥
It is a truth often overlooked, but not unimportant, that every addition to the resources of a language must in the first instance have been due to an act (though not necessarily a voluntary or conscious act) of some one person. A complete history of the Making of English would therefore include the names of the Makers, and would tell us what particular circumstances suggested the introduction of each new word or grammatical form, and of each new sense or construction of a word. (150)
Now there are two ways in which an author may contribute to the enrichment of the language in which he writes. He may do so directly by the introduction of new words or new applications of words, or indirectly by the effect of his popularity in giving to existing forms of expression a wider currency and a new value. (151)
Bradley ϡΤ Wyclif, Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton ʤɤ̾ϢͤơƤ椯
Ǥ롥ΤȤƤߤСθĿͤϸŪȤ虜ʤΤǤϤʤȡϹͤƤ롥Ū¿ξ硤ĿͤϤΰѤǤȤ "indirectly" ʤΤˤȤɤޤꡤȤƱѸȤΤΤʤ糤ΰũˤʤθĿͤũȤΤϼ¤϶ä٤ȤǤ뤫顤θ¤ˤƤθĿͤαƶϤɾ뤳ȤѲˤĿͤαƶϡޥʻϲɾʤ褦դߥʻϲᾮɾʤ褦դȤΤΩ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ˰³ܲؿǤػ˾1ȶꥢɤˤĤ롥Leo Spitzer ϡؤˤ˶ƤؼԤ1ͤؽѻǥꥫ¤ؤµ Leonard Bloomfield դäȤ롥Bloomfield ǯˤȱε Spitzer ʤȤſʤΤ2ͤ϶̣ɤळȤǤ롥
Spitzer ϡѲθȤ "expressivity" ɽϡˤؤߵȤؤμĥۤȤ櫓̱²μɽȤƤʸΡפȤǰ̤˲Фɤεϡؤβʳɸ֤ Bloomfield ˤȤäƤϼ줬ĥäSpitzer ϤޤǤεˤ롥㤨Сƥ줫ޥػǤβѲ e -- ei -- oi -- ué -- uá ϡƥ e ɽ˭˼¸뤿˳̱²ʳǷФƤȯŸεפǤȵ롥βˤơLeón Aragon ǤɤλĹ³ΤФCastile ǤŪ ué ʳǸ경ԤԤŪ "chaotic" Ǥ, "restlessness" "anarchy" ħŤƤǤȷ (Spitzer 422) ̤εǤϡHitler Deutche Volksgenossen ȯˤ2Ĥ o a ˶ᤤ첻ȤƼ¸ƤȤ夲ˤ Hitler Υȥꥢ¤ɸŪʡɤץɥĸָȤطʤäΤǤϤʤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤɥ̱²Ǥ줿꽤 (hypercorrection) Ȥĥ (Spitzer 422--23)
Τˡ̱²ŪǥޥŪʸΤ褦ʹ롥ǯμҲؤǤƱθݤ accommodation ä accommodation Ȥ diversion; cf. #1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˤʤɤѸǤФиڤǤꡤ줬ñ̤ĿͤʤΤ뤤̱²Τ褦ʽĤʤΤΰ㤤ϤȤƤ⡤ߤǤϤۤɥåʵǤϤʤ褦ˤפ롥ɤϡμҲؤؤνפĤꤷƤȤ롥
Spitzer ϡѲΤߤʤ餺̣ѲˤƤʤ䡤̣Ѳˤˡ"expressivity" νǧƤ롥Ūˤϡϡ"expressivity" ˻Ϥޤꡤ"standardization" ФˡƤӼγؤ³Ƥ椯ǤȹͤƤ롥
Moreover in the field of semantics as in that of phonology the same cycle may be noted: first there is the period of creativity in which an individual innovation develops in expressivity, and expands; this period is followed in turn by one of standardization and petrification---which again brings about innovation and expressivity. Historical semantics offers us many parallels of the endless spiral movement in which words that have ceased to be expressive give way to others. (Spitzer 425)
εϡ˹#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) Ǹ褦ʸѲȿѤλ۵롥Τ褦ˤ⡤ĤμθѲ1ĤθѤΤȤŪ褦Ȥؤָ롥
üԡʽġˤ "expressivity" ؤߵѲκܸȤƿƤʾ塤ɤạ́ʸΤ˶ؿȤϼԤäºݡSpitzer (428) ϡؤβϽפʽˡʸʡʸˡ줿ʸˡ̣Ǥ⤤Ƥ롥
Spitzer, Leo. "Why Does Language Change?" Modern Language Quarterly 4 (1943): 413--31.
Bloomfield, Leonard. "Secondary and Tertiary Responses to Language." Language 20 (1944): 45--55.
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ӡ#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤѲˤĤƤʸκǸˡѲȤ٤ "SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE" (187--88) Ƥ롥
1. Linguistic change is not to be identified with random drift proceeding from inherent variation in speech. Linguistic change begins when the generalization of a particular alternation in a given subgroup of the speech community assumes direction and takes on the character of orderly differentiation.
2. The association between structure and homogeneity is an illusion. Linguistic structure includes the orderly differentiation of speakers and styles through rules which govern variation in the speech community; native command of the language includes the control of such heterogeneous structures.
3. Not all variability and heterogeneity in language structure involves change; but all change involves variability and heterogeneity.
4. The generalization of linguistic change throughout linguistic structure is neither uniform nor instantaneous; it involves the covariation of associated changes over substantial periods of time, and is reflected in the diffusion of isoglosses over areas of geographical space.
5. The grammars in which linguistic change occurs are grammars of the speech community. Because the variable structures contained in language are determined by social functions, idiolects do not provide the basis for self-contained or internally consistent grammars.
6. Linguistic change is transmitted within the community as a whole; it is not confined to discrete steps within the family. Whatever discontinuities are found in linguistic change are the products of specific discontinuities within the community, rather than inevitable products of the generational gap between parent and child.
7. Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior.
ʸԤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian)¤ (structural linguistics)ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ³ػˤ̤ϢʤȼѤƤĿ (idiolect) ȶѼ (homogeneity) 뤹Ȥ櫓ֹ¤ѼפФơиŪΩ줫ȽäΤϡԶѼ (heterogeneity) ι¤ (structure) ǤȤ顤ɤȤƤ "orderly heterogeneity" "orderly differentiation" Ω롥Ω϶ǯ "variationist" ȤƤФ褦ˤʤäƤϾ7̤ȤäƤ
change variation ްդȤ3ܤˤĤƤϡ#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1]) ȡ
6ܤλҶײؤȽˤĤƤϡ#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ѳ "multiple causation" 𤤾夲7ܤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ǤѤmultiple causation ˤĤƤϡǶεȤơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ȡ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) Ǥ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ɸˤĤơ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) κǸǴñ˿줿üԺߤθѲηĹػˤͭ̾ʤȤȤƤϡ#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1]) Ǥߤ August Schleicher (1821--68) θͭ䡤#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) ǰѤ Jespersen ʤɤԤ̾롥Milroy ϡŪüԺߤθѤηǤˤȡҲؤΩ줫üԸĿͤŻ뤹ŸƤΤ⤷Ȥ˼ҲؤǤüԸĿͤ䤬ɬŤƤ櫓ǤϤʤҲؤǤ⡤üԤνĤȤƤΡüԼҲפȾñ̤Ȥߤʤ¤ˤơüԸĿͤϼξݤ롥ޥҲؤǤϡüԸĿͤδ餬ˤʡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) ȡˡ
Milroy Τ褦ˡѲˤüԸĿͤνĥߥԤ1ͤ Woolard 롥λ (language_death) äʸΤʤǡWoolard ϸλΤ褦ʼҲŪʥɥޤϡüԸĿͤ濴˸ʤФʤʤʤ롥ζΤˤƤϡϰͥؤȹή« convergence θݤߤΤ¿θݤλ³ (maintenance) ȤΤˤشطȤŦФФʤ롥˵䤷ʤơͥؤιή«λλ³ȤΤ˰̴طȤĴ⤢롥Woolard ϤΤ褦ʴطǧ뤳Ȥ˿ŤǤ롥ȤΤϡΤ褦Ĵˤϡ켫ΤŬäƤȤͭȿǤǧ뤫ˤϤޤεͲȤüԸĿͤμξݤȤ꤬롥2ΰѤ̤ Woolard λʹ
When we deal with linguistic data as aggregate data, detached from the speakers and instances of speaking, we often anthropomorphize languages as the principal actors of the sociolinguistic drama. This leads to forceful and often powerfully suggestive generalizations cast in agentivizing metaphors: "languages that are flexible and can adapt may survive longer", or "the more powerful language drives out the weaker". If we rephrase findings in terms of what people are doing --- how they are speaking and what they are accomplishing or trying to accomplish when they are speaking that way . . . --- we may find ourselves open to new insights about why such linguistic phenomena occur. (359)
There is a wealth of evidence . . . that is suggestive of a causal relation, or at least a correlation, between language maintenance and linguistic convergence. In this most tentative of attempts to account for the intriguing constellations we find of linguistic conservatism and language death or linguistic adaptation and language maintenance, I have suggested we best begin by anchoring our generalizations in speakers' activities. Human actors rather than personified languages are the active agents in the processes we wish to explain . . . . (365)
Ūװȸ쳰Ūװζ̡ؤȼҲؤζ̡I-Language E-Language ζ̡θˤΩĤʤեϡۤʤüԤǤ롥üԤϸⲽƤƱ˳ƼҲǻѤƤǤ롥
Woolard ʸ⤦1礭ɤäΤǡոƤλ줬ͥعή«硤ι٤ "acts of creation" ʤΤ "acts of reception" ʤΤ뤤 "resistance" ʤΤ "capitulation" ʤΤȤɾ꤬롥ɾϤͥδˤλüԤˤȤäƤߤСή«ȼѲϡŪˤΤ褦ʼҲŪʰ̣礤ӤӤƤʤ¾θѲѤʤϤǤ롥˲餫ɾȤȤϡǤΩŪǤʤθǤϤʤҲؼԤɾŪǤ٤ݤ뤤ɾŪˤʤꤦ뤫ݤȤˤƿȼä
Woolard, Kathryn A. "Language Convergence and Death as Social Process." Investigating Obsolescence. Ed. Nancy C. Dorian. Cambridge: CUP, 1989. 355--67.
ε#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ˰³Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog θѲ˴ؤŪʸꡥϡάҤѲ5Ĥ¦̤ΤʤǤȤ櫓Ԥ⤹ The Embedding Problem ˴ؤ (p. 186) Ѥ롥
The Embedding Problem. There can be little disagreement among linguists that language changes being investigated must be viewed as embedded in the linguistic system as a whole. The problem of providing sound empirical foundations for the theory of change revolves about several questions on the nature and extent of this embedding.
(a) Embedding in the linguistic structure. If the theory of linguistic evolution is to avoid notorious dialectic mysteries, the linguistic structure in which the changing features are located must be enlarged beyond the idiolect. The model of language envisaged here has (1) discrete, coexistent layers, defined by strict co-occurrence, which are functionally differentiated and jointly available to a speech community, and (2) intrinsic variables, defined by covariation with linguistic and extralinguistic elements. The linguistic change itself is rarely a movement of one entire system into another. Instead we find that a limited set of variables in one system shift their modal values gradually from one pole to another. The variants of the variables may be continuous or discrete; in either case, the variable itself has a continuous range of values, since it includes the frequency of occurrence of individual variants in extended speech. The concept of a variable as a structural element makes it unnecessary to view fluctuations in use as external to the system for control of such variation is a part of the linguistic competence of members of the speech community.
(b) Embedding in the social structure. The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure. In the explanation of linguistic change, it may be argued that social factors bear upon the system as a whole; but social significance is not equally distributed over all elements of the system, nor are all aspects of the systems equally marked by regional variation. In the development of language change, we find linguistic structures embedded unevenly in the social structure; and in the earliest and latest stages of a change, there may be very little correlation with social factors. Thus it is not so much the task of the linguist to demonstrate the social motivation of a change as to determine the degree of social correlation which exists, and show how it bears upon the abstract linguistic system.
ƤˤԤμĥ "orderly heterogeneity" οɽƤ褦˻פβС(a) θ칽¤ؤߤȤϡѲӤȼѹȤμͤuse varieties user varieties ʤʣŪʸ칽¤ΤʤˤɤΤ褦˼ޤ뤫ȤǤ롥ޤ(b) μҲ¤ؤߤȤϡѲΤΤˤƼҲˤܼŪѹȤʤäƤ椯뤤ܼŪѹǤϤʤʤäƤ椯ȤǤ롥ϡҲ¤칽¤˱ƶͿȤˡġɤǡŪïθ칽¤ΤɤʬˤɤΤ褦ʱƶͿƤΤ餫ˤ뤳ȤˤĤʤꡤSapir-Whorf hypothesis (cf. sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ܼŪ䤤Ϣʤ롥츦δϡŪʡ˸ؤȼҲؤζϤɤȤ䤤ˤؤʤʤ̼ҲؼԤϡҲؤŪʸؤޤ뿿θؤȤΩȤäƤˡ
1ϡҲؤΤƸΤȤ館ΤΤ˴ؤŦϢơ#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? ([2013-01-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤ "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change" ϡҲؤδޤѲŪʸȤơθθ礭ʱƶͿƤ⤪˴줿1ͤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥϡ#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1]) ǿƤϡиŪ˼Ȥ٤ѲˤĤƤ5ĤάҤ롥
(1) The Constraints Problem. ѲƱꤹȤꡤʤ "to determine the set of possible changes and possible conditions for change" (183) θ¿ŪƱꤷ褦ȤƤꡤβˤ˴ؿƤ롥
(2) The Transition Problem. "Between any two observed stages of a change in progress, one would normally attempt to discover the intervening stage which defines the path by which Structure A evolved into Structure B" (184) transition ȸƤФ뤳βϡA B ξ¤碌üԤΩȤƿʹԤ¾üԡʤȤ櫓ǯüԡˤȵڤ롥βˤϡ3̤ޤޤȤ롥"Change takes place (1) as a speaker learns an alternate form, (2) during the time that the two forms exist in contact within his competence, and (3) when one of the forms becomes obsolete" (184).
(3) The Embedding Problem. 칽¤ؤߤȼҲ¤ؤߤ̤롥̻ŪʸѲ (change) ϡŪʸѰ (variation) бѰۤϸŪӼҲŪޤ줿ѹ (variable) ¸ߤˤΤ롥ѹϡ칽¤ˤȤäƤҲ¤ˤȤäƤܼŪǤǤ롥Ҳ¤ؤߤˤĤƤϡΰѤȡ"The changing linguistic structure is itself embedded in the larger context of the speech community, in such a way that social and geographic variations are intrinsic elements of the structure" (185) ǤϸѲˤҲŪװɵ椹Τߤʤ餺ҲȸߴطʤɤμҲŪǤɤٸȿǤ뤫ʤɡˤɵ椹뤳ȤפʲȤʤ롥
(4) The Evaluation Problem. Ѳ˼Ūɾ뤫ꡥ"[T]he subjective correlates of the several layers and variables in a heterogeneous structure" (186) . ޤѲѰۤФ빥˴ؤռ̵ռʤɤ⤢롥"[T]he level of social awareness is a major property of linguistic change which must be determined directly. Subjective correlates of change are more categorical in nature than the changing patterns of behavior: their investigation deepens our understanding of the ways in which discrete categorization is imposed upon the continuous process of change" (186) .
(5) The Actuation Problem. "Why do changes in a structural feature take place in a particular language at a given time, but not in other languages with the same feature, or in the same language at other times?" (102) . ѲεŪꡥ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡactuation θˤ diffusion ³ᡤ The Transition Problem ؤϢʤ롥
ԤƤκˤϡ"orderly heterogeneity" θѡѸǤ variationist 롥嵭θѲ5Ĥ¦̤ϡ̻ŪʸѲȶŪʸѰۤǷӤĤ褦ȤԤλ̿դƤǤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ε#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) ޤᡤ2;Τ˸ܿѲˤ쳰ŪװνˤĤʣεƤ (cf. [2014-09-25-1], [2014-09-26-1], [2014-10-04-1]) ϡΥХ뤿ˡ쳰ŪװФ뿵ߤƤHickey (195) ϡ餬ܿԤǤۤɤҤ"Language Change" ꤹʸϤǡܿˤѲˤĤŤʸƤ롥
Already in 19th century Indo-European studies contact appears as an explanation for change though by and large mainstream Indo-Europeanists preferred language-internal accounts. One should stress that strictly speaking contact is not so much an explanation for language change as a suggestion for the source of a change, that is, it does not say why a change took place but rather where it came from. For instance, a language such as Irish or Welsh may have VSO as a result of early contact with languages also showing this word order. However, this does not explain how VSO arose in the first place (assuming that it is not an original word order for any language). The upshot of this is that contact accounts frequently just push back the quest for explanation a stage further.
Considerable criticism has been levelled at contact accounts because scholars have often been all too ready to accept contact as a source, to the neglect of internal factors or inherited features within a language. This readiness to accept contact, particularly when other possibilities have not been given due consideration, has led to much criticism of contact accounts in the 1970s and 1980s . . . . However, a certain swing around can be seen from the 1990s onwards, a re-valorisation of language contact when considered from an objective and linguistically acceptable point of view as demanded by Thomason & Kaufman (1988) . . . .
ܿϡѲʤǤϤʤѲɤ餭ˤˤθˤĤƤϲäƤʤȤȽˤθ˴ؤ¤ꡤΤˤȽŪͤƤ褦ˤפ롥θѲľܤΡָפȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤Ū˰ˤʤäƤꡤǤ̤θǻϤޤäƤѲ˰첡äʤɡ餫ηǻͿװפȤơ꿵ŤˤСֽװ1ġפȤơٵҴŪ˻Ŧ뤳ȤΤǤܿλϤ롥ιʰ̣ˤָ쳰ŪװפʸĬϡΰѤˤ⤢Ȥꡤ1990ǯ夫ƤҤ줿̡ܿ쳰Ūװ°פ˷뤭餤Τˤ褦˻פ졤ηǰ狼ʤǤϤʤεǸ褦˸ŪװǥեȤȤƤѲˤĹפСܿʸɤιϤ褦䤯ϤޤäФΤ褦ˤ⸫롥
˰Ѥ Hickey "Language Change" ϡ¤줿ʤ⡤Ѳݤ褯ޤȤɼβʸǤ롥ʲͤޤǤܼƤ
Introduction
Issues in language change
Internal and external factors
Simplicity and symmetry
Iconicity and indexicality
Markedness and naturalness
Telic changes and epiphenomena
Mergers and distinctions
Possible changes
Unidirectionality of change
Ebb and flow
Change and levels of language
Phonological change
Morphological change
Syntactic change
The study of universal grammar
The principles and parameters model
Semantic change
Pragmatic change
Methodologies
Comparative method
Internal reconstruction
Analogy
Sociolinguistic investigations
Data collection method
Genre variation and stylistics
Pathways of change
Long-term change: Grammaticalization
Large-scale changes: The typological perspective
Contact accounts
Language areas (Sprachbünde)
Conclusion
Hickey, Raymond. "Language Change." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 171--202.
Ѳˤ쳰ŪװȸŪװˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ ##443,1232,1233,1582,1584,1977,1978,1986 ʤɤεǵǶǤϡ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) Ǥƹͤ쳰ŪװνŦرĤˡ˯1 James Milroy 롥Milroy ϡΤˤС쳰ŪװŻ뤹ȤϡѲˤüԤä˽Ż뤹ԤǤ롥ָѲפȤηϤΤȤʤ褦ʸϤޤ깥ޤüԤˤפȤʹ֤ΤȤʤ褦ʸ֡"On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change" ꤹ Milroy ʸɤ
Milroy (144) ϡ褪ӸԤθѲˤơŪװǥեȤװǤȤǧ꤬ŪǤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
The assumption of endogeny, being generally the preferred hypothesis, functions in practice as the default hypothesis. Thus, if some particular change in history cannot be shown to have been initiated through language or dialect contact involving speakers, then it has been traditionally presented as endogenous. Usually, we do not know all the relevant facts, and this default position is partly the consequence of having insufficient data from the past to determine whether the change concerned was endogenous or externally induced or both: endogeny is the lectio facilior requiring less argumentation, and what Lass has called the more parsimonious solution to the problem.
ԶѹդʴطơŪװȸ쳰ŪװƱ̤֤ȤǤʤ뤤Ϥ˿ʤƸ쳰ŪװǥեȤȤ뤳ȤǤʤȤΤ Milroy λǤºݤΤȤξԤΥХɤ٤ΤΤʤΤʬʤΥХ϶ŪʸѲλˤĤƤʬʤȤ¿ŪˤϤʤʬʤǡΥХǤѤ뤿ˡMilroy ξװδͿȤȤΩΤäƤ褦˻פ롥Milroy (148) ۩
. . . seemingly paradoxically --- it happens that, in order to define those aspects of change that are indeed endogenous, we need to specify much more clearly than we have to date what precisely are the exogenous factors from which they are separated, and these include the role of the speaker/listener in innovation and diffusion of innovations. It seems that we need to clarify what has counted as 'internal' or 'external' more carefully and consistently than we have up to now, and to subject the internal/external dichotomy to more critical scrutiny.
ΤϡǤ롥ʤʤƱͤ˻ŪʼήɤΡҲ˸ؤȼҲؤȤŪǤꡤߤʬβǽȸ³ʬθ³ȲǽľܴؤȹͤƤ롥
Milroy (156) ʸνǡ쳰ŪװνŻϡɬ⤽켫ΤʳŪ˱뤳ȤϤǤοǰǤȼäƤ롥
There may be no empirical way of showing that language changes independently of social factors, but it has not primarily been my intention to demonstrate that endogenous change does not take place. The one example that I have discussed has shown that there are some situations in which it is necessary to adduce social explanations, and this may apply very much more widely. I happen to think that social matters are always involved, and that language internal concepts like 'drift' or 'phonological symmetry' are not explanatory . . . .
ѤκǸ˼Ƥή (drift) ʤüԺߤθѲؤȽˤĤƤϡǽŪεȴϢơ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Milroy, James. "On the Role of the Speaker in Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 143--57.
ε#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) ǻȤ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸˡָܿˤŪʱƶ (indirect influence in language contact) Ȥä (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (contact-induced interference) ˤƤϡABز餫θबư뤳ȤȤʤäƤ뤬ΰưɬȼʤ֤αƶȤΤ⤢ꤦ롥ŵŪȤƸܿȤʤäƴ¸θबפüꤹ븽ݤꡤѸˤǤťΥɸȤܿˤηϤοȤ꤬Фм夲롥Ǥϲ餫ζŪʸबťΥɸ줫űѸذư櫓ǤϤʤޤܿȤƸűѸŪʸѲʹԤˤʤΤ褦ʥϡִŪʱƶפȸƤ٤#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǽˤ Thomason "Loss of features" ȸƤ֤ȤǤꡤ̤ñ㲽 (simplification) ² (neutralization) ʤɤȸڤǤ⤢ (cf. ##928,931,932,1585,1839)
ִŪʱƶפϡθܿʤФθѲʤäȤǡѲθˤäơľŪʱƶ˾Ȥ̽פäƤ롥ָܿȤŪװ˿ȯ줿ŪѲפȤڤӲϰΤʤƤꡤ줾ʬʬ뤳ȤϤǤʤäơŪŪװΤɤ餬פȤ䤤ϰ̣ʤʤǤϡMeeuwis and Östman θ褦 "multiple causation" 뤤 "synergy" Ȥɬפ롥
. . . there is a host of generalization, avoidance, simplification and other processes at work in second-language acquisition, language shift, language death and other types of language contact, which show no isomorphic or qualitative correspondence with elements in the donor language or in a previous form of the recipient, affected language. These seemingly internal 'creations' of previously non-existent structures occur simply due to the contact situation, i.e. they would not have occurred in the language unless it had been in contact . . . and could thus not be explained without reference to a linguistic and cultural contact. Also, in all these fields, the phenomenon of 'multiple causation' or, as it is also called, 'synergy' has to be taken into account. Synergy refers to changes that occur internally in a language but are triggered by the contact with similar features, patterns, or rules in another language. Here, some qualitative resemblances to features in the donor language or in a pre-contact state of the affected language can be observed: the contact has given rise to a change in existing features. . . . '[S]ynergy' is a widely observable phenomenon that is too often slighted by keeping the distinction between internally and externally motivated language change too rigidly separate. (42)
Τ褦ʸݤФƤ "synergy" ̡ˤȤѸϽ鼪äƤͤ˶䤹Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվǵ
(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳ȤŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥ХθĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳ȤƤ
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
εǰѤ Luraghi ƱʸǸѲŪ (teleology) ˤĤƤ롥teleology ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤˤƤäƴϢǰˤĤƤɬפ롥
ޤѲ therapy ʼšˤ prophylaxis ͽɡˤȤ롥#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) Ǽ夲ˤƤȤƵǽŪʸѲ (functionalism) 롥Kiparsky "language practices therapy rather than prophylaxis" (Luraghi 364) Ȥΰ⤤ĤƤ뤬Lass ʤɤϤɤǤʤȤƤ롥
Ǥϡfunctionalism teleology ƱΤʤΤۤʤΤʤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ȥδ֤ǰոϰפƤʤLass Ʊ뤷Ƥ褦Croft ʤɤҤԤ "functional proper"Ԥ "systemic functional" Ȥƶ̤Ƥ롥"systemic functional" ϸ teleology "functional proper" üԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ؤޤüԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ȤƤ "functional" ȤɽѰۤѲˤĤƤѤ¤ˤơüԤΤǤϤʤ˸ "functionalism" äƤ褤⤷ʤ줬°ؤΤüԤ°ؤΤ̤ƤȤפ
Teleological explanations of language change are sometimes considered the same as functional explanations . . . . Croft . . . distinguishes between 'systemic functional,' that is teleological, explanations, and 'functional proper,' which refer to intentional mechanisms. Keller . . . argues that 'functional' must not be confused with 'teleological,' and should be used in reference to speakers, rather than to language: '[t]he claim that speakers have goals is correct, while the claim that language has a goal is wrong' . . . . Thus, to the extent that individual variants may be said to be functional to the achievement of certain goals, they are more likely to generate language change through invisible hand processes: in this sense, explanations of language change may also be said to be functional. (Luraghi 365--66)
ΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡפʤȤϡָ줬ѲפȡüԤפȤǰ̤ƤȤǤ롥#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡζ̼Τˤ⤢꤬ޤޤƤ뤬ޤüԡʽġˤäƤθǤꡤѲǤ롥üԼΤθѲˤƤ teleology ֤ϤʤȤLuraghi (365) ۩
Croft . . . warns against the 'reification or hypostatization of languages . . . Languages don't change; people change language through their actions.' Indeed, it seems better to avoid assuming any immanent principles inherent in language, which seem to imply that language has an existence outside the speech community. This does not necessarily mean that language change does not proceed in a certain direction. Croft rejects the idea that 'drift,' as defined by Sapir . . ., may exist at all. Similarly, Lass . . . wonders how one can positively demonstrate that the unconscious selection assumed by Sapir on the side of speakers actually exists. From an opposite angle, Andersen . . . writes: 'One of the most remarkable facts about linguistic change is its determinate direction. Changes that we can observe in real time---for instance, as they are attested in the textual record---typically progress consistently in a single direction, sometimes over long periods of time.' Keller . . . suggests that, while no drift in the Sapirian sense can be assumed as 'the reason why a certain event happens,' i.e., it cannot be considered innate in language, invisible hand processes may result in a drift. In other words, the perspective is reversed in Keller's understanding of drift: a drift is not the pre-existing reason which leads the directionality of change, but rather the a posteriori observation of a change brought about by the unconsciously converging activity of speakers who conform to certain principles, such as the principle of economy and so on . . . .
Ϣ drift, functionalism, invisible_hand, unidirectionality γƵ⻲ͤˤ줿
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
ε#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѤ Drinka Ʊ Companion ˼ϿƤ Luraghi ʸ˴Ť롥
ʸˡˤѲϡ֤Դʸã (imperfect language transmission from one generation to the next) ˿Ԥ롥Ҷθ콬κݤ˥ѥͤȤϰۤʤͤꤵ뤳ȤˤꡤʸˡȤͤLuraghi (359) ϡΤ褦ʡֻҶײפ2κŪʵꤲ롥
In spite of various implementations, the 'child-based theory' . . . leaves some basic questions unanswered, i.e., in the first place: how do children independently come up with the same reanalysis at exactly the same time . . . ? and, second, why does this happen in certain precise moments, while preceding generations of children have apparently done quite well setting parameters the same way as their parents did? In other words, the second question shows that the child-based theory does not account for the fact that not only languages may change, but also that they may exhibit no changes over remarkably long periods of time.
ҶײԤϡ2ܤεФƼΤ褦ĤޤꡤƤȻҤȤǤϤȤʤ PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) ۤʤäƤꡤѥͤΰȤʤΤۤʤΤȡʤ֤ϤۤʤΤ̤ΤޤޤǤ롥֤ϤۤʤäΤˤʤ뤿ˤϡ콬ʳηѰۤѲƤʤФʤʤϤĤޤꡤͤüԤѰۤѲƤȤͤʤ
ҶײΤ⤦1ĤȤơ"the serious problem that there is no positive evidence, in terms of real data from field research, for language change to happen between generations" (360) 롥ҲؤǤ Labov ĴʤɤˤѲθ줬ͤߤƤꡤиŪդ롥ѲγȻϿƤ롥⡤ѲγȻ˱ƶϤäƤΤϡۤȤɤ٤ƤΥˤơҶǤϤʤͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥
ʾȿäǡLuraghi ϸѲʤ켫ȤϺȳȻʤˤθϡŪˤϤ٤ƸܿˤǤ롥ξ硤ܿȤϤäƤ2Ĥθ֤ȤϤܿǤϤʤ2ĤѼ֡뤤2ĤθĿ (idiolect) ֤ȤϤܿޤࡥǾϤȤƤäʹΤߤδ֤Ÿ accommodation κѤ٤ƤθѲθǤ롤Ȥĥ
. . . in spite of varying social factors and different relations between social groups in case of language contact and in case of internal variation, mutual accommodation of speakers and hearers is the ultimate cause of change. The fact that an innovation is accepted within a community depends on the prestige of innovators and early adopters, and may be seen as a function of the willingness of a speaker/hearer to accommodate another speaker/hearer in interaction, and thus to behave as she/he thinks the other person would behave . . . . (369)
Luraghi ϡѲʤθˤäơŪ (innovation) ͤͤؤȳȻ (diffusion) Ƥ椯Ȥ櫓Ż뤷Ƥ롥ѲȤϲȤ˱ơʤ餽θѤäƤ뤬⸶§Ȥ Luraghi Drinka Τ褦˸ѲˤüԵڤüԶƱΤȤδطˤªȹͤƤ롥
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
˸ؤΥϥɥ֥åꡤDrinka ˤܿɤܿؤҲ𤷤ΰյĥȤŪǽ줿ʸϤǤꡤͽ̤Ѳˤ볰ŪװνĴƤΡ褯ͤƤȤݤ
Drinka ϡܿؤʬǿʱƶϤ Thomason and Kaufman μĥˤ褽褤ʤ顤ܿξ̤ͻˤäƺǽפΥѥϡɤθŪǤϤʤܿμ̤Ǥ롥ޤMilroy Mufwene μĥ˱äơѲüԸĿʹ֤ܿüȯ줬ƱΤعޤäƤ椯ΤǤȤΩȤ롥ˡ̾θѲ⡤ (linguistic_area) ⡤ԥ䥯쥪ˤߤ㤷Ѳ⡤ᥫ˥ƱǤȸƤꡤѲˤܿϰ̤˿Ƥ礭Ĥդ줿ΤǤȼĥ롥Τ褦Ωϡ¾ Normalfall "[contact . . . viewed as] potentially present in some way in virtually every given case of language change" ȰѤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
Drinka ͤηѤ褦
In conclusion, contact has emerged in recent studies as a more essential element in triggering linguistic innovation than had previously been assumed. Contact provides the context for change, in making features of one variety accessible to speakers of another. Bilingual or bidialectal speakers with access to the social values of features in both systems serve as a link between the two, a conduit of innovation from one variety to another. When close cultural contact among speakers of different varieties persists over long periods, linguistic areas can result, reflecting the ebb and flow of influence of one culture upon another. When speakers of mutually unintelligible languages encounter one another in the context of social symmetry, such as for purposes of trade, contact varieties such as pidgins may result; in contexts of social asymmetry, such as slavery, on the other hand, creoles are a more frequent result, reflecting the adjustments which are made as the contact variety becomes the native language of its users. As Mufwene points out, however, the same principles of change appear to be in operation in contact varieties as in other varieties---it is in the transmission of language and linguistic features from one individual to another, through the impetus of sociolinguistic pressure, where change occurs, and these principles will operate whether the transmission is occurring within or across the boundaries of a variety, as long as sufficient social motivation exists. (342--43)
ºݤΤȤ伫ȤѲˤäƸܿνФмĥƤΤǡڤˤ Drinka ΰոˤϻǤ롥ä Drinka Keller (invisible_hand) ؤθڤʤɡȤ¿
. . . self-interested individuals incorporate new features into their repertoire in order to align themselves with other individuals and groups, with the unforeseen result that the innovation moves across the population, speaker by speaker. (341)
ϢơѲˤŪŪװʲε⻲ͤˤ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
ƶϤ礭 Thomason and Kaufman θܿˤĤƤϡʲȡ
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥
Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)
So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)
Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ
Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.
shortening ûˤȤϡˤƽפˤˤߤˡ1ĤǤ롥ѸˤǤߤƤ⡤Ȥ櫓Ѹ shortening ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥϡ#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1]) dzǧϢơ#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) Ǥûˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥǧ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) ǤϾãθΨȤûͻ
嵭Τ褦ˡûϼȤƷȤơ뤤ϾȤδϢǸΤ̤Stern ϵǽỤ̄ŪʴûβܤƤ롥Stern ϡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡụ̂ѲʬΤʤ˴ޤƤ롥٤Ƥụ̂Ѳȼ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤ㤨 private soldier ʼ´ˤ private ûȤ¸θʷƻˤǤ private Ͽʡ̾Ρ˸Ȥˤʤꡤδߤа̣ѲȤˤʤ롥
private soldier Τ褦ˡṳ̂θ¸θƱȤʤ뤿˰̣ѲȤȤ̤ˡrhinoceros rhino, advertisement ad ʤɤ clipping ڳˤΤ褦ˡ̤θùܤȤʤ륱롥Ǥΰ̣ǤΡְ̣ѲפϤʤ̣Ū˸٤ΤϤʤ褦ˤפ뤬rhinoceros rhino ΰ̣κadvertisement ad ΰ̣κ⤷ȤСûϰ̣ŪʴްդȤȤˤʤ롥
Stern (256) ϡûŪʲǤȤȤˡǽŪʴפʲǤȤߤƤ롥ºݡûθΤʤǺǽפΤΤϡǽŪװǤȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥Stern (256) μĥѤ롥
Starting with the communicative and symbolic functions, I have already pointed out above . . . that brevity may conduce to a better understanding, and too many words confuse the point at issue; the picking out of a few salient items may give a better idea of the topic than prolonged wallowing in details; the hearer may understand the shortened expression quicker and better.
The expressive function is partly covered by signals, but a shortened expression by itself may, owing to its unusual and perhaps ungrammatical, form, reflect better the speaker's emotional state and make the hearer aware of it. Clippings are very often intended to make the words express sympathy or endearment towards the persons addressed; nursery speech abounds in nighties, tootsies, etc., and clippings of proper names, transforming them into pet names, are often due to a similar desire for emotive effects . . . . The numerous shortenings (clippings) in slang and cant often aim at a humourous effect.
Conciseness and brevity increase vivacity, and thus also the effectiveness of speech; brevity is the soul of wit; the purposive function may consequently be better served by shortened phrases.
ΤеŪʴûߤˤȤɤޤ餺ѤŪɽϡʸΤȤäǽŪ¦̤ûȤ館ƶϡStern ǡȤǤ롥֤û뤳ȤǤषǽղä⤬̣
ѤʸϤǸڤƤնɽ nighties ȴϢơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) ڤӡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
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