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language_change - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2013-02-07 Thu

#1382. ָѲϤѲǤ [language_change][teleology][drift][unidirectionality]

ѲɤΤ褦ˤȤ館뤫ȤˤĤƤϡѲγƵǰäƤ̾ʸʱѸ˳ؼ David Crystal (2) θѲѤΤƤߤ褦

[L]anguage is changing around you in thousands of tiny different ways. Some sounds are slowly shifting; some words are changing their senses; some grammatical constructions are being used with greater or less frequency; new styles and varieties are constantly being formed and shaped. And everything is happening at different speeds and moving in different directions. The language is in a constant state of multidimensional flux. There is no predictable direction for the changes that are taking place. They are just that: changes. Not changes for the better; nor changes for the worse; just changes, sometimes going one way, sometimes another.


Ѹˤܸˤ衤νִ֤ˤ⡤¿θܤۤʤ®٤ǰۤʤѲƤ롥"multidimensional flux" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥ޤѲŪŪ줿 (teleology) ϤʤȤˤ⻿롥ŪˤϤäƤ˰㤤ʤŪ˰ݤ³뤳ȤϤʤʴϢ unidirectionality γƵ򻲾ȡˡŪȤϤäƤ⡤drift ȤƸڤ²ˤޤοΤ褦ˡǯȤĹˤ錄ְŪʡ⤢ˤϤ롥Τ褦˲餫ˤ衤줬ɤǤȤǤȤʹѤޤǤϤʤȤȤǧƤ褤Crystal Τ褦ˡ"just changes" ʤΤ
#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ӡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ǤƱ褦ʵ򤷤ΤǡȤ

Crystal, David. "Swimming with the Tide in a Sea of Language Change." IATEFL Issues 149 (1999): 2--4.

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2013-01-28 Mon

#1372. "correlational sociolinguistics"? [sociolinguistics][variation][language_change][causation][idiolect]

ҲؤǤ͡ĴԤʤƤꡤǤ˸ŵŪȤ̾ĴĤ⤢롥ܥ֥ǤϡΤΤۤξ˲᤮ʤʲ˿Ƥ

#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])
#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1])
#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])

Ĵ⡤ʤüԽĤμҲŪʶ̤ŪѰۤбƤȤȤ餫ˤƤ롥Τ褦ʸ̤ߤȡΤ˼ҲȸȤطƤ뤳ȤϤ狼뤬ʤؤƤΤشط̣ΤȤ꿼䤬롥¿θǤϡޤƧ߹ˤϻʤȤ¿ǡҲؤϡҲȸشطŦƽ "correlational sociolinguistics" ǤȤȽʤƤؤȼҲؤΤ줾ˤꤵƤѥ᡼դ碌˲᤮ҲؤȤʬȼ餫ˤθȤΤϾʤȤȽ
ΤˡȽϼҲؼԤŤߤ٤ȽȻפ롥Wardhaugh (11--12) ʤɤ⤳ˤĤƻ̤䤤ƵƤ뤬ȽؤβȤƤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤ Trudgill (39--41) Trudgill ϼ5󤲤ơ"correlational sociolinguistics" ȤȽ롥

(1) ŪʾڵפȤüԤ˼ҲŪϰ̤ͿˤꡤΤˤɤΤ褦ʾѤƤ뤫Ƥ롥
(2) оݤȤƤ춦ƱΤμҲ¤ˤĤƲ򶵤Ƥ롥㤨СNorwich ǤϡҲ Middle Class Working Class 礭ʬª뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥
(3) Ŀ͸ (idiolect) ο񤤤ͽۤ뤳ȤϤǤʤҲĤʿŪʿ񤤤ͽۤ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥
(4) ̤ҲĤδ֤θŪۤϡޤŪϢ³ŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ȤʤäƤ뺹ۤŪʰ㤤ǤϤʤŪʰ㤤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨤
(5) ѲˤˤĤ¿μͿƤ롥

Trudgill ϡҲؤμΩä (5) ˤäƤȹͤƤ᤬롥"correlational sociolinguistics" ʤ "causational sociolinguistics" (?) ʤʬȯŸԤƤ롥

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-10-16-1]

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2013-01-27 Sun

#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ [sociolinguistics][style][rhotic][causation][language_change]

ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ǡʸΤκˤ۷֤λߤʸκ̤λҲ𤷤#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) ȡ#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) Ǽ夲˥塼衼Ԥˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ̵ͭʬۤˤĤƤǤ롥 Labov ˤҲĴ̤ʲάҤ Trudgill (88--89) ͿƤ복פ˴ŤΤǤ뤳ȤǤäƤ
Labov ϡ˥塼衼ԤˤƼҲ񳬵 non-prevocalic /r/ ȯΨȤؤƤȤΩơեɥˤ¾ڤʤ⤤ǤФۤɤβĶǤ /r/ Ψ⤤Ȥ/r/ ҲŪʰҿӤĤƤȤΤˡLabov ϳ̤ʬ (Lower Class, Lower Working Class, Middle Working Class, Upper Working Class, Lower Middle Class, Upper Middle Class) ȹ碌ʸ̤ʬϤߤʸΤζ̤ϡ줿Ʊͤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) 4Ǥ롥ʬϷ̤ϡ褽ʲΥդ̤Ȥʤä

Stylistic Variation of Non-Prevocalic /r/ in New York City


Norwich ˤ -in' Ĵ̤ƱͤˡΤȤơʼФäʸΤǤФۤɰҿ /r/ ȯФΨ⤤Ȥ狼롥Ȥˤ Norwich ξȰۤʤ롤ƶ̣1Ĥ롥Lower Middle Class word-list style ˤơͽۤ /r/ Ψǧ뤳ȤǤ롥б Upper Middle Class Ψ礭ۤơ60%ιΨ򼨤ƤΤǤ롥ϤɤΤ褦Ф褤Τ
ͭϤϼ̤Ǥ롥LMC ϡξ徺ָ顤ҿ /r/ ̵ͭҴǤꡤռŪʸΤˤƤϾ̤ UMC /r/ ¿Ф˻ΤǤϤʤ˲䤷ʤȡ˥塼衼ԤαѸ춦ƱΤ /r/ ȯؤȸƤΤϡۤʤ LMC ǤϤʤȤǽФƤ롥ºݡLabov θüȯ뤽θμҲؤθˤСβϳͻٻƤƤ롥ѲθȸưϤˤĤƤ椬餫ˤƤƤȤ褦

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2013-01-14 Mon

#1358. ȤФˤȤϲˤ [linguistics][historiography][saussure][language_change]

Ѹˤ칶Ƥ뤬ѸˤȤϲȤ뤳ȤϤޤʤɤǻǡѸˤǤ뤳ȤϼѸˤܸˤ衤ˤȤϲʤΤͤƤߤñǤϤʤƱռϡ (15) ˤ⸽Ƥ롥

ȥФ϶οưǤ뤫顤ȯä줿ִ֤˾ä롥оݤ䡹Ȼ³Ƥˤȹͤʤ顤Τ⤿³뤳ȤʤȥФˤʤɤꤦϤϤʤ⤷ȥФˤȤ顤ȥФξ硤оݤ³ȤϤɤȤ̣뤫褯ͤƤߤɬפ롥


ȥФˤϼΤ³ʤȤСˤʤɤϤϤʤȹͤΤȤѸˤˤܸˤˤ줬̵̣ǶȤФϤʤˤˤȤ狼äƤʤȾʤȤפäƤˡ̷ϤɤΤ
1ĤϡǼΤ³ʤΤȹͤȥФȤϥ塼Τ parole ʸˤؤˤĤΤȤƤθդ langue ʸˤؤΤǤϤʤȤȤparole langue δطϥॹΤ performance ʱѡˤ competence ǽϡˤδطˤ᤯Ť͹碌ƹͤƤ褤ɽȤƤϡcompetence ˤȤ langue ˤȤۤäΤǤϤʤϡlangue ȤѸ줬μҲȤƤ¦̤ĴƤꡤμҲѲѲˤۤʤʤȹͤ뤫
Ʊ̤βսǡεФΤͿƤ (119)

˼ΤʤȤ顤ѲȤФ븽ݤϡΤȤƤθѲ뤳ȤǤϤʤθãΤȤ褹붦ƱΤΥСʤ춦Ʊ (speech community) ͤˡޤǤȰä򤹤褦ˤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥äơ˿ʹԤĤĤܸѲˤܸüԤѶŪ˴ؤäƤ롥


ܸˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ뤬ƱȤϱѸˤĤƤ롥Ȥ2ȤƱѸؽƤ¿ܸüԤlingua franca ȤƤαѸѤݤˤ顤ΰѤϤ٤ƤϤޤ롥Ѹθ춦ƱΤʬŪˤǤ컲äƤ뤽ʬαѸѲ˹׸ƤΤơѲεפѸˤΰȤʤ롥
ȤƤСȤФˤȤϡüԽĤäѤƤ椯̵εפȤȤ館뤳ȤǤֺѡפȴϢơ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ

ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-01-16-1]

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2013-01-08 Tue

#1352. ߥ˥̩٤̻ [sociolinguistics][diachrony][weakly_tied][social_network][language_change][contact]

Bloomfield (46) ϥꥫɽ빽¤ؼԤ̾ Language Ǥϡ˸ؤҲؤ褦ˤĤƤäۤ¿ƶŸƤ롥äΤ1Ĥˡ֥ߥ˥̩١ (the density of communication) ؤθڤ롥#882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1]) 㤬褦ˡּ夤嫤ǷФ줿 ("weakly tied") ҲǤϡ׿Ƴ䤹ʤ䤹ȤʴϢ[2012-07-19-1]ε#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ספ⻲ȡˡϡǯμҲؤˤƸѲϳؤȤܤƤ복ǰBloomfield ᤤʳǤδŪʥǥäƤȹͤ롥
Bloomfield Τ "the density of communication" ϡʥХˤɽ蘆롥ȤɽġüԤߤ̵ǷӤĤ礤춦ƱΤΥͥåȥƤȤ᡼

Every speaker's language, except for personal factors which we must here ignore, is a composite result of what he has heard other people say. / Imagine a huge chart with a dot for every speaker in the community, and imagine that every time any speaker uttered a sentence, an arrow were drawn into the chart pointing from his dot to the dot representing each one of his hearers. At the end of a given period of time, say seventy years, this chart would show us the density of communication within the community. Some speakers would turn out to have been in close communication: there would be many arrows from one to the other, and there would be many series of arrows connecting them by way of one, two, or three intermediate speakers. At the other extreme there would be widely separated speakers who had never heard each other speak and were connected only by long chains of arrows through many intermediate speakers. If we wanted to explain the likeness and unlikeness between various speakers in the community, or, what comes to the same thing, to predict the degree of likeness for any two given speakers, our first step would be to count and evaluate the arrows and series of arrows connecting the dots. We shall see in a moment that this would be only the first step; the reader of this book, for instance, is more likely to repeat a speech-form which he has heard, say, from a lecturer of great fame, than one which he has heard from a street-sweeper. (46--47)


Ƿ«Ƥ붦ƱΤɤ٤ϸߤ˺٤Ǵˤ䤫˷ӤĤƤꡤΤȤĤʤäƤȤ᡼ϡҲؼԤ "social network" (Aitchison 49) οޤΤΤǤ롥
Ȥ˸ؤΩ줫鸫ƤפʤΤϡBloomfield ΰѤľˡХФƿľʼǤ̻֤פƤȤ¤Ǥ롥

The chart we have imagined is impossible of construction. An insurmountable difficulty, and the most important one, would be the factor of time: starting with persons now alive, we should be compelled to put in a dot for every speaker whose voice had ever reached anyone now living, and then a dot for every speaker whom these speakers had ever heard, and so on, back beyond the days of King Alfred the Great, and beyond earliest history, back indefinitely into the primeval dawn of mankind: our speech depends entirely upon the speech of the past. (47)


üԤϡƱƤ¾üԤȤΤĤʤΤߤˤäƸθƤ櫓ǤϤʤǯüԤˤŪʱƶäиηиκפϼθ˾ʤ餺ȿǤƤƱͤˡ餬ǯüԤ˸ŪƶڤܤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ϥХФƿľ˲ؤ̤ؤ⿭ӤƤ椭źΤ٤ƤͥåȥΤɤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
֤̻֤ζ̤ˡɬפBloomfield ΥХȤ˾Ȥ餻СξԤδ֤ΤʶʤȤͤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1]) #866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1]) ۤdiachrony γƵ򻲾ȡ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-10-30 Tue

#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ [language_change][causation][invisible_hand][drift][typology][uniformitarian_principle][grammaticalisation]

ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ򸦵椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ󤹤롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ᤿̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥෿εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλ򰷤űѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸Ϥ᤿Τʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդ򴭵Ƥ롥

Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.

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2012-09-17 Mon

#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis [frequency][phonetics][language_change][lexical_diffusion][stress][diatone][-ate]

óȻ (lexical diffusion) ȤƿʹԤ벻Ѳƻڤ٤ؤƤ餷ȤϡŤ19ŦƤºݤˡPhillips (1984: 321) ˵󤲤Ƥ褦ˡ٤ι⤤줫Ѳ뤲ȤѲϿڤƤǡ٤㤤줫Ѳ뤲ǧƤꡤ٤ȸóȻνδطˤĤƤϡޤ˵䤬¿ˤĤơPhillips ϡꥫѸˤ glide deletion Ѹ unrounding Ѹ̾ưdiatonic stress shift; diatone ε򻲾ȡˤȤ٤㤤˿ʹԤȤ3ĤβѲ夲ơ"Frequency Actuation Hypothesis" 󾧤ϡ"physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first" (1984: 336) ȤΤǤԤ surface phonetic form ƯѲԤ underlying phonetic form ƯѲؤˡ
Phillips 1998ǯ -ate ǽưζ֤ΰư˴ؤ븦ˤơŪưŤƤʤѲͽۤ褦٤㤤ˤϿʤޤष٤ι⤤˿ʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤǡ Frequency Actuation Hypothesis 򾧤

[F]or segmental changes, physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first. For suprasegmental changes, changes which require analysis (e.g., by part of speech or by morphemic element) affect the least frequent words first, whereas changes which eliminate or ignore grammatical information affect the most frequent words first. (1998: 231)


ĤޤꡤΰưΤ褦ĶʬβѲ˴ؤƤϡüԤˤʬϤ뤫ʤǡ٤ȽδطžȤ櫓Ǥ롥ʤʤΤˤĤơPhillips Bybee (117--19) "lexical strength" ȤͤФƤ롥
ɬ⤳εǼƤʤޤPhillips μĥȤϰۤʤꡤ̾ư夬٤ι⤤˿ʹԤȤ򼨤ǡȼƤ롥٤ѲνˤĤƤθϽ˽ФǤꡤ;Ϥ¿ʬ˻ĤƤ롥

Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Bybee, Joan L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1985.

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2012-09-12 Wed

#1234. Hockett random fluctuation [language_change][causation][phonetics][history_of_linguistics]

#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ȡ#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) ǡѲˤŪװȳŪװˤĤơAitchison ζѹդμ줿ͤҲ𤷤ƤΤ褦ʶѹդݤƤ櫓ǤϤʤä˲ѲˤĤƤϡ1950ǯˤŪѲнŤѲѤäꥫθؼ Charles Fransis Hockett (1916--2000) ᤿random fluctuation Ǥ롥
Hockett ˤСüԤϤ첻ȯȤˡŪȯɸŪפȤܻؤƤ롥Ū濴ͤʤȤ򤵤ǽ㤤ΤǡüԤϤФФøȯ¸롥٤֤ⷫͤȯϡΤȤŪ濴Ϥ褦ʬۤ뤬֤ȤȤ˥ߥŤʤäƤ椯ȡŪ濴ۤξĤƤ椯̤ȤơäˤȤäƤʹˤȤäƤ⡤ۤ濴ưȤˤʤ롥줬ѲȤ櫓Aitchison (135--36) ¹Hockett (443--45) Ѥ褦

It is just this sort of slow drifting about of expectation distributions, shared by people who are in constant communication, that we mean to subsume the term 'sound change'. . . The drift might well not be in any determinate direction: the maxima might wander a bit further apart, then come closer again, and so on. Nevertheless, the drift thus shown would constitute sound change.


ιͤˤ3Ĥ (Aitchison 136--37) (1) Hockett 褦ˡˤƤ椯ȤȡϤ䤬ƺ٤˴٤ºݤθϡѲƤΤȤƤݻƤ롥(2) ۤʤǤ褦Ѳ֤äƤ롥Ѳ˵ȤСΤ褦ˤ(3) Ѳˤϡ䤹ѲȵˤѲȤ롥Ѳˤϲ餫Ū¤뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥꡤrandom fluctuation ȤƤʤ
ߤǤϡHockett 䡤#1155. Postal θѲѡ ([2012-06-25-1]) ǿ줿 Postal μĥ褦ˡrandom fluctuation Ѳμ礿븶ǤȤϱƤʬŪʸǤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽϻĤƤꡤꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Hockett, C. F. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan, 1958.

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2012-09-11 Tue

#1233. ѲݤڤǤ [language_change][causation][sociolinguistics]

ε#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ˰³ѲŪװγŪװꡥAitchison ϡŪװʤ뤤ϼҲŪװˤȤơ줿ѤΤۤˤ⡤ήԤȼҲŪɬȤܤ󤲤Ƥ롥
ήԤȤС[2012-06-25-1]εǼ夲#1155. Postal θѲѡפפФ롥ޤήԸפȤݤ褯ΤƤ褦ˡʬŪήԤˤäƶΩƤѲϳΤˤ롥ҲŪɬϡμѤθưϤȤƤФˤΤǡɬפϤʤ[2009-06-13-1]ε#46. ѤϤʤ뤫פ[2011-10-16-1]ε#902. Ѥ䤹ܡפ򻲾ȡˡäΤۤѲˤƤ⡤μҲŪɬȿǤ densification ȤŦƤ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹סˡŪˡѲγŪװΰĤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
Aitchison δǤϡήԤҲŪɬȤŪװѤƱͤˡŪװˡ֤Ĥ̤ˤʤŪװѲΤΩƤ򤷡ŪװѲΥå롤ȤȤAitchison ǤϡϳȤ˰³˥ڤȥڤȤŸ롥

When a gale blows down an elm tree, but leaves an oak standing, we do not believe that the gale alone caused the elm to fall. The gale merely advanced an event that would probably have occurred a few months or years later in any case. However, the gale dictated the direction in which the elm fell, which might in turn set off a further chain of events. If the elm fell against another tree, it might weaken this tree, and leave it vulnerable in another gale. Sociolinguistic causes of language change are similar to this gale. They exploit a weak point or potential imbalance in the system which might have been left unexploited. This exploitation may create further weak points in the system. (151)


Aitchison ϡŪװȳŪװΤɤ餬פȤˤĤƤ⡤ŪΤʵŸƤ롥

Note . . . that a number of linguists might disagree with the judgment that sociolinguistic causes are 'superficial' and other types 'deep'. It might be more accurate, perhaps, to replace the terms 'superficial' and 'deep' with the words 'immediate' and 'long-term', which do not imply that one type is more important than the other. It is clear that no long-term cause can take effect without an immediate trigger. It is equally clear that sociolinguistic factors do not set off changes randomly. The language must be ready to move in that particular direction.


ŪװȳŪװΥХ󥹤ˤĤơ˼ΰᡥ

Change is likely to be triggered by social factors, such as fashion, foreign influence and social need. However, these factors cannot take effect unless the language is 'ready' for a particular change. They simply make use of inherent tendencies which reside in the physical and mental make-up of human beings. Causality needs therefore to be explored on a number of different levels. The immediate trigger must be looked at alongside the underlying propensities of the language concerned, and of human language in general. (197)


#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) εȹ碌ƹͤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-09-10 Mon

#1232. ѲϱϳǤ [language_change][causation][borrowing][sociolinguistics]

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) Ǽ夲ѲθˤĤơǶᡤ#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) Ǻƹͤ뵡ä
丫ˤСܿˤ¾줫αƶϡηϤѲ⤿餹ΤǤϤʤμѤϡηϤ̣ηϤˤФαƶͿȤϤ¿ξ硤ηϤΩΤȤƼ롥ޤ֡ؤαƶϡä٤٤ȤƾʤäȤƤ¦θηϤη֤ĤꡤǤŪ˻ϤޤäƤѲ¥ʤȤṲ̄ˤʤˤ衤¾줫αƶϡηѲƤ֤ΤǤϤʤǡ֤ĤꡤŪ˿ʹԤƤѲ˰첡äȤ䤽켫ΤϡޤǤ¿ʬŪǤäѲ򸲺߲ȤǡѲˤƽפϰ̤ƤȤͤ롥ѲϡŪηϲϤΤȤǽ졤ŪʰϤΤȤȯΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison αϳȤϡ¤˸̯Ǥ롥

Overall, then, borrowing does not suddenly disrupt the basic structure of a language. Foreign elements make use of existing tendencies, and commonly accelerate changes which are already under way. We may perhaps liken the situation to a house with ill-fitting windows. If rain beats against the windows, it does not normally break the window or pass through solid panes of glass. It simply infiltrates the cracks which are already there. If the rain caused extensive dry rot, we could perhaps say that in a superficial sense the rain 'caused' the building to change structurally. But a deeper and more revealing analysis would ask how and why the rain was able to get in the window in the first place. (145)


Ǥϡξ硤ϳθȤƤפʤΤϤɤʤΤΤҤӡŪװˤζʳŪװˤεǡ³ƹͤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-09-09 Sun

#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4 [drift][causation][language_change][popular_passage]

ѲθưϤȤơdrift ꤹԤϡäƾʤʤdrift Ȥơäˡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) εǵǯʻ餳äƤΤؤ Ritt Ǥ롥Ritt θѲѤϻɷŪȻפäƤ뤬κǶʸ (p. 131) ǡdrift ٻ븦ԤνפʰѤ4ۤɤʤƤΤǡƸصΤᡤѸŵŸƤˡ

Languages . . . came into being, grew and developed according to definite laws, and now, in turn, age and die off . . . (Schleicher, August. Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft: offenes Sendschreiben an Herrn Dr. Ernst Häckel. Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1873. Page 16.)


Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift. (Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921. Page 151.)


A living language is not just a collection of autonomous parts, but, as Sapir (1921) stressed, a harmonious and self-contained whole, massively resistant to change from without, which evolves according to an enigmatic, but unmistakably real, inner plan. (Donegan, Patricia Jane and David Stampe. "Rhythm and the Holistic Organization of Language Structure." Papers from the Parasession on the Interplay of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax. Eds. John F. Richardson, Mitchell Marks, and Amy Chukerman. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 1983. 337--53. Page 1.)


languages . . . are objects whose primary mode of existence is in time . . . which ought to be viewed as potentially having extended (trans-individual, transgenerational) 'lives of their own'. (Lass, Roger. "Language, Speakers, History and Drift." Explanation and Linguistic Change. Eds. W. F. Koopman, Frederike van der Leek, Olga Fischer, and Roger Eaton. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1987. 151--76. Pages 156--57.).


Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-08-23-1] [2013-02-27-1]

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2012-08-31 Fri

#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ [phoneme][phonology][phonetics][french][anglo-norman][systemic_regulation][phonemicisation][causation][stress][language_change][degemination]

ե󥹸줬ѸͿŪƶȤСäǤΤǤ롥¾ɽֻˤ⾯ʤ餺ƶڤܤˤ¿ʤ˴ؤƤϡФХե󥹸줫μѤȤƸڤ벻Ǥ롥Görlach (337--38) ˤȡˤ5बǧ롥

(1) /v/ βDz (phonemicisation) űѸǤ [v] ϲ /f/ ΰ۲ˤޤΩǤǤϤʤäȤ(a) very Τ褦 [v] ĥե󥹼Ѹή(b) vixen Τ褦 [v] μѡ(c) over : offer ˸ñҲȽŻҲΩξü(d) of ˸̵ˤ໤ͭȤä׿Ūװˤꡤ/v/ ǤȤΩƱȤ [z] ˤĤƤ롥(a) װ˴ؤƤХե󥹸αƶ뤳ȤǤ뤬/v/ /z/ ۲ȤƤϸűѸ¸ߤƤĺ˵ǽƤ̵ͭΩ໤ؤ礷ȤȤ館СηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡGörlach ϡѸηװ׻뤷Ƥ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפ򻲾ȡˡ
(2) /ʒ/ βDzβűѸǤΩǤǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Ѹ joy gentle θƬ /ʤ/ ȤƼ¸줿ΤǡѸǤ鵩ʲä/ʒ/ βDzϡmeasure ʤɤθǤ [-zj-] ͻ餦Ȥ礭βDzˤꡤηϤ /ʤ : ʒ ? ʧ : ʃ/ оȴطϤꡤǤե󥹸αƶŪǤʤ
(3) ե󥹼Ѹ˴ޤޤ첻αƶǡ첻 /ɔɪ, ʊɪ/ ѸDzDz2Ĥä뤳ȤǡѸ첻ηϤϤμ줿ΤȤʤä

--ɛɪɔɪʊɪ
ɪʊɛʊɔʊ--


(4) ե󥹸 /y(ː), œ(ː)/ ϡ߿첻ȤƤʳˤϼʤäޤ/ɲ/ l mouilli 뤳ȤϤʤäNorman ͤǤˤβ򼺤äƤǤϤʤ
(5) ¿Υޥ󥹼Ѹ줬ѸζηϤͿƶФи뤬bacon battle Τ褦2ϱѸζ˽ޥŪʶηϤŬѤ줿Τϡ3ʾμѸΤߤǤ롥

ΤȤơGörlach ϡե󥹸βαƶϤäȤƤϾǤȹͤƤ롥ƶäȤǤ⡤αƶϡѸη¦˼ǤƤ餳ϤʳΤȤDzǽȤʤäΤȵƤ롥

. . . it is significant that phonemes said to be derived from French survive only where they fill obvious gaps in the English system --- and some of these were stabilized by loans from English dialect . . . . (337)


¦פʤΤζפʤΤ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפεפ롥

Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.

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2012-08-08 Wed

#1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) [hel_education][standardisation][prescriptive_grammar][language_change][variation]

[2009-05-22-1]ε#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤פؤդäȥꥢDZѸˤ򶵤Ƥ Schmetterer αѸ˶ȤͤɤSchmetterer ϡѸˤΤʤǤѸȽѸˡȤ櫓1500ǯʹߤαѸɸಽηаޤؤӡ뤳Ȥɬפ⤹롥Ūμ夤Ѹ줫顤εʲؾФѸؤѤǤѻ뤳Ȥǡ줬경줿ŪʤΤǤϤꤨʤȤǧ˻뤳ȤǤȤĥǧȤˤĤơSchmetterer ϶Ū3󤲤Ƥ롥

(1) "language change is both inevitable and necessary in order to meet the requirements of the world around us" (372)
(2) "right" and "wrong" can be applied to language utterances only with the greatest possible caution" (372)
(3) "a language consists of various levels, regional, social, and temporal" (373)

Ȥ̻ŪѤ (change) ΤǤꡤŪҲŪŪװˤ궦Ūˤؤ (vary) ΤǤ롥Τ褦ήưŪоݤɾäȤΤϡ衤ԲǽǤ롥ʹ֤μҲˤζ̤ܼŪǤꡤˤĤƤ⤢٤εȤߵϡä˶ȤȤι̱ˤȤäơΤʤȤ򤷤褦ȤΤ顤ݤˤ⡤ƤǤ줿Τɾݤˤ⡤¤դʧʤФʤʤ
Ѥ⤹Сؤ⤹ΤǡĤʬ򤷤ǤεϤǤСΩġΤ褦ʸѤη˺ǤΩĤΤɬѸˤȤϤ鷺Ȥ˸ˤǤϤʤ

Schmetterer, Victor. "The History of the English Language and Future English Teachers." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 371--77.

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2012-07-19 Thu

#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡 [variation][contact][sociolinguistics][old_norse][history][weakly_tied][social_network][language_change][geography]

[2012-07-07-1]ε#1167. ܿʿǤϤʤˤ㤷פǡܿθ̤ϡŪǷ³Ūʾ⡤԰³ŪʾˤƤΤǤȤĤμĥҲ𤷤϶ǯμҲؤǤȤΡּ夤嫤ǷФ줿 ("weakly tied") ҲǤ׿Ƴ䤹ʤ䤹Ȥĥб롥Τ褦ʼҲŪͥåȥ˴ŤѲϡMilroy ʤɤθ̤ơǧΤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ[2011-09-26-1]ε#882. Belfast νŹפ򻲾ȡˡ
ĤϡιͤűѸȸťΥɸʲĤŪѸǤ֥ΥɸפѤƤˤȤθܿλ˶ŪŬѤդμҲŪŪ褦Ȼߤ󤬡[2012-07-07-1]εǰѤʸϤǤ롥˷ǤѤϡּ夤嫡ŬѤ򤵤˿䤷ʤᡤդޤʸϤǤ롥

ϡΥ󥰥ɤϤαǤϥ󥰻̲ͤȥ󥰥ɿͤδ֤Ǹꡤ󥰻ˤη׺ɤϤߤ졤ʼã⤽ϰ˽ߤĤ̲ΰ̱줿ΤǤäϰΥ󥰥ɿͤȰܽԤ̲ͤϤߤθդΰ㤤餤ˤƤʤä顤ࡼʲä̵äȤƤ֤ܿȲˤäưפ˽褿ǤΤ褦ʾϡ夤嫤ǷФ줿ԡߥ˥ƥ̤˽иξθΥꥨȤǤ׿αӲǤ夤嫤ǷФ줿̲ͤ͡󥰥ɿ͡뤤ϤκͤΤǤꤨޤΤ褦ʿãοȤǰפʤɤ˷ȤΤ䡤뤤ʼΤ褦ˡϰ­򿭤ФͤǤäơޤޤϤǶ嫤Ƥ륳ߥ˥ƥοãܿ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥ζ嫤Υߥ˥ƥ1ĤΤ塹Ѥ餺ƱϤĤǤ뽸ǤäΤ褦ʽˤɬ濴Ṳ̄ͤ¸ߤοͤꥢȤ뤳Ȥˤäơˤν˹ޤäƤΤǤ롥Ƥθ׿γΥᥫ˥ब¾θѲǤ߹礤Ū˥ǡϰˡ󥰥󥸥ʥӥȸƤФ롥Ȥϰۤʤäդ¿ޤȿΤǤäǡζϡǡϰ褬󥰥ɲˤäå󤵤ޤǡ̿ͤϹԤ褬ԲǽǤäᡤϤϰ¿˳礷ΤǤ롥


εҤˤϡҲ˸ؾνפΩĤޤޤƤ롥ޤѲˤƼ夤嫤ζƱΤȶ嫤ζƱΤβ̤Ū䤬ɽƤ롥ˡĿͤȶƱΤ̤ĤġӤĤƤ롥ϡѲ (implementation) ȳȻ (diffusion) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ϢΩǤ롥ơŪѰ (synchronic variation) ̻ŪѲ (diachronic change) ߴط⼨Ƥ롥
ۤˤ⡤Ѳˤפ䷳ȤäҲư䡤β̤ʤɡܤ٤ޤޤƤ롥ˡּҲ˸ءפȤɽѤޤ˼Ҳؤ˸ؤȤ򶯤ռǤ롥

ͳإ󥰤Υ󥰥꽻ˤȱѸؤαƶ١޽2012ǯ

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2012-07-13 Fri

#1173. Ѳɬȶ [synthesis_to_analysis][inflection][old_norse][contact][causation][historiography][language_change][philosophy_of_language]

ؤαѸˤμȤǡѸζޤοˤĤơ[2012-07-10-1]ε#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤοפdz⤷Ҳ𤷤ޤοϡѸ줬Ū줫ʬŪʸ (synthesis_to_analysis ؤȸ෿žȤʤäѲǤꡤ켫ȤŪװǤʤťΥɸȤܿȤä쳰Ūװˤäư줿ȹͤƤ롥ϡѸˤ¿ΤʤǤ⡤Ǥʥߥåǹ񿴤򤯤ǤϤʤʤˤǤȤϤϤΤŪŪװȵ󤲤ơѸ˾ѲΤ顤֤ѲˤͳΤʤפȴҤȤȤʤΤɬǤ롥ºݤˡ¿γѲΡָפͳפ褯Ǥȡľܤ뤤ϴܤ˥ȤǽҤ٤Ƥ
ȤΥȤ˼Τ褦ˤꡤܤڤָ줬ɤ뤫ϡˤǤʤʤȻפä
ȤƤϡѲˤϸͳꡤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ٤ɬŪǤ롤ȤȤ򡤶ޤοȤ򻲾Ȥơĥ褦Ȥºݤˡ¿γμݤDzᤷݤȿøȿֶ״Ѥ󼨤졤˰ɽͤ줿ʹȤʤä
ѲθˤĤƤ causation γƵǰäƤ褦ˡ˸ؤˤǽפȹͤ롥ˤˤɬȶȽŤʤäƤꡤůؤȤäƤ褤ѲθȤƤ⡤θǤΤϤɤޤǤʤΤɤޤǤŪɬȤߤʤΤȤ꤬Ĥ롥΢֤СѲΤɤޤǤŪλʪʤΤȤˤʤ롥
٤ƶȸäƤޤȡǵϥȥåפ롥٤ɬȸäƤޤȡ٤ƤͿʤФʤ餺©줷ȤޤǤ϶ǡȤޤǤɬȤΤΤȹͤƤ뤬Ȥˤ˵Ҥˤ衤äƤʹƤⶽ̣򴶤ΤϡɬεͳȤͿʤͿ줿ۤ祤״Ф̣廊뤫γΥȤͶȯ䤤ϡƤ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-05-29-1] [2015-06-28-1]

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2012-07-07 Sat

#1167. ܿʿǤϤʤˤ㤷 [contact][sociolinguistics][old_norse][history][standardisation][language_change]

űѸȸťΥɸȤθܿˤĤƤϡold_norse γƵǼ夲Ƥˤ뤬ѸˤˤƸťΥɸαƶȤϡǤפ1ĤǤ롥8ȾФ11ˤƵä󥰤Υ󥰥ɤؤάå̱꽻η̤ȤơűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤͻ礬ʤߡ⺮򤷤̾졤³졤ֻʤɤεǽ䤽¾δܸ줬¿ťΥɸ줫űѸؤήߡޤ礤˿ʿΤ褦ˤƸ줿 Norsified English ȸƤ֤٤䡤αƶѸϡ14ʹߤαѸɸಽδפȤʤꡤѸˤϢʤäƤ롥
ťΥɸȤܿϡۤɽפʤΤǡѸ˳ǤɬơޤҤ绨ĤǤ뤳Ȥ¿⤽⡤ۤʤζƱΤɤȡĤǤ⤳Τ褦ʸŪʺ򤬿ʤΤʤΤűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤδ֡ʿ¤˶¸椨˸줬򤷤Τ뤳Ȥ¿ºݤΤȤξüԽĤΤθŪŪŪкŪδطϤʤΤäΤμҲŪפ⤫٤ˤϡ˽񤫤ƤɽŪʵҤĶ˭ϤɬפǤ롥
˭ˡļҲؤθޤơűѸȸťΥɸθܿäɽ񤬸줿ͳΡإ󥰤Υ󥰥꽻ˤȱѸؤαƶ٤Ǥ롥ѡȤսϤĤ뤬ξüԤͻٹ礤ä˶Ʊ褬ʿŪǤäɤȤˤĤơΥǡˤ͡μҲŪط̤ʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥս꤬ŪǤ롥

ʾΤ褦˹ͤξԴ֤ͻʿŪäȴñդƤޤ⡤ʿŪʻϰ⤢ФǤʤϰ⤢äǤξ֤ϰμҲˤäƤ礤˰ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥ơٻ⡤ͤ͡ʿãǡϰ˽뤷֤λˤϡ͡ʤƸˤäãܿǤƤΤȤϸѲͤ˽פʤȤǤ롥


ϡξ¦ο͡κʿ¤ˡȡ¤˿ʤȤˤꡤ⼡˺äȤΤŪäषĹ֤ˤ錄³Ū֤ˤƤܿǻ̩äΤǤϤʤȤƤϡɽͤΤǤϤ뤬ͤƤߤи̣롥
ܿεˤϡظˤüԤɤμҲŪʴط򤷤ƤȤɬפǤ롥ơΤˤϡˤμȸ´ȼäϤޤɬפʤΤǤ롥

ͳإ󥰤Υ󥰥꽻ˤȱѸؤαƶ١޽2012ǯ

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2012-06-25 Mon

#1155. Postal θѲ [language_change][causation][generative_grammar][contact][sociolinguistics][rsr]

ε#1154. ѲΥȢȤƤ analogy ([2012-06-24-1]) Ǹڤ Postal ϡ#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѲθ fashion ȹͤԤǤ롥ƱˡѲȤ "grammar change" ʸˡѲˤˤۤʤʤʸˡѲ֤뵬§κƲǤȤŪѤλơʸˡѲκǽʳɽ魯 "primary sound change which is independent of language contact" ϡ"'nonfunctional' stylistic change" ǤꡤʳθϤꤨʤȤ롥
Postal εϰ츫ñ¤â񤭤ȤĤƤ롥㤨СҲŪʺ۲Ѳμ¸ȳȻζ̡ܿˤѲѸ Romance Stress Rule ŪˤĤƤ⿨Ƥ롥Postal εϡѲ礭Ȥߤ1ĤȤܤ٤ȹͤΤǡפ1 (283--85) ʬѤ褦

SOME REMARKS ON THE 'CAUSES OF SOUND CHANGE'

     It is perhaps not inappropriate to ask what implications the view that sound change consists in changes in grammars has for the much discussed and controversial question of the causes of sound change. Why should a language, independently of contact with other languages, add a new rule at a certain point? Of course there are some scholars who hold that all linguistic change is a result of language contact, but this position seems too radically improbable to demand serious consideration today. Assuming then that some if not all phonological changes are independent of contact, what is their basis? It seems clear to the present writer that there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next, etc. That is, it seems evident within the framework of sound change as grammar change that the 'causes' of sound change without language contact lie in the general tendency of human cultural products to undergo 'nonfunctional' stylistic change. This is of course to be understood as a remark about what we might call 'primary change,' that is, change which interrupts an assumed stable and long-existing system. It is somewhat more plausible that such stylistic primary changes may yield a grammar which is in some sense not optimal, and that this may itself lead to 'functional' change to bring about an optimal state. Halle's suggestion that children may learn a grammar partially distinct from that underlying the utterances they hear and thus, from the point of view of the adult language, reformulate the grammar (while adults may only add rules), may be looked upon as a suggestion of this type. For as he noted, a grammar G2 which results from the addition of a rule to a grammar G1 may not be the optimal grammar of the set of sentences it generates. Hence one would expect that children learning the new language will internalize not G2 but rather the optimal grammar G3. It remains to be seen how many of the instances of so-called 'structural sound change,' discussed in the writings of scholars like A. Martinet, can be provided with a basis of this type.
     It should be emphasized that the claim that contact independent sound change is due basically to the stylistic possibility for adults to add limited types of rules to their grammars does not preclude the fact that these changes may serve social functions, i.e. may be related to group differentiation, status differences, etc. That is, the claim that change is stylistic is not incompatible with the kinds of results reached by such investigators as Labov (1963). These latter matters concern more properly the social explanation for the spread of the change, a matter which seems more properly sociological than linguistic.
     I have been careful above not to insist that all instances of what have been called sound change were necessarily independent of language contact. Although committed to the view that sound change can occur without contact, we can also accept the view that some changes result from borrowing. The view that sound change is grammar change in fact really eliminates much of the importance of this difference. For under the rule interpretation of change, the only issue is the forces which led to the grammar change. Studies of complex cases of phonological grammar change due to contact have actually been carried out recently within the framework of generative grammar. This work, to be reported in a forthcoming monograph (Keyser and Halle, to appear), shows quite clearly that English has borrowed a number of Romance phonological rules. In particular, English has incorporated essentially the Latin stress rule, that which softens Romance k to s in certain environments, etc. This work has important implications beyond the area of sound change and may affect radically concepts of genetic relationship, Mischsprache, etc., all of which will, I think, require reevaluation.


Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-09-12-1] [2012-09-11-1]

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2012-05-24 Thu

#1123. Ѳθ˸ [language_change][causation][prediction_of_language_change][historiography]

ѲθϤɤޤõ뤳ȤǤΤ뤤Ϥ⤽õ뤳ȤǤΤʤΤɤϡ˸ؤܼŪʵǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ causation γƵǴŪˤƤޤĤƤθѲθβϡθѲͽ¬ǽȤˤط뤬ε prediction_of_language_change Ǽ夲ƤϡѲθõ뤳Ȥ˾öŪʳؼԤѶŪʳؼԤΰո򤽤줾Ҳ𤷤Ԥɽ Postal (283) ϡѲ fashion ǤꡤȤոǤ롥

. . . there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next.


Postal ˤСѲθõ뤳ȤǤʤΤǤꡤõäƤ⤷ΤʤΤǤ롥ǡSmith ϤιͤȽƤ롥ġθѲθϵŪˤϲǤʤ⤷ʤȤƸѲθϵǤϤǤ롥ơ˸ؤõ뤳ȤƤޤСǯɽ˽ϤƤޤȡȿ򷫤깭롥Smith ꡤ2Ѥ褦

. . . it is held here that an adequate history of English must attempt at least to take account of the 'why' as well as the 'how' of the changes the language has undergone; problems of causation must therefore be confronted in any historical account, however provisional the resulting explanations might be. (12)


Although it is not possible, given the limitations of the evidence, to offer absolute proof as to the motivation of a particular linguistic innovation, or to predict the precise development of linguistic phenomena, nevertheless a rationally arguable historical explanation can be offered for the kinds of changes which languages can undergo, and a broad prediction can be made about the kinds of change which are liable to happen. This seems a reasonable goal for any historical enquiry which seeks to go beyond the simple chronicle. (194)


Smith ϡѲϸŪӸ쳰Ūʣθʤ뤤ϾŪǡˤʣȤ߹蘆äȤǧǤꡤѶŪõꡤΤ˸ؼԤλŻȳοƤ롥Ѳͽ¬ (prediction_of_language_change) ˤޤƧ߹ڤꡤˤϰ⤢˰㤤ʤϳ Smith ΰո˻Ǥ롥ʤSmith ϻβդǤ

Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2012-05-09 Wed

#1108. 쵭̵ͭ [semantics][semantic_change][language_change][arbitrariness][sound_symbolism][phonaesthesia][onomatopoeia][saussure][sign][root_creation]

塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) (arbitrariness) Ȥƾư衤̵褬֤Ƥ㤨СθȿΤȤơΥޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ħ (sound_symbolism) Фе󤲤ƤϡӤǤꡤͭȤ2Ĥΰۤʤ̤в褹ȼĥ
(24--27) ˤСܼȤƵ뤳Ȥϵʤ signifiant signifié ϡ˼ҲŪʵˤäƷӤĤƤ롥ˤȤȡ֤Ǥפ֥פΤ褦פ⤫٤뤫⤷ʤɬͭӽ櫓ǤϤʤष֤ɤʸߤʸ츻ŪˤͭŪǤ (25) ͭŪȤȤˤϡŪͭȸṲ̄ͭƤɬפ롥Ԥϼˤ벻첻˼̤ onomatopoeia ǤꡤԤʣʤɤηŪʤˤäߴط㤨Сpossible impossible δطˤǤ롥ޤ (root_creation) ơ٤ƤθϤ줫μͭˤä߽ФȤ¤ܤͤ롥
פʤΤϡͭϸŪǤʤŪǤʤ˼ͳǤȤŪǤʤȤΤϡäޤä signifiant signifié бѤǤϤʤͳ˴ط򤤤Ƥ褤ȤȤǤ롥ŪǤʤȤΤϡȡʣ硤ǥಽʤɡɤˡѤƤ⡤̣̿̾ŤǤȤȤǤ롥
äơۤܤ٤Ƥθ͡ʼʤˤͭŪ߽Ф졤 signifiant signifié бꤹ뤬ꤷˤϺƤбѲ뼫ͳ롥СͭŪʴطϻ֤ȤȤޤꡤ˺졤Ĥˤ̵ŪȤʤ뤬̵ﲽ椬ȯȤʤäƺƤͭﲽƻ߽ФͭﲽȤϰռŪϢ³θĿͤϺǤꡤ̵ﲽȤ̵ռŪϢ³ŪʽĤŤǤ (45) ͭﲽ̵ﲽΤαʱΥϡ̣ܼˤǤ롥ΰ̣ѲͭȤ޼СʲΤ褦ˤʤ

Guiraud's Arbitrariness from a Diachronic Point of View


ˤȤäơ塼ΤȤϡĤǤ⼫ͳͭﲽ̵ﲽ뤳ȤǤʤľ˵ŪǤȤؤΤʤΤǤ롥
#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) εǤߤĹˤθѲϡΥͭﲽʬˤȤ櫓ܤȤȤˤʤ

ԥ롦 ƣ ذ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ1990ǯ

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2012-05-03 Thu

#1102. Zipf's law ȸο [information_theory][frequency][statistics][zipfs_law][shortening][language_change]

ε[2012-05-02-1] Zipf's law ˤĤƳ⤷Zipf's law ˤˡ§פ¿ꡤ1Ĥˡ[2012-04-22-1]ε#1091. ;١ѡפǤŦָǤϡ٤⤱вûפȤΤ롥򡤤ưŪˡ̻ŪɽȡָǤϡ٤⤯ʤвûʤפȤʤ롥٤⤯ʤäƤ椯ȡ٤ٱϤΤΡβûƤ椯Τ뤳Ȥϡ䤿иŪˤ褯ΤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1]) #879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ǸȤꡤѸο쥽Ȥû (shortening) ˤäƤꡤˤϻ礫ʤ
Zipf's law ˡ§ΤĶŪյ̻Ūյ碌ƹͤȡ٤Ĺˤäơ줬Ϸ椯 (senescent word) ʤΤޤĤĤ (nascent word) ʤΤ̤ǤȤǽ롥Zipf Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology νɾ路 Chao (399) ꡤϢսѤ褦

A very interesting application of the tool analogy is that of senescent and nascent tools in connection with the Principle of Economical Specialization. Reasoning from tool efficiency yields the result that 'whenever we find a tool (or word) whose magnitude is smaller than that of its neighbors in the frequency range, we may conclude that the tool (or word) of below-average size is an older tool (or word) whose usage is on the decrease (hereinafter we shall call this a senescent tool)', and 'whenever we find a tool (or word) whose magnitude is above average for its frequency, we may conclude not only that it is a newer tool (or word), but that its usage may well be directed toward an increase (hereinafter we shall call this a nascent tool)' (72). The application to words is verified to a fair degree for English of various periods (111). By regarding all behavior as work and words as tools, the analogy becomes a case and the qualifier 'or word' can be omitted.


Ūûñ A ͤ롥Zipf's law ˤСA Ū٤ι⤤ͽۤ뤬ºݤˤƱ٤٤򼨤¾¿θ٤ȲûȤ롥ξ硤餯 A Ϥ᤮٤ޤäƤ senescent word ȹͤƤ褤ȿФˡŪĹñ B ͤ롥Zipf's law ˤСB Ū٤㤤ͽۤ뤬ºݤˤƱ٤٤򼨤¾¿θ٤ȲĹȤ롥ξ硤餯 B Ϥ줫٤ޤޤƤ椭ṳ̂򵯤Ƥ椯ͽۤ nascent word ȹͤƤ褤ϡZipf's law ˡƬ˽Ҥ٤ŪٱȤݤ碌ˡ§ȤäƤ褤
̾ Zipf's law ŪǶŪŪˡ§ȤȤ館Ƥ뤬ưŪ̻Ūʴ顤οդˡ§ȤƺƲᤷƤߤȤ⤷

Chao, Y. R. "Review of Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology by George Kingsley Zipf." Language 26 (1950): 394--401.

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