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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2019-10-01 Tue

#3809. "Rise up, rebel, revolt --- how the English language betrays class and power" [lexical_stratification][lexicology][register][sociolinguistics][diglossia]

The Guardian ˤơѸä3ع¤˴ؤɸε󤲤Ƥʵˡ  *
Ѹä3ع¤ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥ󥹴Υƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) 䤽ĥäεǤȲ⤷ƤΤǡǾܤ֤ȤϤʤפΤ߽Ҥ٤ƤȡѸä3ʤΥԥߥåɤƤꡤ̤ˤϺDzؤ˱Ѹ줬ؤ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬Ǿؤ˥ƥѸ줬ޤäƤ롥Ūʸܿΰ仺ǤȤȤˡΥ󥰥ɼҲˤƱѸüԡե󥹸üԡƥüԤγơʤҲؤ°ƤǤФǤ⤢롥ñ㲽ƤСؤؤ˸äơ"those who work" or "workers", "those who fight" or "clerks", "those who pray" or "the powerful"ȤĤ°ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ɸεƤϡŪʳضʬˤĤơEUΥæʤɤäʬǤƤ븽奤ꥹҲˤбʪȤݤǤꡤˤȺDzؤ "workers" ȤΤѤʤؤ "the middle class" ˡǾؤ "the clerkly class" бȤ"the clerkly class" ˴ޤޤΤϡ"academics, thinktankers, lawyers, writers, many artists, scientists, journalists and students, some comedians and politicians, even some entrepreneurs, as well as actual clerics --- anyone whose sense of self depends on an abstract frame of reference" ȤȤ餷
ν񤭼ϡμҲءμҲءѸθóؤʿʤӡȤʿˤŦʤ鸽奤ꥹҲɾƤꡤƤϸŪȤϡ餫ŪǤ롥ä3ع¤ˤĤ1ĽפʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥"[French and Latin] seeped into what we call English and made themselves at home, giving the language its fantastical redundancy, creating something half-Germanic, half-Romance. Trilinguality was internalised." ȤȤȤϼҲŪʸݤǤ diglossia ˤ岼طˤựŪ register ξ岼طؤȡָⲽפΤȤΤĹ餯ռʤΤǤä "internalised" ȽҤ٤Ƥ븽ݤζŪʥץΤꤿΤǤ롥
̤ǤϤ뤬ϢʲΤ褦ʵǰäƤΤǡȤ

#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1])

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2019-02-14 Thu

#3580. ԥȶο [bible][shakespeare][emode][verb][preterite][register]

Shakespeare νʤȶ (Authorized Version; King Jame Bible) ϤۤƱ˽񤫤Ƥʤ⡤줾αѸϽ¦̤ˤưۤʤäƤcf. #492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1])#1418. 17 its μơ ([2013-03-15-1])#3491. dreamt dreamed ˡκ ([2018-11-17-1])ˡŪˤ Shakespeare ϳ׿ŪݼŪʸո¿Ȥ롥Crystal (275) ꡤκۤ㼨Ƥߤֵפȡֿפδ֤ɤƤư֤Ѱۤ濴ˡŵŪ򽸤᤿ΤǤ롥

King JamesFirst Folio
old formnew formold formnew form
bare 175bore 1bare 10bore 25
clave 14cleft 2clave 0cleft 8
gat 20, gotten 25got 7gat 0, gotten 5got 115
goeth 135goes 0goeth 0goes 166
seeth 54sees 0seeth 0sees 40
spake 585spoke 0spake 48spoke 142
yonder 7yon 0, yond 0yonder 66yon 9, yond 45


ϡʸ "The old Ecclesiastical Words to be kept, viz., the Word Church not to be translated Congregations, &c." ʤɤȽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥͽ̤ۤꡤݼŪʸո褯ĤƤ롥θƤƸŤᤫȡޤ Tyndale ɽ줿1ۤαѸǥȤƤ뤳Ȥʤɤ顤ΤηˤĤäԻ׵ĤϤʤcf. #753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1]
Shakespeare Τ褦ûҷȤθո̱̽ο͡θո˶ƤϤȤȤ⡤ưפǤƱǤ⡤Ѱ (register)ǥ󥹡ŪʤɤۤʤСޤǸΰ㤤ФΤȤȤ򼨤Ƥ롤ѸˤιǤ롥

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.

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2019-02-05 Tue

#3571. ¿ be ư ain't (1) [be][conjugation][negative][register]

be ư1֤Ȥ ain't 롥ɸŪȤߤʤ뤬ǤϤФѤ롥am not, aren't, isn't Τˤ뤿ᡤȿθʤ̣ǡ̴Τ褦ʡ be ưη֤Ǥ롥 be ưˤȤɤޤ餺have not, has not ɸŪʰ۷ȤƤѤ졤¤˼ϰϤͱѸ졤 AAVE Ǥϡdon't, doesn't, didn't ѤȤʤꡤǽ򼨤 be ưȤƤ ain't äʤ롥
ain't ɸŪȤƤꡤλѤϵŪΩ줫񤵤뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ϶ܤ͡δ֤ǤѤ졤Ȥ櫓1;ñε am I not? ȤƤ ain't I ϵƤٹ礤⤤ (ex. I'm going too, ain't I?) ޤ100ǯۤˤϡήǤ̤ѤƤݤ Crystal (35) ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Today, ain't is considered non-standard, but it's widespread throughout the English-speaking world---probably used far more often than the standard equivalent---and a century ago it was actually acceptable upper-class speech, turning up frequently in the novels of the period. Here's the lawyer Mr Wharton arguing with his sister-in-law over his daughter's future, in Anthony Trollope's The Prime Minister (1875): 'I ain't thinking of her marrying'. And towards the end of the novel the Duke of Omnium himself asks someone: 'I hope you ain't cold'.


ain't 18Ⱦ깭ѤƤ뤬εˤĤƤϽ⤢롥Ūˡ˴ؤƤ⡤̻Ūȯã˴ؤƤ¿̥ŪʥȥԥåǤ롥Ϣ American Heritage Dictionary Notes ꡤain't 򻲾ȡ

Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-02-06-1]

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2018-10-01 Mon

#3444. ѸˤϡѸλ̵򤽤餷ǤȤ԰ [historiography][register][dialect][variety][philology][writing][medium]

Ѹ˸ˤơФиᤴ뤬ƴŪʻ¤Ȥơ¸ʸΥ꤬롥ˤäʸ̤礭ʺȤ¤
κȤäƤ⡤켫Τˤ͡ʥפ롥ˤäơʸ񤫤Ƥۤʤ⤢СΩä񤭼ꤿγʤɡҲŪ°ۤʤ⤢롥ˤäơΤȯŸƤʸϤΥ⹭äƤɽμˤ⡤ˤäư㤤ߤ롥
¸ʸθ줬ˤä¿¿ͤǤȤȤϡθˤ̤ƤΡ¬פ񤷤ȤȤǤ롥ϰ˸ꤷƹͤƤ⡤礿ʤפϡűѸǤϥȥǤꡤѸǤ¸ߤѸʹߤϥɥǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ1ĤΩӤưӤѸˤȤϤǤʤ
头Ȥ˽񤭸դôѤäƤǤϤΤ񤯤ΤϡۤԤ䲦²˸¤Ƥϡ깭¯ο͡ˤΤ񤭵ˬ褦ˤʤꡤḽˤƤ϶ȯŸȤȤ˽񤭸դϽ̱˳Ƥä񤭸դôȤ¦̤ˤƤ⡤¬αѸˤȤ񤷤
ǤϡΤ褦˻ȤֱѸˡפȤϲؤΤֱѸפΤΤƱ褦ˡֱѸˡפ⡤ʤ١եʤΤȻפѸˤϡñʤѸȤ˴ؤ¤λŪʵҤǤϤʤϸߤ˷ӤĤˤ̵Τ̵򡤤٤θɤΤ޷ؤȲȤӤĤİ٤ʤΤǤϤʤݥȤϤ˷֤櫓ǤϤʤȤȤˤϡ˸뤿ιפۤ˸ȤȤϡ餯¤β˿ȿǤƤϤȤ˾ʤ顥

Referrer (Inside): [2018-10-02-1]

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2018-05-28 Mon

#3318. Ѳκˤ뿷Ѱ۷ä [language_change][variation][subjunctive][purism][register][language_change]

ʸˡǤ be ưβˡȤơ1;ñ3;ñ was ʤ were Ѥ롥If I were you . . . as it were ǡǤ롥Τ褦ʷʸŪʸΤǤλѤΥСǤľˡ˰ĥ was Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤƤȸ㤨СI wouldn't do that, if I was you. I wish I was dead! ʤɡˡ
ŪʲʹѤԤǤСΤ褦 was ˡָѡפȴλѼԤüԤȤߤʤ⤷ʤѲȤߤԤϡwas λѤäˤäơ̯ʿ񤤤򤹤벾ˡʲˤƤȤ֤⤷ʤۤˤϡʪήžסֹԤϤή䤨ơפãѤƸѲįͤ⤢ȤơѲκˤʤȤܤ˿Ѱ۷ϡߤ˰ۤʤỤ̄ (connotation) ˥奢󥹤͡ʼҲŪʸŪʲͤӤӤ뤳Ȥ¿
ΰ򡤤⤦ǫ褦A B ȤѲƤˤϡʤ A B Ѥ֤롥ξǤСˡ If I were . . . (= A) If I was . . . (= B) ξѤ֤롥ζѴ֤ˤϤʤĹꡤʤɤζ̤̤뤬̤˱ A B ΤˤϼҲŪʸŪͤѰˤƳƼκۤ뤳Ȥ¿̤ǤϡA ˤμB ˤϿʪȤƤηʶ뤫⤷ʤ̤ζ̤ǤϡA ϶ܤB ̵ܤɸ뤫⤷ʤޤ̤ζ̤ǤϡA ϵʷϵޤȤäſ뤪भB Ͽͽ㡹򴭵뤫⤷ʤǽŪ A äB ΤߤǽȤʤäȤޤǤγƶ̤ǤξԤΥ饤ХطϡʻפФв˲ΥɥޤȤʤäƤꡤǤϴλƤΤǤ롥
If I were/was . . . ˤ餺ѲȤϤΤ褦ʤΤѲΤʤǶŪƤüԤˤȤäƤϡξΩϸ߿ʹΥꥢʥɥޤʤΤǤꡤݼ顤׿¾Ω줬ΤޤʤΤǤϤʤ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-06-03-1]

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2018-04-02 Mon

#3262. Ѹɸಽˤ "intensive elaboration" [lme][standardisation][latin][french][register][terminology][lexicology][loan_word][lexical_stratification]

#2742. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ ([2016-10-29-1]) #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Haugen θɸಽ (standardisation) ΥǥǤϡ (form) ȵǽ (function) ֤ˤɸಽȤ館Ƥ롥ˤȡɸಽȤ "maximal variation in function" "minimal variation in form" ħŤ븽ݤǤ롥Ԥ codification (of form)Ԥ elaboration (of function) бȹͤ롥
"elaboration" ȤѸդɬפǤ롥Haugen ɸಽεǰտޤƤΤϡ͡ʻѰ (register) ǹѤ뤳ȤǤȤ̣Ǥ "elaboration of function" ΤȤ "elaboration of form" Ȥ̤β⡤ѸˤɸಽȿϢ뤫򤱤뤿ˡHaugen Ȥạ̈Ǥ "elaboration of function" "extensive elaboration" ȸƤӡ"elaboration of form" Τۤ "intensive elaboration" ȸƤǤ⤤ (Schaefer 209)
Ǥϡ"intensive elaboration" 뤤 "elaboration of form" ȤϲؤΤSchaefer (209) ˤСβˤƤ "the range of the native linguistic inventory is increased by new forms adding further 'variability and expressiveness'" ȤѸθȾޤǤϡ񤭸դɸȤСѸβ餫ǤϤʤषƥե󥹸ȤäˤƱѸ줬ƤȡѸ줬γäɸϰ̤˽Ȥˤʤäκݤɸ줿ƥե󥹸줫̤θäѤѸä¿ݤäޤޤˡ˾褻ơե󥹸θäȥƥθä졤ΤȤƽʤع¤θä˻äʤλˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) #2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥ󥹴Υƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ε򻲾ȡˡѸä̤ߡ񤭸վ塤Ѹθä󲽤줿ȤʤСϸɸಽħŤ "minimal variation in form" Ȥϡष "maximal variation in form" ظäƤ褦ʰݤͿ롥μ variation 뤤 variability äؤơ"intensive elaboration" 뤤 "elaboration of form" ȸƤ֤ΤǤ롥
ĤޤꡤɸಽˤϷѰۤʤ¦̤⤢Сۤʤ뼡ǡѰۤ礭ʤ¦̤⤢ꤦȤȤǤ롥ΰ츫̷⤹褦ɸಽΤSchaefer (220) ϼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

While such standardizing developments reduced variation, the extensive elaboration to achieve a "maximal variation in function" demanded increased variation, or rather variability. This type of standardization, and hence norm-compliance, aimed at the discourse-traditional norms already available in the literary languages French and Latin. Late Middle English was thus re-established in writing with the help of both Latin and French norms rather than merely substituting for these literary languages.


Schaefer Ursula. "Standardization." Chapter 11 of The History of English. Vol. 3. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2017. 205--23.

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2018-02-23 Fri

#3224. Thomas Harman, A Caveat or Warening for Common Cursetors (1567) [dictionary][slang][lexicology][lexicography][renaissance][register]

ε#3223. George Andrews, A Dictionary of the Slang and Cant language (1809) ([2018-02-22-1]) ǡѸ˾¯졦Ѹ콸Thomas Harman A Caveat or Warening for Common Cursetors (1567) ˸ڤѸ˾αѱѼRobert Cawdrey A Table Alphabeticall 30ǯʾƽǤ줿ȤΤ϶ä٤Ȥ˻פ뤫⤷ʤ̤αѱѼ⡤΢Ѹ콸ΤۤᤤȤΤϡ⤷
ͥ󥹴Υ󥰥ɤˤ뼭Իηаޤ򿶤֤äƤߤȡषήϼǤ롥ޤˤĤƺǽ˺뼭Ѹ콸ϡְܴۤ㤤ʤ켭񡤤Ĥޤ bilingual dictionaries/glossaries Ǥ롥ºݡѼʩѼ񡤰˱ѼʤɤѸ˾塤˸Ƥ롥ΤȤϡͤƤߤǤ롥ȤäƤ⡤ǤʤññǶƤΤ1Ǥ롥Ǥˤ褯ΤäƤñǸꤹ monolingual dictionaries/glossaries ϡǤͤΤλ򤵤Ƥ뤬ˤäƤϡޤΰյϿ͡˥ԥȤʤä
ơ켭˽ऺΤȤơ΢¯졦 (canting language) Ѹ콸Ԥޤ뤳Ȥˤʤäɤʰ̻̱ˤȤäơcanting language ϳƱǤ롥äơA Caviat ⤢ bilingual glossary äȸäƤ褤ΤǤ롥
³ơ1604ǯ˱Ѹ˾Ρ̤αѱѼפۤɸڤ A Table Alphabeticall Ǥ줿ºݤˤϡ̡פαñ򽸤᤿ΤǤϤʤȤƥƥѸʤɤʤפ򽸤᤿Τä⸫ˤäƤ bilingual dictionary ȤΤǤ롥θ塤17̤ƱѸ˴ؤ뼭񤬤Ǥ줿켭Ǥꡤbilingual dictionaries ΰФƤϤʤäȤͤcf. #609. 켭17 ([2010-12-27-1]
嵭ηаޤ򴪰Ƥȡݤ򤷤ơѸ˾αѱѼѸ콸 A Caviat Ǥ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤΤˤĤơBlank (231) Ѥ

In fact the original English-English dictionaries, long preceding those produced in the seventeenth century, were glossaries of the canting language. As Thomas Harman and his followers often noted, cant was otherwise known in the period as 'pedlar's French', a term which again reinforced notions of its 'foreign' nature. Harman's popular pamphlet A Caveat or Warening for Common Cursetors (1567) describes the underworld language as a 'leud, lousey language of these lewtering Luskes and lasy Lorrels . . . a vnknowen toung onely, but to these bold, beastly, bawdy Beggers, and vaine Vacabondes'. As a measure of social precaution, he included a glossary intended to expose the 'vnknowen toung', thereby translating the 'leud, lousey' language into 'common' English:

Nab,a pratling chete,quaromes,
a head.a tounge.a body.
  
Nabchet,Crashing chetes,prat,
a hat or cap.teeth.a buttocke.


and so on through a list that includes 120 terms.


Blank, Paula. "The Babel of Renaissance English." Chapter 8 of The Oxford History of English. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2006. 212--39.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-06-26-1]

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2018-02-22 Thu

#3223. George Andrews, A Dictionary of the Slang and Cant language (1809) [lexicology][lexicography][slang][register]

19ȾˤϿ¯켭Ի줿Ū1Ĥˡϥ㡼ʸäϿʤä Johnson μ䴰Ȥä夲 George Andrews ˤ A Dictionary of the Slang and Cant language (1809) ˤϡäȡַŪפ䤬äϡť¯졦˹Τ餷뤳ȤˤꡤȺ޻ߤȤΤäμҲܻؤȤäƤ褤⤷ʤCrystal (68) ˤȡμʸȤơΤ褦񤫤ƤȤ

One great misfortune to which the Public are liable, is, that Thieves have a Language of their own; by which means they associate together in the streets, without fear of being over-heard or understood.
   The principal end I had in view in publishing this DICTIONARY, was, to expose the Cant Terms of their Language, in order to the more easy detection of their crimes; and I flatter myself, by the perusal of this Work, the Public will become acquainted with their mysterious Phrases; and be better able to frustrate their designs.


Crystal (68) ˺ƷǤƤ롤ĤθФʲ˵󤲤褦19Ƭťα餯ߤťˤ̤ʤΤʤ

Adam Tylerspickpockets' accomplices
badgershawkers
bullies, bully-huffs, bully-rookshired ruffians
bloodsroisterers
buffershorse killers (for the skins)
beau-trapswell-dressed sharpers
cloak-twitcherscloak-snatchers (from off people's shoulders)
clapperdogeons (also spelled clapperdudgeon)beggars
coinerscounterfeiters
cadgersbeggars
duffershawkers
diverspickpockets
dragsmenvehicle thieves
filerscoin-filers
fencersreceivers of stolen goods
footpadshighwaymen who rob on foot
gammonerspickpockets' accomplices
ginglers (also jinglers)horse-dealers
kencrackershousebreakers
knackerstricksters
lully-priggerslinen-thieves
millershousebreakers
priggersthieves
rum-paddershighwaymen
strollerspedlars
sweetenerscheats, decoys
spicersfootpads
smasherscounterfeiters
swadlers (also swadders)pedlars
whidlers (also whiddlers)informers
water-padsrobbers of ships


ʤѸ˾¯졦켭ϡ1567ǯ Thomas Harman ˤѸ콸 A Caveat or Warening for Common Cursetors Ȥ롥̾αѸ켭 Robert Cawdrey ˤ1604ǯΡ#603. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (1) ([2010-12-21-1]) Ǥ뤳ȤͤȡԻȤˤƤŹŪʡˤäΤȴ뼡Ǥ롥
slang, cant, argot, jargon ʤɤѸˤĤƤϡ#2410. slang, cant, argot, jargon, antilanguage ([2015-12-02-1]) 򻲾ȡޤˤĤƤϡ#2166. argot ʱˤ¾Χ ([2015-04-02-1])#3076. 졤֡Ź ([2017-09-28-1]) ɤ

Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-02-23-1]

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2018-01-09 Tue

#3179. ֿŵŪʣפֱפ [neo-latin][latin][greek][word_formation][lexicology][loan_word][compounding][derivation][lmode][scientific_english][scientific_name][neologism][waseieigo][terminology][register]

ŵŪʣ (neoclassical compounds) Ȥϡaerobiosis, biomorphism, cryogen, nematocide, ophthalmopathy, plasmocyte, proctoscope, rheophyte, technocracy Τ褦ʸʤФвʳѸˤؤDurkin (346--37) ˤСतθä᤯1600ǯ夫ǧ졤㤨 polycracy (1581), pantometer (1597), multinomial (1608) ߤ롥ȯŪ̻褦ˤʤäΤϡʳؤ®ȯŸѸȤ櫓19ˤʤäƤΤȤǤʡ#616. Ѹβʳظäȯ ([2011-01-03-1])#3013. 19񤵤줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])#3014. Ѹˤˤ륮ꥷο¸ߴ19 ([2017-07-28-1])#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ŵŪʣˤĤƶĴƤ٤ϡ줬ѸǤϤʤޤDZѸʤϤȤ衼åѤνˤˤƷ줿ǤȤΤ˥ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤθŵǥȤƤϤ뤬褷ƤѤ줿櫓ǤϤʤΰ̣Ǥϱñݤκۤ򤷤ƤʤñǤϤʤѸפӤ뤳ȤǤ롥ŵŪʣϱѸǤ뤫顤ĤޤֱפȤäƤ褤ѸȤΤäϡԤȤƹŪDzʳŪʸ̮Ѥ뤬ԤϤǤϤʤȤ¤ˤ롥ʤξԤΤˤϻѰˤиߤ롥Durkin ϡŵŪʣˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . these formations typically belong to the international language of science and move freely, often with little or no morphological adaptation, between English, French, German, and other languages of scientific discourse. They are often treated in very different ways in different traditions of lexicography and lexicology; however, those terms that are coined in modern vernacular languages are certainly not loanwords from Latin or Greek, even though they may be formed from elements that originated in such loanwords. (347)


. . . Latin words and word elements have become ubiquitous in modern technical discourse, but frequently in new compound or derivative formations or with new meanings that have seldom if ever been employed in contextual use in actual Latin sentences. (349)


¤ؤơֿŵŪʣפȸƤֱ֤פȸƤ֤ϡǤϤʤѸξˤϡֱѸŪʣפȸƤФʤΤϤʤΰ㤤ϲ˵Τ

Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

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2017-05-06 Sat

#2931. ϸŤӽΤǤϤʤ䤹 [language_change][register][semantic_change][printing]

󥹥ˡػˡ٤ɤˤˤĤƤϡ#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1]) Ǥⰷä̩ܤ˴ϢѤΥƥΥȹ碌ơ椬ʸ˰ʹ׸ʤȤϵ褦ʤ
󥹥λˤνҤϰʤƥΥˤ˴ؤŪʸλŦ⼨٤Ǥ (11)

ƥΥˤؤ֤٤פʤȡ̤˸äʤƤ뤳ȤϤۤˤ⤢롥ƥΥϸŤƥΥӽȤΤΤҤȤĤϤäˤϵʤѥԥ륹ϻ椬ƳƤ泤ߤ濴ȤϰDzȤĤŤϤޤ˻ȤƤ롥ŵȡ֤ȯƤϧʤʤ뤳ȤϤʤäǤ褦ˤʤäƤͤϥڥǽ񤯤ȤʤäƥӤϥ饸षʤäDzϷʤʤäۡӥǥDzۤʤʤä󤲤ΤϤɤäͽ¬򤿤Ƥ줿ФλѤ򽪤餻뤳ȤǤʤäΤˡơŪ«줿ŵõȡޥͿ줿ȬǯʾФäߤǤ⡤ꥫ罰ǻɴҤϹ¤ȼԤ¸ߤ褽ͤνȰۤǯ֤󽽲ɥʾ夲Ƥ롥󽽰κǽνǯˤϹ夲ӤۤɤϹλȤӤ礭Ѥäɤ⡥ƱͤΤȤ¤ˡӤˤĤƤⵯäʥƥΥϸŤƥΥӽȤ䤹Τԥ塼ϤޤʤѤ椬ä뤳ȤϤäƤʤ


Τˡ˰줿Ҥ줿ȤĹ餯ϤȤ櫓ʸˤդ路ǺȤߤʤ³18ΥꥫΩˤƤǽ񤫤٤Ȥ⤫줿ۤɤǤ롥
򺣡νҤŻҽҤζˤĤƤε󥹥 (461--62) Ͼ嵭ΥƥΥѤ򤵤˲ʤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥

ǥ˾äƤ椯ǤΤͽ¬ޤˡʸĤäƤȤȤפФƤߤΤ⤤ܤ¥ʤǺǽˤʤ륤٥ȤԤˤϯɲǤäꤹΤϡͤˤϼʹΤɤߤʤ뷹뤫ǥ֥å͵ȤʤäƤ롥


ʤۤɡŤƥΥϿƥΥˤ֤ȤϡäʵǽݻĤġ¸³Ƥ椯Ȥ¿Τ⤷ʤϡ礦ɸŤ줬֤ΤǤϤʤˡѰòƤ֤ȤĤäƤͤˤƤ롥ŤΤϼҲΰय⤷ʤѴƤޤ櫓ǤϤʤषΰĤȤѤ߽ŤͤƤɽΥꥨ˭ˤƤΤʤΤ

ޡ󥹥ˡ һҡˡػˡˤͤư줿ѡ١ֽŹ2016ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-11-16-1] [2017-11-07-1]

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2017-01-12 Thu

#2817. ̾칽ʸȷ [noun][hypostasis][style][register][rhetoric][discourse_analysis]

ҥȥ顼ŷͤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ǥڥμˤȯˡλƳޤǼƤȤ顤˱Ūͤ򸫤ƼäƤȤ狼롥ҥȥ顼α򡤤ȤȤƤΥꥢγʳˤĤơŪӥѥŪʬϤˡإҥȥ顼٤롥ŪʬϤ˴ؤƤϡҥȥ顼150줫ʤ뼫ѥѤĴܤȤʤäƤꡤƻˤĤƶ̣ʬϷ̤Ƥ롥
Ȥ櫓䤬ؿäΤϡʥȾħŪ˸̾ Ausdruck ɽˡBekenntnis ʸˡVerständnis ˤȴϢ̾칽ʸ¿Ѥ˴ؤʬϤǤʹġp. 161--62ˡư줫̾Ǥꡤ̾ŪʸΡ̾칽ʸˡפ˹׸ƤȤ̾칽ʸȤϡ֤٤줿ȡפ֤ζٱפ̾濴ȤɽΤǡѸǤ (the fact) that the train was terribly delayed the terrible delay of the train ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
פĤȤ̾칽ʸħ󤲤С(1) ̩٤ǻʤ뤤ϥѥȡˡ(2) Ūǽ񤭸դ餷ʤդ롤(3) β (hypostasis) κѤˤ̣Ƥ¤Ȥ󤵤䤹ȤȤʡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) ⻲ȡˡϡɥĸ졤Ѹ졤ܸʤɤˤⶦ̤ħȻפ롥
̾칽ʸˤƤϡбư칽ʸǤϤƤ;Ρꡤ֡ˡʤɤʸˡƤɸʤȤ¿ʬ̤ʤȤȤϡ٤˥奢󥹤ξݤ줿ۣΤޤޤ֤ȤȤȤƤϹ̩٤ǥѥȡijʼĥäͭΤǡƤȷδ֤԰ʥåפޤ롥ϤäꤷƤȤۣ桤ȤĤ߽ΤʤץȲѼԤϡְѡפ뤳ȤǤȤ櫓Ȥͤ̾칽ʸȥåȤƹǻȤʤǤ롥
ĤʬϤˤСҥȥ顼ξˤϡ֤Τ褦ʷ񤭤ȤФ餷ϡʥȾˤƤޤޤʹŪԻˤ񸷤ʰݤͿ뤿ΤΤǤä (161--63) Ȥ

ԡإҥȥ顼١ҡӡ2014ǯ

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2016-12-19 Mon

#2793. ƥȤμ (2) [context][register][pragmatics][communication]

#2122. ƥȤμ ([2015-02-17-1]) ǰäˤĤƺƹͤ롥ˤƥ (context) ȰǤäƤ⡤ƤʬˡˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ϡCrystal (322--23) ͿƤ3ǤҲ𤷤褦

Setting: The time and place in which a communicative act occurs, such as in church, during a meeting, at a distance, or upon leave-taking.
Participants: The number of people who take part in an interaction, and the relationships between them, such as the addressee(s) and bystander(s).
Activity: The type of activity in which a participant is engaged, such as cross-examining, debating or having a conversation.


줾졤ư˴ؤ when/where, who, what ˤ褽ȹͤƤ褤3ǤȤ߹碌ˤ깭̣ǤΡʸ̮פޤꡤˤꡤüԤϸѤ˺ݤƲ餫¤ݤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ɤΤ褦ˤĤ¤뤫ȤС㤨м4ܤͤ롥

Channel: They influence the medium chosen for the communication (e.g. speaking, writing, signing, whistling, singing, drumming) and the way it is used.
Code: They influence the formal systems of communication shared by the participant, such as spoken English, written Russian, American Sign Language, or some combination of these.
Message form: They influence the structural patterns that identify the communication, both small-scale (the choice of specific sounds, words, or grammatical constructions) and large-scale (the choice of specific genres).
Subject matter: They influence the content of the communication, both what is said explicitly and what is implied.


礹ȡ㤨Хꥹȶⶵդ֤ŵŪʥƥȤϡΤ褦ʤΤȤʤ롥ⶵ (participant) ī˶ (setting) ǡ̤ν (participants) ˸äơѸȤ (code) Ȥä (channel) ǡⶵ (activity) Ԥʤκݡˤդ路ʸΤ乽 (message form) ǡŪ (subject matter) ˤĤƸդߤСΤ褦ʤ٤Ƥ׷郎蘆ȡˤⶵפȤƥȤǤȤ⤤롥
ʤ顤ƥȤϡѰ (register) 䥸 (genre) ȤԲʬǤʡ#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) 򻲾ȡˡޤ깭Ω줫顤#1996. ٤˴ؤ8 SPEAKING ([2014-10-14-1]) #1326. 礤7Ĥǡ ([2012-12-13-1]) Ϣ

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-20-1]

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2016-11-08 Tue

#2752. dialect ȤѸˤĤ [greek][terminology][dialect][standardisation][koine][literature][register][language_or_dialect][dialect_levelling]

Haugen (922--23) ˤСdialect Ȥñϡͥ󥹴˥ꥷ줫ؽѸȤƼѤ줿Ǥ롥OED ΡפθǤν1566ǯȤʤäƤꡤǤϱѸޤΡפɽ魯ȤѤƤ롥ե󥹸ؤϤΩ16ǯۤä褦ǡǤϥꥷɾ abondante en dialectes ɽƤ롥1577ǯαѸǤϡ"Certeyne Hebrue dialectes" ȸŵ˴ؤΤǤꡤ1614ǯ Sir Walter Raleigh The History of the World Ǥϡꥷ "Æeolic Dialect" ڤƤ롥ѸǤλȤȤƤϡΤ褦˸ŵΡפؤ dialect ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ä褦顤ˤбѼñ̤ˤѤ褦ˤʤäΤ
ꥷä᤹ȡŵˤ줷ɸ८ꥷʤΤϤʤɸŪʽפνΤΤߤäդ٤ϡΡפϡäդȤƤФƤǤϤʤ񤭸դȤƤФͿ줿̾äȤǤ롥Τˤ̾̾ˤ䤫äΤǤϤäºݾϡˤäƻȤʬ񤭸դζʬɽ魯Τä㤨С˽ˤ Ionicβλˤ Doricˤ Attic ʤɤȤäǤ (see #1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1]))
Υꥷν񤭸դνϡϡäդν˴פäƤ˰㤤ʤԤϡӸŪ˺ƷǤŤʳ "Common Greek" ʬ줷̤νǤ롥ŵ᤮ȡäդνϾäꡤܼŪ˥ƥͤǤꡤ٤ä koiné ˤä֤Ƥä (= koinéization; see #1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ơ줬ꥷ줽Τ (the Greek language) ǧ褦ˤʤä
ĤޤꡤŵˤޤȤȡ"several Greek dialects" "the Greek language" ȿܤȤˤʤ롥פΰ㤤äơƸŪ줷Ρ줬ָפʤΤǤ롥褳Ūʰ̣򤵤٤ dialect ʤ languageˤȤѸ줬˱ѤڤӡѸ츯ʣ⤿餹ȤˤʤäʣˤĤƤϡεǡ

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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2016-11-01 Tue

#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) [standardisation][sociolinguistics][terminology][register][style][language_planning]

[2016-10-29-1]ε˰³ɸಽ (standardisation) βǧ4ʳˤĤơHaugen 򻲾Ȥ롥ɸಽϡ (1) Selection, (2) Codification, (3) Elaboration, (4) Acceptance νǿʹԤȤ뤬4ĤβȽϡҲȸ졤ӷȵǽȤ2Ĥμ뤳ȤǤ (ޤ Haugen 933 Ȥ˺ˡ

 Form Function
Society(1) Selection (4) Acceptance
  
Language(2) Codification      (3) Elaboration


ޤϡϤȤʤѼ (Selection) 뤳ȤϤޤ롥ǤϡҲŪ˰ҿͥѼ郎Ǥ¸ߤƤΤǤС򤹤뤳ȤˤʤǤʤд¸Ѽ򺮹礹ʤꡤ˺ꤹʤɤơɸѼθäǡ򤹤뤳Ȥˤʤ
2ʳʸ (Codification) ǤꡤŵŪˤϡ򤵤줿Ѽ˴ؤ뼭ʸˡԤळȤ롥ɸŪȤʤùܤʸˡܤŪᡤʸƸʳǤ롥Ǥϡ"minimum variation in form" ܻؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
3ʳ (Elaboration) ˤƤϡѼ郎Ҳ͡ʾ̡ʤѰ (register) ʸ (style) Ѥ褦֤롥Ǥϡ"maximum variation in function" ܻؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǹμ (Acceptance) ʳǤϡ줿Ѽ郎Ҳ˹졤ѼԿä롥ˤꡤɸಽλ롥
Ҳ񡦸졤ӷǽȤ2Ĥμʤޥȥåˤꡤɸಽ4ʳηϤȤƤȤƤ⤭줤ƤޤΤǤ롥θ⤢äơHaugen ϡߤ˻ޤɸಽε󶡤Ƥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.

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2016-07-22 Fri

#2643. Ѹäλع¤οá [loan_word][french][latin][lexicology][register][lexical_stratification][language_myth]

rise -- mount -- ascend ask -- question -- interrogate ʤɤαѸäˤع¤ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) Ϥᡤlexical_stratification γƵǰäƤؤ졤ؤΥե󥹸졤ؤΥƥȤʬۤ򼨤ϳΤ˴ѻ뤷Ūˤ⥤󥰥ɤˤ3μҲŪϰ̤Ȥ줤ϢưƤ뤿ˡѸˤǤϳʤȥԥåȤ˾롥
ĤǤ⤳Τ褦ˤ줤ʬۤѻȤϸ¤餺嵭λع¤ϤޤǷȤƤȤ館Ƥ٤Ǥ롥Ǥˡ#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ ([2015-07-24-1]) Ǥ⼨褦ˡȥե󥹼Ѹ¤٤ȤˡǤ̡פǡŪפѤΤե󥹼ѸΤۤǤ褦ʥ⻶롥Baugh and Cable (182) ϡѸäεҤˤƻع¤Ū줹Ƥ븽˷پĤ餷Ƥ롥

. . . such contrasts [between the English element and the Latin and French element] ignore the many hundreds of words from French that are equally simple and as capable of conveying a vivid image, idea, or emotion---nouns like bar, beak, cell, cry, fool, frown, fury, glory, guile, gullet, horror, humor, isle, pity, river, rock, ruin, stain, stuff, touch, and wreck, or adjectives such as calm, clear, cruel, eager, fierce, gay, mean, rude, safe, and tender, to take examples almost at random. The truth is that many of the most vivid and forceful words in English are French, and even where the French and Latin words are more literary or learned, as indeed they often are, they are no less valuable and important. . . . The difference in tone between the English and the French words is often slight; the Latin word is generally more bookish. However, it is more important to recognize the distinctive uses of each than to form prejudices in favor of one group above another.


ع¤ΡֿáפȤޤǸäƤޤȸ᤮Τ餤뤬ä˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ФƱ餤㤤ؤ˰֤Ť¤ΤäƤƤ褤

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2016-06-26 Sun

#2617. "colloquial" Ȥ쥸 [register][medium][componential_analysis][prototype]

"colloquial" Ȥ쥸 (register) ˤĤƹͤƤ롥ȤƤϡָ(), äդΡäΡΤΡĥʤפۤɤͿ졤ϢȤƤ "conversational", "spoken", "vulgar", "slangy", "informal" ʤɤ󤲤롥Ū "literary" ȤѸ줬ꤵƤ뤳Ȥ¿̵ʿͤθոɽƻǤϤʤषΤͤäǻȤդȤްդĤγؽԱѱѼ񤫤Ѥ褦

(of words and language) used in conversation but not in formal speech or writing (OALD8)
language or words that are colloquial are used mainly in informal conversations rather than in writing or formal speech (LDOCE5)
(of words and expressions) informal and more suitable for use in speech than in writing (CALD3)
Colloquial words and phrases are informal and are used mainly in conversation (COBUILD)
used in informal conversation rather than in writing or formal language (MED2)


ɽȤƤ a colloquial expression, the colloquial style, a colloquial knowledge of Japanese, colloquial speech ʤɤͤˤʤ롥
嵭顤"colloquial" ŵŪˡ (mode of discourse) ȤƤäաʲˤ° (style (tenor) of discourse) ȤƤϷĥʤΤ°Ȥ (cf. #839. register ([2011-08-14-1])) "colloquial" ϸ§ȤʳŪƻ (gradable adjective) Ǥꡤɽ "colloquial" Ǥ뤫ݤŪ˷ꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤Τäդ񤭸դȤΤ°ϥǥǤϤ뤬񤭸դؤ "colloquial" ɽ뤳ȤԲǽǤϤʤ (ex. The passage is written in a colloquial way.) ޤˤĤƤϷĥٹ礤ϥʥǤ뤫顤"colloquial" "uncolloquial" ζϤȤ꺤Ǥ롥ɭ"colloquial" ΰ̣ΤΤȥȤ2°Ȥ߹碌ˤäʬʬ (componential_analysis) ŪȤϡץȥ (prototype) ȤΤդ路褦˻פ롥
ץȥפȤƤβ᤬Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ#611. Murray θ ([2010-12-29-1])#1958. Hughes θ ([2014-09-06-1]) Ǽʡ֥쥸פɤؤƤ褵ˤˤäƤ⼨롥˵󤲤Ƥ "colloquial" ۤ "dialectal", "literary", "formal" ʤɤΥ쥸Ѹΰ̣⡤٤ƥץȥŪˤȤ館ƤΤ褵

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2016-05-24 Tue

#2584. ˱Ѹ쥳ѥɽ [representativeness][corpus][methodology][hc][register]

ѥɽ (representativeness) ѹ (balance) ˤĤƤϡ#1280. ѥɽ ([2012-10-28-1]) ¾εǰäƤŤαѸΥѥ򰷤ˤϡѸ쥳ѥ˴ؤ꤬ΤޤƤϤޤΤΤȤʤ顤˾褻Ƥ˺꤬¿ΩϤ롥
ޤ˱Ѹ쥳ѥȤȤơѥθʤ콸ΥƥȽΤΤΤˤζˤ긽¸ƤΤ˸¤Ȥ󤬤롥ʸܡܡʤɤ˵ƸߤޤĤꡤ¸ƤΤ٤ƤǤ롥ޤλ¸ߤ뤳ȤϤ狼äƤƤ⡤Ū˥Ǥ뤫ɤǤ롥Ūˤϡ뤤Żҷ֤ǽǤƤ뤫ɤˤäƤλƥȤ콸Ȥʤꡤ褯ԻԤˤäΰѥʼȤŻҷ֡ˤؤԻ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ω˱Ѹ쥳ѥϡ򤫤äơ褦䤯˽ФΤǤꡤλŪɽãƤ븫ߤϡǰʤ
ޤ˱ѸȤҤȤ˸äƤ⡤ºݤˤϸѸƱͤ͡ lects registers ʬ졤ζʬ˱ƥѥԻ륱¿Τˡ̣ѥѥȸƤǤ褤 Helsinki Corpus Τ褦̻ѥ䡤òƤ뤬ۤʤޤ Penn Parsed Corpora of Historical English ⤢뤷ȤˤäƤ̻ѥȤƤѤǤ OED ΰʸʤɤ롥̾ϡԻŪ֤˱ơ꾮ϰϤΥƥȤ˹ʤäԻ륳ѥ¿űѸ쥳ѥѸ쥳ѥʤɻˤäƶڤ뤳 (chronolects) ⤢ ꥹѸ䥢ꥫѸʤɤ (dialects) ξ⤢뤷Chaucer Shakespeare ʤκ (idiolects) ξ⤢Ҳ (sociolects) ̤Ȥ⤢뤷Ѱ (registers) ˱ƥѥԻȤȤ⤢롥ѰȤäƤ⡤äξʥˡΡäդ񤭸դˡʷˤʤɤ˱ơ̶ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥ʬ򤢤ޤ٤ƤޤȡҤΤ褦˸¸ƥȤ̤ͭ¤ǤꡤƤ˾ʤäʬۤФäƤ櫓顤ɽѹդݤĤȤʤΤȺȤʤ롥
(chronolects) μ濴ˤƶǯŪ絬Ϥ˱Ѹ쥳ѥԻ򳵴ѤƤߤȡƻαѸμʸˡϿޤΤ褦ʻͻԻȴϢŤԻ줿ΤĤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ϡƻδ𼴥ѥȤư֤ŤȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ㤨СDictionary of Old English Corpus (DOEC), A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (LAEME), Middle English Grammar project (MEG) Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϥѥȤϥƥȡǡ١Ȥ٤ EEBO (Early English Books Online) ѲǽȤʤäƤƤ뤷ꥫѸˤĤƤ Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) λߤ⤢롥
˵󤲤ɽŪ̾ʤΤΤۤ͡ڤ˱Ѹ쥳ѥԻδ褬³ȸƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#506. CoRD --- Ѹ˥ѥξ󥻥󥿡 ([2010-09-15-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Helsinki ؤ VARIENG ( Research Unit for Variation, Contacts and Change in English ) ץȤ CoRD ( Corpus Resource Database ) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ϡŪˤСҤΤ褦ˡ˱Ѹ쥳ѥɽŪ˲褹ΤϺǤϤ뤬Ǹ̥ѥԻϳ趷褷ƤꡤΤʤǿⴶϤ롥ҤȤĤϥեŪ¦̡Ѽ¦ΥѥФ٤˴ؤ⤢褦˻פ롥Żҥѥλ夬褹ˤ⡤˱ѸθԤϡ֤פȤʤΤˤ֥ѥפԻѡʬϤ˹ԤʤäƤΤǤ롥⡤䤿ռƤۤɤǤϤʤäΤΡ٤ϥѥɽѹդȤäͤƤΤǤꡤ˻ʤȤƤ⡤ͭפʸ³θѤƤŻҥѥȤʤäɽѹդ꤬ΩäƼ夲褦ˤʤäΤˤ꼫Τڤǡͤ³ɬפϤΤΡ餫ˤ츽ݤΤΤ˾ơѥ˻Ȥʤʤ餽θ³Ƥ椯ȤפʤΤǤϤʤ

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2016-05-04 Wed

#2564. variety lect [variety][terminology][style][register][dialect][sociolinguistics][lexical_diffusion][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change]

ҲؤǤ variety ѼˤȤѸ褯Ѥ뤬Ȥ˻褦ʻȤ lect ȤѸʹ롥 dialect sociolect lect ФΤѸλȤʬΤ˻פTrudgill Ѹ콸򷫤äƤߤ줾ιܤѤ롥

variety A neutral term used to refer to any kind of language --- a dialect, accent, sociolect, style or register --- that a linguist happens to want to discuss as a separate entity for some particular purpose. Such a variety can be very general, such as 'American English', or very specific, such as 'the lower working-class dialect of the Lower East Side of New York City'. See also lect

lect Another term for variety or 'kind of language' which is neutral with respect to whether the variety is a sociolect or a (geographical) dialect. The term was coined by the American linguist Charles-James Bailey who, as part of his work in variation theory, has been particularly interested in the arrangement of lects in implicational tables, and the diffusion of linguistic changes from one linguistic environment to another and one lect to another. He has also been particularly concerned to define lects in terms of their linguistic characteristics rather than their geographical or social origins.


ƤꡤξȤ "a kind of language" ۤɤǤۤƱΤ褦variety ΤۤŪѤȤϤäƤ褤lect ϸѲˤƤब lect A lect B ؤʬۤ򹭤Ƥʤɤݤ˻Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿褦Ĥޤꡤlect ϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) 褤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʤ lect ιǻȤƤ Charles-James Bailey ϡ#1906. ѲΥ塼ϸŪĶȤ˰ۤʤ뤫 ([2014-07-16-1]) ǰѤ褦ˡΤ˸óȻѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤŪ˰äƤҲؼԤǤ롥

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2016-01-29 Fri

#2468. ֱѸϸŪˤϤϤѸǤϤʤפɾ [lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][japanese][style][register]

Ѹθäʬ줫μѸ줫äƤ뤳ȡĤޤŪ (cosmopolitan) Ǥ뤳ȤϡĤȤ˻ŦƤ顤ѸϸŪˤϤϤѸȤϤʤ뤳Ȥ⽽ʬ˲ǽǤ褦˻פ롥ѸϡϤѸäʤǤϽʬ˵ǽʤΤǤϤʤȡ
Algeo and Pyles (293--94) ϡѸˤüѤŬڤڤǡʤ "English remains English" 뤳Ȥȼ˼ĥƤ롥Ḷ́ʸϤʤΤǤΤޤްѤ롥

   Enough has been written to indicate the cosmopolitanism of the present English vocabulary. Yet English remains English in every essential respect: the words that all of us use over and over again, the grammatical structures in which we couch our observations upon practically everything under the sun remain as distinctively English as they were in the days of Alfred the Great. What has been acquired from other languages has not always been particularly worth gaining: no one could prove by any set of objective standards that army is a "better" word than dright or here., which it displaced, or that advice is any better than the similarly displaced rede, or that to contend is any better than to flite. Those who think that manual is a better, or more beautiful, or more intellectual word than English handbook are, of course, entitled to their opinion. But such esthetic preferences are purely matters of style and have nothing to do with the subtle patternings that make one language different from another. The words we choose are nonetheless of tremendous interest in themselves, and they throw a good deal of light upon our cultural history.
   But with all its manifold new words from other tongues, English could never have become anything but English. And as such it has sent out to the world, among many other things, some of the best books the world has ever known. It is not unlikely, in the light of writings by English speakers in earlier times, that this could have been so even if we had never taken any words from outside the word hoard that has come down to us from those times. It is true that what we have borrowed has brought greater wealth to our word stock, but the true Englishness of our mother tongue has in no way been lessened by such loans, as those who speak and write it lovingly will always keep in mind.
   It is highly unlikely that many readers will have noted that the preceding paragraph contains not a single word of foreign origin. It was perhaps not worth the slight effort involved to write it so; it does show, however, that English would not be quite so impoverished as some commentators suppose it would be without its many accretions from other languages.


ѸƱ̤ͤμѸ줫ʤܸθäˤĤƤ⡤ۤƱȤΤǤϤʤ䥫ʸ줬դƤƤ⡤ܸϤ椨ܸ򸺤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤܸǤ뤳ȤϷ褷ƤƤʤΤȡ
ߡܤǤ¸դäȤ֡Ǥ롥ϡ1Ĥˤܤ餷ȯ褦Ȥ򺣤ĬήθŪʸȤäƤ褤ˤϡöŪˤ륫ʸؤȿȯѶŪˤХʸȤƤ¸κɾȤ̣礤ޤޤƤޤߥ˥δҲˤơդ礤߳˿ʤȤ¸줫ʤɽɾäƤƤȤ⤤롥ˤ衤ܸˤóؤäʸŪŪʻ롤ޤȤʤȤʤäƤ롥εȤ館ܸΤߤʤ餺ѸθäˤĤƲȤ⤷ΤǤ롥
Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿

#153. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset ([2009-09-27-1])
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])
#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1])
#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1])
#390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])
#2359. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (3) ([2015-10-12-1])

Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-04-07-1]

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2015-12-02 Wed

#2410. slang, cant, argot, jargon, antilanguage [slang][register][terminology][variety][sociolinguistics]

ɸνѸϡü register ʻѰ衤ˤ°ɽ魯ߤ˽Ťʤʬ¿Τ̩񤷤ޤϡWilliams (203--04) ˤѸˤĤƤѤ褦

   Cant (related to chant, and originally the whining pleas of beggars) is often used to refer particularly to the language of thieves, gypsies, and such. But it has also been used to refer to the specialized language of any occupation, particularly to the mechanical and mindless repetition of special words and phrases.
   Argot (a French word of unknown etymology), usually refers to the secret language of the underworld, though it too has also been used to refer to any specialized occupational vocabulary---the argot of the racetrack, for example. Jargon (once meaning the warbling of birds) is usually used by someone unfamiliar with a particular technical language to characterize his annoyed and puzzled response to it. Thus one man's technical vocabulary is another's jargon. Feature, shift, transfer, artifactual, narrowing, acronym, blend, clip, drift---all these words belong to the vocabulary of semantic change and word formation, the vocabulary of historical linguistics. But for anyone ignorant of the subject and unfamiliar with the terms, such words would make up its jargon. Thus cant, argot, and jargon are words that categorize both by classing and by judging.
   Slang (of obscure origin) has many of the same associations. It has often been used as a word to condemn "bad" words that might pollute "good" English---even destroy the mind. . . . / But . . . slang is a technical terms like the terms grammatical and ungrammatical---a neutral term that categorizes a group of novel words and word meanings used in generally casual circumstances by a cohesive group, usually among its members, not necessarily to hide their meanings but to signal their group membership.


Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵ˥ȥ꡼Τ롤slang, argot, jargon, antilanguage ˤĤƤѤ롥

   slang Vocabulary which is associated with very informal or colloquial styles, such as English batty (mad) or ace (excellent). Some items of slang, like ace, may be only temporarily fashionable, and thus come to be associated with particular age-groups in a society. Other slang words and phrases may stay in the language for generation. Formerly slang vocabulary can acquire more formal stylistic status, such as modern French tête (head) from Latin testa (pot) and English bus, originally an abbreviation of omnibus. Slang should not be confused with non-standard dialect. . . . Slang vocabulary in English has a number of different sources, including Angloromani, Shelta and Yiddish, together with devices such as rhyming slang and back slang as well as abbreviation (as in bus) and metaphor, such as hot meaning 'stolen' or 'attractive'.

   argot /argou/ A term sometimes used to refer to the kinds of antilanguage whose slang vocabulary is typically associated with criminal groups.

   jargon . . . . A non-technical term used of the register associated with a particular activity by outsiders who do not participate in this activity. The use of this term implies that one considers the vocabulary of the register in question to be unnecessarily difficult and obscure. The register of law may be referred to as 'legal jargon' by non-lawyers.

   antilanguage A term coined by Michael Halliday to refer to a variety of a language, usually spoken on particular occasions by members of certain relatively powerless or marginal groups in a society, which is intended to be incomprehensible to other speakers of the language or otherwise to exclude them. Examples of groups employing forms of antilanguage include criminals. Exclusivity is maintained through the use of slang vocabulary, sometimes known as argot, not known to other groups, including vocabulary derived from other languages. European examples include the antilanguages Polari and Angloromany.


줾Ѹλؤϡ줾Ťʤ礤ʤ⡤ȼǤäƤ롥ϡơѸʸˤƶ̤ôäƤȤξںѸȤΤΤѸȼҲäƤꡤäѸ񤷤

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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