ѸǤϡ§Ȥʣ s Фƽ apostrophe ֤뤳ȤϤʤ㳰ϤꡤŪˤ dot your i's ʤʸΤΤʣ1890's ʤɤǯ塤PhD's ʤɤάʣξˤ apostrophe դ줳ȤˤʤäƤ[2010-11-30-1]ε#582. apostropheפȡˡǶǤϡ2ĤǤ apostrophe ʤ 1890s PhDs Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäƤƤ롥ĤƤϰ̤̾ʣˤ -'s ֻ줿ߤǤϤܻۤ䤨ˡȤäƤ
Ϥ줿ɸŪʾ̤ǡʣ -'s Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥䡤षǤȻѤƤΤ "greengrocer's apostrophe" ȸ롥Horobin (12) ˤС
. . . the apostrophe is used before a plural -s ending; so-called because it is thought to be particularly prevalent in greengrocers' signs advertising apple's, pear's, and orange's. As Keith Waterhouse notes in his book English our English (1991): 'Greengrocers, for some reason, are extremely generous with their apostrophes---banana's, tomatoe's (or tom's), orange's, etc. Perhaps these come over in crates of fruit, like exotic spiders' (p. 43).
ƤߤСʤۤɳΤȬɴͻˤ褯ɽ㤨СʲΤ褦ˡ

greengrocer's apostrophe ̤ƤϲʤΤñʤѤȤ⤢褦ФȤϸڤʤ1Ĺͤ뤳ȤȤơgreengrocer's apostrophe ϡȬɴʤ˸¤ʤˤȷӤĤΤȤơȬɴŪʻѰ (register) 뤤ʸ (style) ɽ路ƤΤǤϤʤȬɴŪȤϲŪΤ˽Ҥ٤ΤοʪŹȤơŪʼҲŪϤΥ줿̱¯Τ褦ʤΤθƤΤǤϤʤäȰ̲ƸСɸŪǵŪɽˡæ뤳ȤǡƤߤ䤹ФƤȤȤ⤷ʤʪͻˤϰǤϤʤ褯礦greengrocer's apostrophe ϼεʤضƯƤȤͤ롥
⤷˾嵭ʸŪ̡ʤ뤤ϼҲṲ̄ȸäƤ褤ˤΤȤСθ̤ϡ#574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1]) Τεǽˤ⳺ʤΤǤ뤫顤punctuation 5εǽȤȤˤʤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ΤȤˤʤ뤬13American Dialect Society ˤ 2013ǯ The Word of the Year ȯɽ줿ץ쥹 (PDF)
2013ǯޤ because Ǥ롥ŤˡȯãƤ椨μޤȤ
This past year, the very old word because exploded with new grammatical possibilities in informal online use. . . . No longer does because have to be followed by of or a full clause. Now one often sees tersely worded rationales like 'because science' or 'because reasons.' You might not go to a party 'because tired.' As one supporter put it, because should be Word of the Year 'because useful!'
οˡϡߤ "in informal online use" Ȥ register ˸ꤵƤ뤬嵭̤ǤˤϤʤΤǡ register ȤƤ椯ǽ롥MOST USEFUL ǤޤƤ롥
ˡ because ǤϤʤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäȤΤˤ2ब̤褦˻פ롥1Ĥϡ"because tired" "because useful" Τ褦ˡŪǤάƤȹͤΡǤϡ줾 "because (I am) tired" "because (it is) useful" Τ褦˼ be ư줬άƤȲǤ롥ȯäƤʤɤθŪʾȤȤ⡤ŪˡפǤ륿פŪ٤ˡȤ
⤦1Ĥϡ"because science" "because reasons" Υפ "because of science" "because of reasons" Ȥۤʤ뤷դŪءפǤ櫓Ǥʤष1ˤ̣ߤ;Ϳ뽤Ūʸ̤ФƤ롥ϡŪȤϽŪ٤ˡȤ롥
ơޤ because Τۤˤ⡤Υߥ͡ȸ¾Ǥμ礬ꡤįƤߤȤ⤷㤨 slash ϡ"used as a coordinating conjunction to mean 'and/or' (e.g., 'come and visit slash stay') or 'so' ('I love that place, slash can we go there?')" ƤꡤΤʸǤ롥դ°ɵ (punctuation) 1Ĥɽ줬äդ³ȤѤƤȤΤ⤷ְʾ彪פ̣ȤƤ Period. हðۤǤ롥
#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) εǡѸˤͭ̾ calf vs veal, deer vs venison, fowl vs poultry, sheep vs mutton, swine (pig) vs pork, bacon, ox vs beef θޤˤ줤ʡֱѸ vs եѸפȤʤäƤꡤʤۤɤεǰˤκ뤳Ȥϡ#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ǤߤȤܤä줿եäȤŪʸճؤιޤȤƤβͤѤʤʱѸäع¤εȡˡ
[2010-03-24-1]εǤ줿Ȥꡤưʪθͭ̾ˤΤ Sir Walter Scott (1771--1832) Ǥ롥Scott ϡ1819ǯ˾ Ivanhoe Τʤоʪ˼Τ褦˸餻Ƥ롥
"The swine turned Normans to my comfort!" quoth Gurth; "expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed, to read riddles."
"Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about on their four legs?" demanded Wamba.
"Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, "every fool knows that."
"And swine is good Saxon," said the Jester; "but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung up by the heels, like a traitor?"
"Pork," answered the swine-herd.
"I am very glad every fool knows that too," said Wamba, "and pork, I think, is good Norman-French; and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast among the nobles what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?"
"It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's pate."
"Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba, in the same tone; "there is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in the like manner; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment."
ʩóؤϡѸʻˡˤ˴ؿΤ¿ο͡˥ԡ뤹뤬䤬˴ؿƤΤϡȤ櫓ҲŪ diglossia ȸŪ register δؤ礤εˤƤǤ롥#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ڤӡ#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1]) 褦ˡѸ diglossia ˴ŤҲŪʾ岼طκפŪ register ξ岼طȤüԤθ (lexicon) ΤʤȿǤƤ̣ҲŪʡʤ쳰ŪΩɤΤ褦ˤηŪʡʤŪΩžΤϡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) Ǽ夲ޥҲ (macro-sociolinguistics or sociology of language) ȥߥҲ (micro-sociolinguistics) Ȥˤ̤롥Ҳ¤ȸηϤϤɤΤ褦Ϣ³ƤΤ뤤ϤɤΤ褦䤷ƤΤ
Scott λŦ swine vs pork Ω켫ΤϡŪʺۤȤϰ̣ŪʡʻؼоݤΡ˺ۤŪʾ嵭˴Ū˴ؤäƤ롥
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ǼѡʸˤˤĤˤȤˡѸˤ illumination ? light purchase ? buy ˤߤóؤϡdiglossia ˤҲŪʾ岼ط (borrowing) Ȥʤ̤ơηϤˤ register ξ岼طⲽΤǤȻŦ
diglossia borrowing δطõ뤳ȤϼҲؤؤõȤȤˤĤʤꡤ礭ʸơޤȤʤꤦ뤬ˤĤ Hudson (56--57) ŪʸƤ롥Hudson ϡѸǤ get Τˤ[2009-10-13-1]ε#169. get give Ϥʤ /g/ äƤΤפǼ褦˸ťΥɸ쵯Ȥ٤ˤȥƥͳ褹 obtain 夲ɤα diglossia μҲŪʾ岼طѤȤ̤ơѸ register ξ岼طƤ줿ȤƤª diglossia äˤӡobtain ƥͳǤȤüԤεޤꡤĤƤ diglossia ¸ߤ岼طκפŪ̮ʤ顤register ξ岼طȤƸηϤΤʤ夷Hudson (57) οޤͤˤʤ顤Τ褦ˤޤȤƤߤ

1ʳǤϡobtain get λȤʬϡdiglossia ȤΤ˶̤2֤ˤȤʬˤۤʤʤ2ʳǤϡƥ줫Ѹ obtain Ѥ졤obtain get λȤʬϱѸǤ register ˤȤʬȤʤ롥ʳǤϡobtain ΥƥȤηӤĤ⤤ޤƤ롥3ʳǤϡdiglossia ä졤obtain ΥƥȤηӤĤ˺Ƥ롥obtain get λȤʬϡ register κȤƱѸä夷ΤǤ롥
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ѹνˤϡ"macaronic lyric" ȸƤФΤ롥macaronic ȤϡOALD7 ڤ "(technical) relating to language, especially in poetry, that includes words and expressions from another language" ȤꡤֳƼκä¯ΤΡפʤɤ̣롥macaronic lyric ϡΥɤˤŪˤϱѸ줬Ǥϥե줬Ǥϥƥ줬ʿŪ˹ԤʤƤ¿ѤξߤȤ˱ǤФʸغʤǤ롥ȤơGreentree (396) ˰ѤƤޥꥢؤλΤ1ʹ Brown 26--27 ˴ŤˡϡѸȥƥ줬ؤ13 macaronic lyric Ǥ롥
Of on that is so fayr and bright
velud maris stella
Brighter than the day-is light
parens & puella
Ic crie to the, thou se to me,
Leuedy, preye thi sone for me
tam pia,
that ic mote come to the
maria
츫ñʤѺߤΤؤܻˤ⸫뤬Greentree Ϥޥꥢؤο̩ʰʱѸˤˤȸʤʿġʥƥˤˤȤ̯ΥХȿǤΤȤɾ롥ʤѸȵŪʥƥθؤϡΤޤ13쿮ĤħŪʿ̩ȷɰդκɽ魯ȤҲؤ bilingual code-switching ʸؤؤαѤȤ
2ϡGreentree (395--96) ˰ѤƤ De amico ad amicam ̾դ줿֥쥿αȡResponcio ̾դ줿ؤǤ롥Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ줬ܤޤ뤷ؤ롥
A celuy que pluys eyme en mounde
Of alle tho that I have found
Carissima
Saluz ottreye amour,
With grace and joye alle honoure
Dulcissima
A soun treschere et special
Fer and her and overal
In mundo,
Que soy ou saltz et gré
With mouth, word and herte free
Jocundo
ǤϡѸDZΤʤɽ졤եǴŪǵŪʰҤ٤졤ƥǷٶδʷˤƹߤʥե졼ޤƤ롥
伫Ȥˤϡ macaronic lyric äʸ̤Ŭڤ̣臘ȤǤʤդȾʬθͷӤȹ⤤ʸȤζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤǤʤbilingual ǤϤʤԤ code-switching εˤΤƱ褦ʤΤ⤷ʤ㤨ܸǤҤ餬ʡʡʤɤ뤳Ȥʷϵΰ㤤ɽ魯ƤߤȡѸ macaronic lyric ˾ܶǤʵ⤹롥Greentree (396) ϼΤ褦ɾäƤ롥
Fluent harmony is an enjoyable and consistent characteristic of the macaronic lyrics. They seem paradoxically unforced, moving easily between languages in common use, to exploit particular characteristics for effect.
ʤȯŸ뤳Ȥˤʤ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ϡ̣Ǥ macaronic lyric Ʊ褦ѺΤषƥ줫֤ʸΤɽۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Greentree, Rosemary. "Lyric." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 387--405.
Brown, Carleton, ed. English Lyrics of the XIIIth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1832.
εǡ#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) ˾ƤϢơˡΧѸˤե¸ߴˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1])#433. Law French ȱѹϡ ([2010-07-04-1])#1240. ΥޥȸˡΧѸִ ([2012-09-18-1]) ǰäƤƸƤȡˡΧѸμ礿ħϥեѸ¿ѤˤꡤȤȤ褯狼롥ˡΧѸħϤˤȤɤޤʤ⤦ܤĴ٤ȡˡʡѤηƤ롥Crystal (101) ˤäơĤħ롥
(1) դˤƤäդˤƤ⡤ŪŪɽѤ롥
Signed, sealed and delivered
You may approach the bench
Your Honour
May it please the court
. . . the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth
(2) ̤θ줬Фüʰ̣Ѥ롥
action (law suit)
hand (signature)
presents (this legal document)
said (mentioned before) (cf. [2011-02-21-1]ε#665. Chaucer ˤߤ3;̾εؼŪˡ)
(3) ߤǤϰ̤ˤѤʤűѸ졤Ѹͳñ줬ݤƤ롥
aforesaid, forthwith, heretofore, thenceforth, thereby, witnesseth cf. [2012-10-24-1]ε#1276. hereby, hereof, thereto, therewith, etc.ס
(4) ƥɽ¿
corpus delictiʺΡ, ejusdem generisƱΡ, nolle prosequiʤμ겼, res gestaeӾ, sui jurisˡΧǽϤä, vis majorԲĹϡ
(5) եѸ줬¿̲Τ¿
demurrerԽʬιۡ, easement, estoppelʶȿ, fee simpleñڸ, lienαָ, tortʻȡ
(6) ΤǸ̩ʰ̣äѸ졥
appealʾʡ, bailݼʶˡ, contributoryлԡ, defendant, felonyʽź, negligenceʲἺ, injunctionʺ̿
(7) ۣʰ̣äŪˤȤ줦 "argot"
allegedʵ路, issue of lawˡΧ, objectionʰ۵, order to show causeͳ̿, superior courtʾ̺Ƚ, without prejudiceʤȤμ³鹴«뤳Ȥʤ
(8) ⤿뤿˰տŪۣʰ̣ѤѸ졥
adequate causeͳ, as soon as possibleʲĵŪ®䤫ˡ, improperŬڤʡ, maliceȰա, nominal sum̾ܳۡ, reasonable careʤա
Ρ֡ʾ̡ʣ, ФǿͤˤʡˡΧȡʸäθפؤơѸ legalese ȤƤ̾뤬ܸǤ¾θǤѤʤȤ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ѸˡΧ˴ؤѰ (register) ˥եθ礬Ƥ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1])#433. Law French ȱѹϡ ([2010-07-04-1])#1240. ΥޥȸˡΧѸִ ([2012-09-18-1]) γƵǼ夲ƤɤˤˡΧʬθؤγάС13ˤϥƥäƥե줬ˡΧطɽˤͥȤʤäƤ椯եˡʸˤƤƥȶ礤14ˤͥȤʤ롥15ˤϡLaw French Law English ˽˼äƤ椯˻ޤǥեΰ仺ϼѤ줿
ˡΧʬǥե줫ѸؤθؤʤǤ椯ȡˡΧѸˤեñ줫ñؤθؤȤƤ롥ȤɤθѸѤ뤫Ȥϡ¿ξ硤ɤѤȤߤĤޤꡤξ and ʤɤ³ǤĤʤơ2।ǥ (binomial idiom) ˤƤޤȤǤʴϢ[2011-07-26-1]ε#820. ʩƱפ⻲ȡˡ2Ԥδ֤̯ʰ̣ζ̤⤢Сƶ̤Ϥʤñ˰̣ζĴǤȤ⤢ä֤ȤȤˤΤ褦ˡΧʬθħŤʸΤؤȯŸȤΤȤΤϡñʩñΤߤʤ餺ʩñ2Ĥñ2Ĥʤɤ⸫褦ˤʤꡤ츻ȤʸΤȤȤ館ۤŬڤǤȹͤ뤫ʸΤȯŸˡ2।ǥħǤ뱤ΧˤϤΤ褵 (euphony) ѤƤȤʤ
ʲˡCrystal (152--53) ˼Ƥ褦3İʾ⤢롥
acknowledge and confess (English/French)
aid and abet (French/French)
breaking and entering (English/French)
cease and desist (French/French)
each and every (English/English)
final and conclusive (French/Latin)
fit and proper (English/French)
give and grant (English/French)
give, devise, and bequeath (English/French/English)
goods and chattels (English/French)
had and received (English/French)
have and hold (English/English)
heirs and assigns (French/French)
in lieu, in place, instead, and in substitution of (French/French/English/French or Latin)
keep and maintain (English/French)
lands and tenements (English/French)
let or hindrance (English/English)
made and provided (English/Latin)
new and novel (English/French)
null and void (French/French)
pardon and forgive (French/English)
peace and quiet (French/Latin)
right, title, and interest (English/English/French)
shun and avoid (English/Latin)
will and testament (English/Latin)
wrack and ruin (English/French)
ˡΧʬ᤹ΤȸʤŪ˰ޤƤѸäع¤ΧȸϤº2।ǥΤ褦ʽװ蘆äơʹߡˡΧѸȤäѼ郎ȯãƤΤȹͤ롥
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1]) ǡNorwich ˤ -ing ȯ˴ؤ Trudgill ˤҲĴǤϡɸŪ -ing ɸŪ -in' Τ줾λ٤̤̤ˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤ뤫ɽǼTrudgill ϡ -ing ѰۤˤĤơۤˤʸ̤ĴԤʤäƤΤǡƤ
̤ˡäʤɤάŪʸΤǤɸŪʰ۷Ф졤ñǫɤ߾夲褦ᤵ褦ʳʼФäʸΤǤɸŪʰ۷Фǽ⤤ͽۤ롥ǡTrudgill ϡƼҲɽ︳Ԥ顤4ʸΤˤ -in(g) ȯФɸɸΨ٤4ʸΤȤϡǤʼФäΤˡ(1) ñꥹȤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 word-list style (WLS)(2) ʸϤɤ߾夲Ƥ餦 reading-passage style (RPS)(3) formal speech (FS)(4) casual speech (CS) Ǥ롥ʲϡTrudgill (87) äɸ -in' γ̤ʸ̤ΨǤ롥ˡդǤɽ路
| WLS (%) | RPS (%) | FS (%) | CS (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Middle Middle Class | 0 | 0 | 3 | 28 |
| Lower Middle Class | 0 | 10 | 15 | 42 |
| Upper Working Class | 5 | 15 | 74 | 87 |
| Middle Working Class | 23 | 44 | 88 | 95 |
| Lower Working Class | 29 | 66 | 98 | 100 |

#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1]) DZѸʤˡˤ̱Ū¦ָ̤ХΤȤ줿ݤĤˡϡϤŪʴ顤Ѹ̱Ū¦̤Ҳ𤷤褦
ѸϡѸʱѹͥˤƥѸήи (##114,1067,1226)ˤäơѸäˤع¤줿ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ǸȤǤ롥ä˳ؤߤ줿ȤȤϡλѼԤѰ (register) ˤб볬ؤꤦ뤳Ȥ롥äγؤȤλѤ˴ؤҲŪؤΤɬŪʴطȤ櫓ǤϤʤŪ˰ޤƤΤȤơΤ褦ؤ¸ߤ뤳ȤǤʤؤθäϡ֥٥פι⤤üԤѰȷӤĤ졤ؤθäϡ֥٥פ㤤üԤѰȷӤĤ뷹ϤϤäꤷƤ롥
ξˤĤơ (244) ϡֱѸ̱ŪʡפꤹǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ʸˤ˭Ϥ⤦Ĥη̤ϡѸ줬̱ŪʤĤ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤOEˤϲͤθդ̱θդ⤿ѤʤäȻפ롥ήȸääñȤȤȤϾʤäǤ롥ξ֤ Norman Conquest ˤäơؤϥե졤ؤϱѸȤҲŪŸ (social bilingualism) ѤäѸ줬ȡѸ줽켫ΤˡμҲŪˤʤäηĹΤϿʸǤäơPurism ȽϤȸ뤳ȤǽǤ롥¡ۤȤͣɽоݤȤؤϡθ˻ޤǥꥹ̱ŪʽưȤӤĤƤ롥
Ѹʤˡˤϡ¦̤Ǥ̱Ṳ̄¦̤Ǥ̱ŪǤ롥ΤȤ¿쾯ʤɤθˤ뤳ȤޤˤĤƸ̱פȤΤϡ#1318. ˤݼŪȤϲ ([2012-12-05-1]) #1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) Ǽ夲ݼפƱ褦ˡդɬפǤ롥̱פݼפʹѤޤɽǤꡤ켫ΤΤȤ館ϸĿͤˤäưۤʤǤ⡤ҲŪʴϡ̱ȤΤϤ⤷ơޤ
ʤѸˤ̱ŪĬήȤС#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1]) #1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction ([2012-03-21-1]) ꤬פФ롥
졡رѸˡ١罤ۡ1983ǯ
ɸΤ褦 here there 1ǤȤֻ2ǤȤʣ¿롥ϡhere this ȡthere it that ɤؤơֻθ˲Ọ̇̄ŪɸθϤ줾 by this, of this, to that, with that ۤɤ̣롥Ǥ˷ĥä뤬űѸ줫ѸˤƤϤ褯Ѥ졤μ٤ϤषƤۤɤǤ롥17ʹߤϵ˸äƤ椭Τ褦ʸ¤줿Ѱ (register) ؤɤޤ줿ͳȤƤϡѸι¤ȤŵŪǤʤȤĤޤ礫ʬϤؤαѸμήȿȤŦƤ (Rissanen 127) ʸˡȤơޤǸꤵ줿֤ǼѤ줿ϡtherefore ΤߤȤäƤ褤
ѸdzǧѰФϡǤѸˤ˨꤬롥here-, there- ʣϡѸǤϤޤ̤˻ȤƤ뤬ǤߤˡΧʸǤλѤݤäƤ롥ʲϡRissanen (127) Helsinki Corpus ˤĴ̤Ǥʿ١åο1٤ɽ魯ˡ
| Statutes | Other texts | |
|---|---|---|
| ME4 (1420--1500) | 68 (60) | 621 (31) |
| EModE1 (1500--70) | 77 (65) | 503 (28) |
| EModE2 (1570--1640) | 84 (71) | 461 (26) |
| EModE3 (1640--1710) | 126 (96) | 191 (12) |
ε[2012-04-30-1] Farsi ˤ#1099. ҤηƻɾηƻפζʬŪ Class AɾŪ Class Bξ Class C ȤʬϡŪʴζʬ줾Υ饹°ƻоȤįƤȡ̻Ūʰ̣礤⤭夬äƤ롥Farsi ϼ2Ŧ (56--58)
(1) Class A Class C ؤȽ°ѹƻ줬Ĥ롥ȤȤϵŪ "concerning X" ۤɤθͭƤ Class A ƻ줬ɾŪ "worthy of X" ۤɤθθ碌ķ̤ȤʤäƤ롥English, American, Christian, logical, philosophical, scientific ʤɤΤ褦̻Ūвɤä
(2) 嵭Τ褦㤫¬ˡ Class A °ƻ줬衤ɾŪʰ̣ Class C ذܹԤȤȤΤǤϤʤ㤨Сphonemic ϡֲǤΡפȤŪʸŵŪ Class A ƻǤȤͤڻ뤹벻ȽŪ˻ؤ *unphonemic ɽС֤ȤƤ *phonemic ɾŪʸ뤳ȤˤʤꡤClass C ǧꤵ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Class A °ɤηƻˤ⡤ɾŪ뵡ϳƤ롥
Class A Class C ؤ̻Ūܹԡ뤤ϰ̣ȯŸϡѰ (register) ˱Ƥߤ뵭ŪɾŪΤɤȤŪʻ¤ȤɽФƤ롥㤨Сmental ɸŪˡǤϵŪɸŪˡǤɾΤäΤפȤ̣ӤӤ롥aesthetic ̾ϵŪˤɾŪˤѤ뤬ؤʸ̮ǤϡäѤ鵭ŪѤ
Farsi ϡClass A Class C ؤ夲ƤʤŪˤϤʳѲ⤢ȤϽҤ٤Ƥ롥ɾŪʸ줬ɾŪʸӤӤȤ̣Ѳϡεդڤ¿ľ롥ҴѤѤؤĥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ꡤ[2011-03-11-1]ε#683. semantic prosody פǼʹ֤ȽꡥHotta (2011) Ĵƻ -ish ηỤ̄γǤ⡤Ϣä[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפ⻲ȡˡFarsi ηƻʬϡΤ褦ˡ̣Ѳꡤ̣ѲȻѰʤɤˤ⼨ͿƤ롥
⤦1ġ̻֤ȤδϢǵƤΤϡFarsi ʬȼѤ뤤ϸȤδطǤ롥εƬǤҤ٤#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) 䤽¾ع¤εǸƤȤꡤɾŪǡGreco-Latin ϡ˼ѸϵŪǤ褦ʸΥڥ¿Τ褦ʶŪʬ̻ۤŪʴ᤹ȡΤ褦ˤꤹ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤűѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
ʾ夬绨ĤʲǤ롥פּѸפϡΤˤϡǡפּѷǡפȸƤ֤ۤ褤⤷ʤbehavioural mannerly ʤɤ ( hybrid ) ΰǤɤΤ褦˰֤Ť٤ͤɬפ롥Ǥ Farsi ηƻꥹȤɤΤ褦˺줿ΤǡɤŪʤΤʤɤ⸡ڤɬפ
ɾŪγѰ衤ȼѸ졽Τ褦θȤơFarsi ηƻʬȤ館ʤȤǤ褦˻פ롥Ѹäλع¤뤿ˤ⡤ܸäλع¤[2010-03-28-1]ε#335. ܸäλع¤סˤΤˤ⡤̥ϤơޤȤʤꤽ
Farsi, A. A. "Classification of Adjectives." Language Learning 18 (1968): 45--60.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Suffix -ish and Its Derogatory Connotation: An OED Based Historical Study." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 108 (2011): 107--32.
ε#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1]) κǸ˿줿ñ (flat adverb) 夲롥б -ly ¸Ƥ硤flat adverb ϰ̤άŪ뤤ϸŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ롥Ūʴϡ-ly ȼɸǤꡤflat adverb оݤȤΤǻѤ٤Ȥ뤬LGSWE (Section 7.12.2) ˤСʲΤ褦ϲåѥǤ̤˸Ȥ
The big one went so slow. (CONV)
Well it was hot but it didn't come out quick. (CONV)
They want to make sure it runs smooth first. (CONV)
ä good real ȤѤˡϡAmE θǹʹ롥LGSWE (Section 7.12.2.1) εҤˤСgood well ΰ̣ѤϡAmE βäǰŪˤ褯졤ǽդ BrE ǤϵǤ롥really ѤȤƤ real ˤĤƤϡAmE βäǤ really Ⱦʬۤɤ٤ǻѤƤȤ顤٤ѥ٤ǤС BrE βäˤ really ٤ɤŨȤʤBrE Ǥ real Τˡϳ̵ǤϤʤǤ롥ξԤ LGSWE 餤Ĥ褦
It just worked out good, didn't it? (AmE CONV)
Bruce Jackson, In Excess' trainer said, "He ran good, but he runs good all the time. It was easy." (AmE NEWS)
It would have been real [bad] news. (AmE CONV)
I have a really [good] video with a real [good] soundtrack. (AmE CONV)
Τ褦ˡgood ưȹ¤ʤƽˡreal ϷƻĴˡ̤Ǥ롥
ʾΤ褦ˡѸˤ flat adverb ϥꥫѸθѤ뷹Ȥѥ餫ȤʤäƤ뤬ηȴϢ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פǿ줿ꥫѸ첽 (Americanisation) ȸ첽 (colloquialisation) Ĭή۵ˤʤ塤good 뤤 real ˸¤餺ѸΤȤ flat adverb λѤ礷Ƥ椯ȤǽȤȤ碌ơ[2010-03-05-1]ε#312. ʸˡαƺפ (5) ⻲Ȥ줿
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
ä (speech) (writing) ΩˤĤƤϡ[2011-05-15-1]εäפʤɤǼ夲ޤξԤζŪʤΤǤϤʤorality literacy ħϤٸߤ˾ǽǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ[2009-12-13-1]εäȤФȽȤФΩŪפ
ä (ʹ S) Ƚ (ʹ W) ֤ϡW ƤԤˤȤäƤϡΤΰ㤤ȤƼǤ褦˻פ롥ŵŪ S ʲáˤ W ʸϡˤΤˤɤΤ褦ħκۤΤˤĤƤϡ٤äͤƤߤʤȤˤФʤ⤷ʤKramsch (37--41) ͤˡ7Ω夲褦
(1) S ϰŪ (transient) W ϱ³Ū (permanent) Ǥ롥
W ΤħˤꡤW S 礭ʸҤӤӤ롥Ķƾѡã뤳ȤǤ뤷ƤƤΤΤƱͤ˱³ŪǤȤۤ뤫Ǥ롥
(2) S ɲŪǴŪ (additive and rhapsodic) W ȷ« (ordered and cohesive) Ƥ롥
S ǤäߤȯäˤѤ߾夲Ÿ뤬äȤ⤿ʤ W ǤϤϤᤫ٤ʷ«ä¤롥S Ϥξ¨ǡW Ϥ餫ơȤۤȤϢ롥
(3) S ϼҲŪ (aggregative and phatic) W ʬŪŪ (analytic and logical) Ǥ롥
S ǤüԴ֤ʷϵŪȤɽ¿ʤ뤬W ǤƤˤĤʬϤͤ뤳Ȥ˽椹ɽ¿
(4) S ;Ū (redundant) W ;Ū (non-redundant) Ǥ롥
(1) ħ椨ˡS äʹû餶뤿˷֤¿Ѥ롥ǡW ϤΤ褦ûθɬפʤΤǡष;ŪǤ뤳Ȥ뷹롥
(5) S ʸˡŪ˴ˤǤŪ˴ (grammatically loose and lexically sparse) W ʸˡŪ˰ޤäƤŪ˶Ž̤ (grammatically compact and lexically dense) 롥
S Ρ֤ξ¨ǡפȤбơS ǤϸνȤʸˡŪˤŪˤäƤΤŬڤǤ롥ǡW Ρ֤餫ơפȤбơW ǤϺǽ餫ʤ̩٤ι⤤ʸϤäƤΤŬڤǤ롥
(6) S Ͽ濴 (people-centered) W 濴 (topic-centered) Ǥ롥
S ǤꤽΤΤǤʤʹδʤɤˤθɬפ뤬W ǤΤã뤳Ȥ˽Ǥ롥
(7) S ʸ̮¸Ū (context dependent) W ʸ̮Ū (context-reduced) Ǥ롥
S Ǥʸ̮ˤΤǡ뷹롥ǡW ϽƤǤʸ̮ɤȤˤϼƤʸ̮θƤˤȤ¿ᡤʸ̮˰¸ˤ
Ω֥쥹ȤС7ܰʳˤ⤤ȽФƤºݤ˼ȤDz٤֥쥹ȤƤߤ⤷ä
Kramsch, Clair. Language and Culture. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
ܥ֥γƽ register ѰˤȤѸȤäƤǤϤ뤬ºݤˤʣʳǰǤ롥ʲؿѸؼŵ٤ "register" ιܤȤƼɮ롥
register ϸѼ1פǤ롥ϰ䳬ʤɤθѼϡ§ȤüԤäƤΤǡüԤտŪ˻Ȥʬ뤳ȤʤŪʥפѼ (user variety) ǤΤФơregister üԤ̤ˤäƻȤʬŪʥפѼ (use variety) Ǥ롥[2009-12-10-1]εֱѸѼΥǥפ variety classes бС(1), (2) user variety (3), (4), (5) use variety (register) Ȥregister ϤޤǰŪѼǤϤ뤬ѰͤǡפʳǰǤ롥
Halliday θ (Hallidayan linguistics) ˤСregister ϰʲΤ褦˲̶ʬ롥
(1) field of discourse äξˡˤϡ礭ʬƸǧλ (cognitive use) ˤΤȡŪ (phatic use) ˤΤ롥ԤäʹοŪʤĤʤۤ뤿θѤǡŪ䰧ŵǤ ( phatic function ˤĤƤ[2010-10-02-1]εָεǽȸѲפȡˡ줬Ѥ˱ƶͿΤϡƸƼʸˡܤǤ롥Ū졤ʥʥֵ̤θꡤʳʸˡΧʸ⡤ŻҥʤɤǤϡ줾ͭɽʸˡܤ롥Ȥäǰ˶ᤤ
(2) mode of discourse äΡˡ礭äȤСʲˤȽȤСʸˤʬ롥ξԤϸѤˤƤФ֤뤬ºݤˤξԤδطȤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ[2011-05-15-1]εäפ[2009-12-13-1]εäȤФȽȤФΩŪפȡ
(3) style (tenor) of discourse äΥˡäʹδط˱ĥٹ礤б٤ι⤤Τ frozen, formal, consultative (unmarked), casual, intimate ʤɤȡΤˤ϶ʬǤʤϢ³Τ롥
register ϰΤ褦ʬƹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤬3Ĥβ̶ʬϤϢ³ΤǤꡤߴط¸Ƥ̤ΩƤ̤ꡤʣǤ롥register 1970ǯʹߤ˹ޤäѸȳǰǤꡤȤƤŪؼԴ֤ǴϢѸ˺ۤʤɤ꤬Τˤ椨
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
Ѹ˥եѸ줬̤ήƤ¤ˤĤƤϤǤ¿εǰäƤ[2009-08-22-1]ε֥եѸǯʬۡפۤȡˡˤѸɽβǽäܤ٤ɽȤơѸбեѸ2।ǥ (binomial idiom) ɽʥХp. 60ˡmy heart and my corage, wepe and crye, huntynge and venerye ǡǤ롥ɽϡȥեѸδ֤Ѱ ( register ) κΤ뤳ȤѤŪʵˡȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ뤬ʡֱѸäλع¤פˤĤƤ[2010-03-27-1]εȡˡܿѸưפˤ뤿ȤźȤͤ롥Ԥϡפ ( gloss ) ܤȤűѸνΰüȸ뤫⤷ʤϤޤ17켭 (see [2010-12-27-1], [2010-11-24-1]) оˤĤʤʸŪǤ롥ʹߤǤ lord and master, my last will and testament ʤɤɽȤʤäƤ롥
ʤɽȤäƤ⡤ɬ and Τ褦³ǷФƤȤϸ¤ʤ㤨 court-yard ˤ mansion-house šˤϱʩбǤľʣǤꡤŪȤ롥
Ѹήϡñ˴¸θ֤ꡤμ䤷ꤹǤϤʤ¸θäϢȤɽǽƤ¦̤⤢뤳Ȥɾ٤ϢơʩξǤ1˺礷Ƥ hybrid γƵä[2009-08-01-1]ΡֱѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid )סˤ⻲ȡ
ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ
ƥ uerba uolant, scripta manent äդӵꡤդϻĤפȸȤꡤäդϿʤ¤֤DzȤȤήäƤޤդġ桤ʤɤΤ¸³¤ͭǤ롥
ʸļҲˤƤϡդϤλ³Ū椨äդ⤤ϰ̤ͿƤаޤ롥դĸθ춦ƱΤǤ⡤ʸΤۤƬͭʤΤȤͥ롥ȡ֤餯פʤΤǤ롥
ؤθоݤä (speech) Ǥꡤ (writing) δؿŪǤ롥ε [2011-05-14-1] ǡؤҤϤͥ褵뤳ȤˤĤˤƱͤ˸ؤäդդͥ褵Τ縶§Ǥ롥ͥŤϡʲ̤ꡤäդΤۤ꺬ŪܼŪǤ뤳Ȥ˴Ť
ҥȤθϡäդȤȯդˤ[2009-06-08-1]εָʸˤפȡ
ȯͤƤ⡤ĻϤޤäդ롥˴ؤơäդϾ˽դΩġ
äդǽϤϥҥȤȤŷŪդϾ˸ŷŪ˳ؽ롥
ˤ⸽ߤˤ⡤ʸ⤿ʤΤۤʸĸ¿
ؤˤäդͥˤĤơƱ͡Martinet ȤȤ˰Ѥ롥ҲˤդνŦľǤ롥
Ceci ne doit pas faire oublier que les signes du langage humain sont en priorité vocaux, que, pendant des centaines de milliers d'années, ces signes ont été exclusivement vocaux, et qu'aujourd'hui encore les êtres humains en majoriteé savent parler sans savoir lire. On apprend à parler avant d'apprendre à lire : la lecture vient doubler la parole, jamais l'inverse. L'étude de l'écriture représente une discipline distincte de la linguistique, enore que, pratiquement, une de ses annexes. Le linguiste fait donc par principe abstraction des faits de graphie. Il ne les considère que dans la mesure, au total restreinte, où les faits de graphie influencent la form des signes vocaux.
ΤȤ椨ˡʹ֤θεͥŪ˲˴ؤΤǤ뤳ȡǯΤεϤäѤ鲻ǤäȡǤȾɤʤȤä뤳Ȥ˺뤳ȤäƤϤʤʤͤɤळȤФޤäȤФ롥ɤळȤäȤɤۤ褦ˤʤΤǤäơ褷ƤεդǤϤʤդθϡºݾϸؤ°ʬ1ĤǤϤ뤬Ω1ʬɽ路Ƥ롥äơؼԤϸ§Ȥƽˡλ¤ξݤ롥ˡλ¤ϡΤȤƸ¤줿ϰϤˤơ줬ȯ뵭η֤˱ƶڤܤϰϤˤƤΤ߹θоݤȤʤ롥
̸ؤδϡ嵭ä̤ͥθ§˰¸ϤʤѸˤδϡ褯мषǤθ§ɬפ롥Ѹˤʤ˸ؤʬǤϡषǸΡֽˡλ¤ϡΤȤƸ¤줿ϰϤˤơ줬ȯ뵭η֤˱ƶڤܤϰϤˤƤΤ߹θоݤȤʤפʬפǤ롥Ĥ줿ʸ̤ƤθǤʤ˸ؤˤƤϡŻȤäƤʤ¤ꡤʸȲδطιͻȤ櫓פȤʤ롥ºݤˡǯѸ츦Ǥϡȯֻδطξܺ٤ľϤޤäƤ롥ʸˤĤưȸäƤܿͤν֤Ǥϡ̩˻פäƤ뤬ɤ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
Murray OED 1 (1884) νʸ˴ "General Explanations" (xvii) ǡѸäιΤ褦ɽ
. . . the English Vocabulary contains a nucleus or central mass of many thousand words whose 'Anglicity' is unquestioned; some of them only literary, some of them only colloquial, the great majority at once literary and colloquial, --- they are the Common Words of the language. But they are linked on every side with other words which are less and less entitled to this appellation, and which pertain ever more and more distinctly to the domain of local dialect, of the slang and cant of 'sets' and classes, of the peculiar technicalities of trades and processes, of the scientific terminology common to all civilised nations, of the actual languages of other lands and peoples. And there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.
ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤMurray οޤȤ˺ˡ

Murray Τθ֤ϡ濴ˤޤäƤ뤬˸ˤĤޤФˤʤǤؤȾäƤ椯Ȥ롥ޤοޤϡ夫鲼ظä LITERARY, COMMON, COLLOQUIAL, SLANG ȸäδŪʳشطƤǤ⤹Ƥ롥
εϤؤ롤ѸθäˤäƤϲ餫ŪȤߤɬפMurray Τ "nebulous masses" ΥϤȤߤȤͭѤ͡Ĵɬפ⤷ʤ㤨 LITERARY ξ ARCHAIC OBSOLETE ȤɲŪꤷƤ褤⤷ʤͭ̾Ϥοޤظ夢뤤̼¸ߤƤȹͤɬפϿޤȤ뤬Τɤդޤ뤫꤫ǤϤʤ
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. 2--3.
ǰɽΤİʾθ줬¸ߤȤϤɤθǤʤΤˡʡƱפȤΤ¸ߤ뤳ȤơפȤȤǤС¿θ¸ߤ롥ȤϤΤΡѸ˭٤ϡ¿θ٤Ƥä٤ۤɤǤ롥ΤȤ켭ŵ ( thesaurus ) ƤߤСǤ롥
Ѹˤδ˭٤СϱѸ줬¿θܿƤ¤˵롥ۤʤä줫бİۤʤä˥奢Ǽ졤äΤʤѤƤäˡ̤ȤƱѸ ( thesaurus ) ȤʤäΤǤ롥
츻̤ˤդ뤤ʬƤߤȡˡءפ뤳Ȥ狼롥㤨СŵŪΥѥȤơֻع¤פȤǤƤ֤٤Τ롥ؤ졤ؤե졤ؤƥꥷȤѥǤ롥
| native | French | Latin/Greek |
|---|---|---|
| ask | question | interrogate |
| book | volume | text |
| fair | beautiful | attractive |
| fast | firm | secure |
| foe | enemy | adversary |
| help | aid | assistance |
| kingly | royal | regal |
| rise | mount | ascend |
Ѹ variety ѥΰĤ medium פ뤳Ȥϡ[2009-12-10-1]εǽҤ٤ʹ֤θμפΤȤƤϡäȤ ( speech or spoken language ) ȽȤ ( writing or written language ) बꤦ롥ԤİФˡԤϻФʤΤħȤ롥Фʤ⤦ĤΤȤơ[2009-07-16-1]ǿ줿ּø ( sign language ) 뤬ϵ鳰
衤äȤФȽȤФΤ֤ƤΥ֥Dz٤夲ƤȯֻЪΥ⡤äȤФȽȤФΩ¸ߤǤꡤȤȿ뤳Ȥ餢뤳ȤڤƤ롥ޤİа¸а¸Ȥ̤ϡʪŪŪΤʶ̤Ǥꡤ֤ϼΤȤΤ褦˻פ롥
쥳ߥ˥ȼδ֤δطᤤȤ֥ץȡפδ餹ȡäȤФȽȤФζɬΤǤʤȤ˵Ť㤨СֱθϸƬǤʤ뤬ȤФɤŨֱȤС ( Sprache der Distanz ) Ǥ롥դˡåȤʸ̤Ƥʤ뤬äȤФɤŨֶᤤȤС ( Sprache der Nähe ) Ǥ롥Koch and Oesterreicher medium concept ݤ碌ʲΤ褦ʥǥʰʲοޤϡĻβѤ䤬˲ѤΤǤ롥

ΥǥϡʱѸ˸ؤˡ˼ͿƤ롥θ褦ȤĤߤˤƺɤϡäȤФξڵľܤ뤳ȤȤǤ롥쥳νиäȤФˤϡߤˤޤǻĤäƤȤФλ꤬ˤƴŪäȤФȤˡĤƤʤKoch and Oesterreicher Υǥ餫ʤ褦ˡȤФǤäȤι⤤ variety ¸ߤ롥Τ褦ʽȤ variety ˰͵뤳ȤǡäȤФ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǽǤϤʤäȤФȽȤФΩϡ褤ƤۤŪʤΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥
ԡ˸βǽ --- ᴤ뤫ĤƤθŪסط38612桤2009ǯ68--75ǡ
Koch, Peter and Wulf Oesterreicher. "Sprache der Nähe -- Sprache der Distanz: Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Spannungsfeld von Sprachtheorie und Sprachgeschichte." Romanistisches Jahrbuch 36 (1985): 15--43.
Quirk et al. ϡѤƤѸοѼ ( varieties ) ˺Ū "the common core" ȹͤƤ롥ơġαѸüԤѤθѤƤѼϡݲ줿 "the common core" äȤơƼѹɲäܤ줿ΤǤȤ롥Ѽ ( varieties ) ʬहݤΥѥȤƤϡʲοޤ̤ꡤϻĤ variety classes ǧƤ롥

(1) Region ϰѼؤ, American English, British English, South African English, Australian English, Indian English, Jamaican English ʤɡ̤ ( dialect ) ȸƤФ복ǰȽŤʤ롥
(2) Education and social setting ϶ˤѼä˼ҲŪʸҤȹǧƤɸѸ ( Standard English ) ȸƤФѼ˴ؤ롥礭 standard substandard Ѽʬ롥
(3) Subject matter ϼˤѼǤ롥register ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥㤨СˡΧ˴ؤѸŪʸäɽ¿ޤѼǤ뤷Υ쥷ԤαѸ̿ʸ¿ѤäѼȹͤ롥ʳʸαѸϼư֤¿αѸϸʸäʸˡޤȤ褦ˡħäѼ郎̵¸ߤ롥
(4) Medium ϸưΤˤѼؤ¾塤äդդζ̤Ȥʤ롥
(5) Attitude üԤФ٤䥳ߥ˥Ū˱ƷޤѼǤ롥style ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǫФäƤٹ礤¯ø褽褽ʤɡƼο֤бѼ郎롥绨Ĥˡrigid -- formal -- normal -- informal -- familiar Ϣ³ΤȤɽǤѼǤ롥
(6) Interference ϡ˳ȤƱѸԤθŪħˤִġפ줿ѸѤ˴طѼǤ롥㤨СܸüԤäѸϡȯʸˡʤɤǸߤ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿ξ硤ܸδĤѸѼˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
οޤǡ(1) (5) ν¤ǤΤˤŪʰ̣Ϥʤ variety class ¾ variety class Ȥ褦ˤϢǤ롥(1) ꥫѸΡ(2) ɸѼǡ(3) ݡĤˤĤơ(4) äդǡ(5) ŪǫˡȤȤϲǽ(1) åȥɱѸΡ(2) ܤѸǡ(3) Ҷγܤ(4) (5) ƤߤʸΤǡɽȤȤϲǽǤ롥
ǡ(1) (5) ν¤ǤΤϴ̵̣ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ˤ variety class ̤ˤ variety class ȤʤäƤ륱뤫Ǥ롥㤨С(2) Standard English ȤѼϡ(1) ϰѼˤäƸꤵ롥ǹǧƤ Standard English ϸǤ¸ߤޤǥꥫѸ Standard English ȤꥹѸ Standard English Ȥ褦ˡϰѼȤƤ롥̾(1) (2) ѼϸĿͥ٥ǸꤷƤ
ޤ(3) ˵ˡΧѸϡˡΧѸȤƽˡ(2) ζܤѸɸѸȤˤĤƤʤȻϤޤʤ(4) νդ⡤(2) ζܤѸɸѸ줬ȤʤäƤ롥ξ̤ѤѸϡ(5) ˴ϢƷФäƤ뤳ȤԤ뤬 (4) μˤѼħȤߤʤ٤⤷ʤ(3), (4), (5) ϸĿͤΤʤǤˤäɤưѼǤ롥
(6) ϡ줫αѸФŪĤȤǡбѸγ¦äϤǤꡤ¾ variety classes ȤϰۼǤ뤿ᡤޤǤγ˰֤ŤƤ롥
̵¤ι꤬ȹͤѸˡ⤽ the common core ꤹ뤳ȤǤΤȤȿ⤢뤬ѸѼΥǥȤƻͤˤʤǥǤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972. 13--30.
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow