ťΥɸȥե줬ѸͿƤƶϡѸˤǤϤФоȤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#111. ѸˤˤťΥɸȸťեαƶӤ ([2009-08-16-1]) #126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1]) Ǥ夲ƤεǤ⼨褦ˡξαƶ͡оŪǤ롥ɤδߤ뤫ܰܤꤹۤɤDenison and Hogg (15) ϡȤ櫓ҲŪʴ顤ξαƶ˴ؤפΩ夲Ƥ롥ˤȡťΥɸ줬ϰδްդĤΤФե줬ʸ (style) Ѱ (register) δްդĤȤǤ롥
. . . Scandinavian influence was originally predominant in the Danelaw. . . . [E]ventually many Scandinavian elements entered southern dialects as well, but this is a two-stage process. There is the original contact between the two language which brought Scandinavian features into the English of the Danelaw. Then, later, there is spread within English by means of interdialectal contact. Contact between French and English, on the other hand, shows a much lesser geographical variation. The key here is register. That is to say, the variables which affect English in respect of French are far more to do with a contrast between types of social language than geography. Thus, if a text is concerned with, say, religion or science, or it is a formal piece, then it is probably that it will contain a higher proportion of French loanwords than a text which is purely secular or colloquial, whichever part of the country the text comes from. In this respect we should also note that Scandinavian loans are more likely to be colloquial (or everyday).
СťΥɸαƶʤȤΡ1ʳפˤƤϰʿʿѼˤκۤ⤿餷ΤФեαƶϡȤʸΤѰʿľѼˤκ߽ۤФȤȤǤ롥ϡξαƶ˴ؤ͡Ω⤤Ȥơ̯Ǥ롥
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
ε#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ǡӤȯãˡեƥб빽¤ͿƤǽ˿줿ä˥եƶϤФеƤѸȥեζӤι¤ۤʤäƤȡ줫եѸ줫Ȥˤ餺ӤѤƤȤʤɤ顤ƶǧʤΩ⤢롥
Mustanoja (280) ϡե졤ƥ줫ƶβǽˤĤƿŤ˵ĤĤ⡤̣ͿƤ롥
It is not easy to assess the influence of Latin and French on the development of English comparison. It is perhaps not altogether impossible that Latin influence has played a part in this process, particularly in the earlier stages. And considering the fact that periphrastic comparison begins to gain ground in English at a time when French influence is particularly strong, it seems reasonable to assume that the influence of this language has considerably strengthened the position of more and most in the English system of comparison. Another point which seems to speak for foreign influence is that the periphrastic mode of comparison does not seem to be favoured by living popular speech. 'The comparison of adjectives is formed in the [modern English] dialects by adding the comparative suffix -er and the superlative -est to practically all adjectives, polysyllabic as well as monosyllabic. More and most are as a rule only used to supplement or intensify the regular comparison, as more beautifuller, most worst' (Elizabeth M. Wright, Rustic Speech and Folk-lore, London 1913, p. 145).
⤷ǸȤСӤζӤλȤʬϡ衤βȤ (medium) ʸ (style) ʤɤλѰ (register) ˰¸ƤȤˤʤ롥ޤλȤʬϡѸΥɤˤȥե졤ƥμҲŪϰ̤κбȤˤĤʤäƤ¾Ūʸ椬˾ޤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Υޥ (norman_conquest) Ǥäϰ̤βѸ줬ѸȾФեƥ˹ƽƤˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵǼ夲ƤѸϿˤ錄ʲǤ뤿ᡤγʳǤζŪʾȤ館ˤǡƱ˿ʹԤ#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) Ȥ롥μŪ褯뤿ˤϡƱ͡ʳ٤įᡤΩŪ夲Ƥʤ
ϢȤơ#2330. 13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) 夲ϡǤ줿ФΡɤߤ䤹ľδˤ륤ꥹ˳ꡤƱˡΧޤλѸȤ顤ѸˤĤƿƤս꤬ΤǡѤ
֥Υޥװʸ塤ɵ²ϥեǤꡤʸʤɤˤϥƥ줬ѤƤ줬ˤ֥ΥޥӼװʹߡ²δ֤ǤѸ줬Ū˻Ȥ졤ɥ3ΰ컰ϻǯϵIJǤ˱Ѹ줿̱ˤϥե줬Ǥʤؤ¿ȤȤؤäƤ
IJθʸΤۤϡȾޤǤϥƥȤȤ˥ե줬ȤƤȬǯˡƤѸȤʤäʵIJˡΤϥƥΤޤޡˡŪˡȤǧֹˤ۲ġסʥ롦ȡˤ⡤켷ȾޤǤϥե줬ȤƤʰϻͶǯˤȤȤ˱Ѹľ졤ʸ庣ޤ³Ƥ롥 (134--35)
ѤǤ⼨ƤȤꡤѸϡIJȯŸȾʤ餺¹ԤƤ롥13ʹߡɤβϡJohn μäΦϤåԤ٤ʩƤ椯Ѥ롥ä14ɴǯ˺ݤơEdward III ĴãΤ˹̱ФǤᤷǤˤλޤǤˤϡǤǼԤɽޤIJξǧʤƤϼ¸ˤƷȤʤäƤˤIJ䤬礭ʤꡤơ³ʤɤƤΤEdward III μ (1327--77) äλˡѸ줬ŪʻѤǧƤ椯褦ˤʤȤΤϡǤϤʤ
äդǤϾ嵭Τ褦˱Ѹ塹ȿʤդǤϤޤޤʪեȥƥ줬Ф餯ѸȤƤϰ̤³뤳ȤˤʤäǤ⡤ñ̤ǤߤСϤŪʱѸĬήϡѸȾФˤϤǤޤƤȤߤƤ褤
ľδʪ졡ꥹˡʾˡ١ҡӡ2015ǯ
Υޥ (norman_conquest) ΥɤǤϡˡΧϢѤʣäˡΧθȰˤäƤ⡤դäդȤä (mode of discourse) Ȥѥ⤢äˡʸȽϿʸƬʤɤȤäξ (field of discourse) Ȥѥ⤢äѸϡɥȤǤϰۤʤäƤ⤷ʤȽεˤäƤѰۤƤǽ롥ơȤȤˡƥեءƥեѸؤȤĬή⤢äѸˤˡΧʬǤ塦ʩѸλȤʬμ֤ϡĤ줿˴Ťơ餫ˤ뤳Ȥϲǽ¿οɬפȤʤ롥
#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ƭ˵褦ˡάȤƤϡ13ˤϥƥäƥե줬ˡΧطɽˤͥȤʤäƤ椯եˡʸˤƤƥȶ礤14ˤͥȤʤ롥15ˤϡLaw French Law English ˽˼äƤ椯˻ޤǥեΰ仺ϼѤ줿פȹͤƤ褤Brand ϡˡΧޤäλѰʬǡ13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸĴƤ롥
Υޥ塤ˡΧطʸˤƥƥ줬Ǥ̤θǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤȽѤˤĤƤϤɤäΤBrand (66) ϡHenry II (1133--89) ΩȽΩ餫顤ǤλѸϱѸǤϤʤեäȤߤƤ롥
It seems much more likely that French had been the language of the royal courts from the very beginning of the system of central royal courts established by Henry II and that French was their language because in that period it was the first language of the men appointed as royal justices and of many of the litigants. French seems then to have remained the language of the courts in part because of cultural conservatism, the absence of any really compelling reason for changing accepted practice; in part because there were advantages to the professional elite who came to dominate legal practice in using a language which needed to be learned and mastered by outsiders and which enhance their mystique; in part also because the courts had developed a technical French vocabulary that was not easily translatable into English.
Ǥϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤ12ȾˤϥΥޥϵ²ޤ।ɹ̱¿ѸȤƤȹͤ뤬ˡΧȽȤŪʻѰˤƤϡեѤŪ˻³ƤȤꤵƤ롥
1314ˤƤ³षȯŸ餷եˡʸˤƥƥȶ礷1275ǯ˽ƥեˤŪꤵ줿ˡʸȡ1300ǯʹߡե "the language of the future in 1300 for English legal instruction" (Brand 72) Ȥʤä
եαɸĹ³ʤä14ȾФˤϡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) #131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ줬ˡΧʬؤƤǤ롥
Brand (75--76) ϡ1314Ⱦˤơե줬ˡΧʬѤ줿ˤĤơΤ褦Ƥ롥
The languages of English law in the thirteenth and fourteenth century were primarily Latin and French. Latin was and remained the language of formal record at all levels of the court hierarchy. It was also the language of some of the thirteenth-century instructional literature of English law and even perhaps of some of the actual instruction. Its status as the language of formal legislation appears to have gone unchallenged prior to the last quarter of the thirteenth century but thereafter was increasingly challenged by the Anglo-Norman French of the common lawyers. Anglo-Norman French was the language actually used in pleading not just in the royal courts but also in county and city courts and came to be the invariable language of the law reports which recorded such pleading and which were also used to teach the following generation of law students. Anglo-Norman was also the language of oral legal instruction and of the legal literature which grew out of such instruction and of some other instructional literature as well. Anglo-Norman may always have been the language for the drafting and discussion of legislation but was also from 1275 onwards one of the two languages used for the formal enactment of legislation as well. The third language used in thirteenth- and early-fourteenth-century England, English, is little in evidence here. It may have been used in the local proclamation of legislation, but it was not for the most part one of the written languages used in legal contexts.
ϢơLaw French ˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ڤ law_french γƵȤ줿
Brand, Paul. "The languages of the Law in Later Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 63--76.
Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲȡ
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])
Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤֤ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
| LANGUAGE | Register | Medium | Status |
| Latin | Formal-Official | Written | High |
| French | Formal-Official | Written/Spoken | High |
| English | Informal-Colloquial | Spoken | Low |
| ENGLAND | Languages | Linguistic situation |
| Early Middle Ages | Latin--French--English | TRILINGUAL |
| 14th--15th centuries | French--English | BILINGUAL |
| 15th--16th c. onwards | English | MONOLINGUAL |
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) ǡKoch and Oesterreicher ͭ̾ʡֶᤤȤСפȡֱȤСפΥǥҲ𤷤ϡѰ (register) ˴Ϣơäդդʤɤä (medium) ȡʹˡӥ塼ʤɤäξ (field of discourse) ȤߤˤɤΤ褦ϢưƤ뤫1ĤΥǥǤʻѰˤĤƤϡ#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ˸ˤڵȴϢơ#2001. ˸ˤǡ ([2014-10-19-1]) Ǥ⡤äΤȾʤ뤤ϥˤδطɽ魯ΤȤơJucker ˤޤ
Ϥ⤦1ĻѤ Svartvik and Leech (200) ˤ "A spectrum of usage linking speech with writing" Ƴ褦
'Typical speech'
Face-to face conversation
Telephone conversation
Personal letters
Interviews
Spontaneous speeches
Romantic fiction
Prepared speeches (such as lectures)
Mystery and adventure fiction
Professional letters
News broadcasts
Science fiction
Newspaper editorials
Biographies
Newspaper reporting
Academic writing
Official documents
'Typical writing'
ѸˤϡѸȥե졦ƥ줫μѸ줬Ѱ㤨ƶ¸롤äع¤Ȥ٤Τ롥̤ˡäŪŪ̱ŪάȤľܤäʤɤħѸϳŪŪʸŪʼΩ褽褽ȤäġλѰΩˤĤƤϡOrr εҤŪΤǤ롥
For two hundred years and more, things intellectual, things pertaining to the spirit, were symbolized by words that had a flavour of remoteness, of higher courtliness, words redolent of the school rather than of the home, words that often had by their side humbler synonyms, humbler, yet used to express the things that are closer to our hearts as human beings, as children and parents, lovers and workers. (Orr, John. Words and Sounds in English and French. Oxford: Blackwell, 1953. p. 42 qtd. in Ullmann 146)
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ω˴Ϣ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1]) ۤ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
줬㤯Ѹ줬⤤ȤѰʬۤ¿θåڥƤϤޤ뤳Ȥϻ¤طžƤ褦˸ڥʤǤϤʤ㤨СUllmann (147) ϡΥڥƤ롥ǽ2ȤΥڥˤĤƤϡJespersen (93) Ƥ롥
| Native word | Foreign word |
|---|---|
| dale | valley |
| deed | action |
| foe | enemy |
| meed | reward |
| to heed | to take notice of |
Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) εʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸȤ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ
I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.
ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.
macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥
Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
63դǴ줿Ѥʵ;̾Ȥ people one ۤɤΰŪʻؼоݤɽ魯 you ˡϡŪˤĤɤΤ褦ȯãΤȤǤ롥ѸʸĤ褦
You learn a language better if you visit the country where it is spoken.
It's a friendly place---people come up to you in the street and start talking.
You have to be 21 or over to buy alcohol in Florida.
On a clear day you can see the mountains from here.
I don't like body builders who are so overdeveloped you can see the veins in their bulging muscles.
ޤϡOED Ƥߤ褦you, pron., adj., and n. ˤСyou ̾ȤƤˡ16ȾСѸ̤롥
8. Used to address any hearer or reader; (hence as an indefinite personal pronoun) any person, one . . . .
c1555 Manifest Detection Diceplay sig. D.iiiiv, The verser who counterfeatith the gentilman commeth stoutly, and sittes at your elbowe, praing you to call him neare.
Ϥޤ2;ñ̾Ȥ thou ĤäƤΤǡOED thou, pron. and n.1 Ĵ٤ƤߤǤä;̾ȤƤθߤƤʤä
ѸξäƤߤ褦 Mustanoja ȡηˤĤƵߤĤ뤳ȤǤMustanoja (127) ϡthou ;Ūˡ Chaucer ˤߤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
It has been suggested (H. Koziol, E Studien LXXV, 1942, 170--4) that in a number of cases, especially when he seemingly addresses his reader, Chaucer employs thou for an indefinite person. Thus, for instance, in thou myghtest wene that this Palamon In his fightyng were a wood leon) (CT A Kn. 1655), thou seems to stand rather for an indefinite person and can hardly be interpreted as a real pronoun of address.
ܳŪʵ Mustanoja (224--25) Ƿ깭Ƥ롥嵭Τ褦 OED εҤϡˡȯãѸΤΤȵȤºݤˤñ thou ˤʣ ye ˤ⡤Ѹ줫㤬ΤǧȤѸ줫 ñ thou 㤬3İƤ뤬;Ūˡ̤äȤ (Mustanoja 224--25)
wel þu myhtes faren all a dæis fare, sculdest thu nevre finden man in tune sittende, ne land tiled (OE Chron. an. 1137)
no mihtest þu finde (Lawman A 31799)
--- and hwat mihte, wenest tu, was icud ine þeos wordes? (Ancr. 33)
Ѹˤñ thou Τۤ¿ʣ ye 뤤 you ϡ餬ñ thou ִĤĤäѸˤƤ⡤ۤΩϤʤä褦ʣ ye ⡤Τ˽Ѹ줫ʲΤ褦ʸڤ (Mustanoja 225)
--- þenne ȝe mawen schulen and repen þat ho er sowen (Poema Mor. 20)
--- and how ȝe shal save ȝowself þe Sauter bereth witnesse (PPl. B ii 38)
--- ȝe may weile se, thouch nane ȝow tell, How hard a thing that threldome is; For men may weile se, that ar wys, That wedding is the hardest band (Barbour i 264)
ʤMED thou (pron.) (1g, 2f) Ǥ yē (1b, 2b) Ǥ⡤;ŪˡϽѸ줫˭٤ʸڤ롥ʸȤ줿
ʹؼ2;̾줬ΰŪʿ͡ؼˡȯã뤳ȤˤʤäȤϡۤǤϤʤȤ虜Եˡ쥷ԤʤɤͤƤߤȤ褤Υ쥸ǤϡȯԤϡʹꤢ뤤ɤꤷ thou ʤ ye ʤѤ뤬Τ褦ʹꤢ뤤ɤϼºݤˤ¿ο͡Ǥ롥ޤΥ쥸ǤϡƤΰȾǤꡤȤꤢʤɤȤΩƤ thou ye Ū˻ؼоݤȤ뤳ȤϼԤ㤨ФΤ褦ʥ쥸ȯơ2;̾줬Ū;ŪѤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤϤʤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) 褦ˡΩѼ autonomy ʼΧˤȤ졤˰¸Ѽ heteronomous ¾ΧŪˤȸ롥Ѽ郎ΧŪ뤤¾ΧŪǤȤȤ϶ŪˤϤɤȤʤΤζ̤ϼҲŪʴްդäƤĤΤ̤Ū¦̤ϤΤ
Χ¾ΧͤݤˤϤɸϰǰƬ֤Τ̤ǤϤɸŪʸոȱ (argot) Ȥ줾켫ΧŪʥɤ¾ΧŪʥɤȹͤƤߤ褦argot ȤȺԤ֤ѤŹŪʸոǤꡤŸĭȤƤФ롥slang jargon νĤѤոǤꡤǤϻƤ뤬argot ϤȤ櫓Ⱥƿʤ argot Τ褦ʸո¸ߤΤˤϡ2ħŦǤԽʬǤ롥argot θ̣ιϡ֤ɸŪʸոθΰդΰæäƤΤǤꡤΰ̣ˤƤäɸФ¾ΧŪ¸ŪǤȤ⤬Ƥ뤳ȤפǤ롥˴ؤơIrvine (253) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥
. . . the codes' origin in counter-societies is reflected in many aspects of their linguistic form, for instance in their elaboration of lexicon and metaphor relevant to their special activities and their attitudes toward the normative society, and in their frequent use of formal inversions and reversals, such as metathesis. Also significant is their conspicuous avoidance and violation of forms recognized as "standard" . . . . These anti-languages are clearly not autonomous codes, then, although the normative codes on which they depend may be. The anti-language is not, and has never been, anyone's native tongue, nor are all its formal characteristics simply arbitrary. Both functionally and formally it is derived from the normative code, just as its speakers define their social role in opposition to the normative society.
Ѥˤ "anti-language" ϡHalliday ѸǤꡤargot ʤɤΥɤؤΤȤȤ館Ƥ褤Τ褦ŪʥɤѤüԤŪʥɤŪ˴˲뤿ˤϡषԤ̤Ƥɬפ롥ϤŪˤȤС褯ƤʤФʤʤΰ̣ˤơargot ޤ "anti-language" ¾ΧŪǤ롥
ܸαߤСžη̤ȤƤΡ֥ͥפʤ鵬ŪʡּפȤʤäƤꡤ¾ΧŪǤ롥֤ΰפϡֽפδ˴Ť뤫顤ֽפФ¾ΧŪǤ롤
Τ褦ˡΧ (autonomy) ¾Χ (heteronomy) ζ̤ϡҲŪ¦̤Ʊ˸Ū¦̤į뤳ȤǤ롥
Irvine, Judith T. "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy." American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 248--67.
ɸΤ褦 said John ʤãư줬֤ˤĤơ[2015-02-25-1]ε³Ԥ롥ѸΤθˤĤơBiber et al. (922) ϡQuirk et al. εҤ¿Ťʤ뤬Τ褦ŪͿƤ롥
Subject-verb order is virtually the rule where one or more of the following three conditions apply:
The subject is an unstressed pronoun:
"The safety record at Stansted is first class," he said. (NEWS)
The verb phrase is complex (containing auxiliary plus main verb):
"Konrad Schneider is the only one who matters," Reinhold had answered. (FICT)
The verb is followed by a specification of the addressee:
There's so much to living that I did not know before, Jackie had told her happily. (FICT)
LGSWE Corpus ǤĴˤȡʸθ֤Ǥ SV VS Ūˤ褽Ʊ餤٤ȤFICTIONǤ SV ¿NEWSǤ VS ޤʤɡʬȤȤδطǤСεǿ줿褦ˡjournalistic writing 䤪ɤ̤ǤʸǤ VS 뤳ȤȤϻѰʸΤȤδϢ
ãưǤȤạ́Ū¡ǤŪѰʸΤδͿװʣ߹ä said John John said ꤵȤС¿Ū˸ƤʤФʤʤȤˤʤ롥ۤˤŪװͿƤǽ⤢ꤽ¾ΰʸƳɽʤȤӤɬפ̻Ūʴϡ߹礤ˤƤΤޤդˤȯãʤɤȤδط뤫ɤʤɡ̣ԤʤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 ICEHL18 γزǡȯã quoth οȤͿƤǽȤݤ Colette Moore θƬȯɽİȤ롥The ICEHL18 Book of Abstracts (PDF) pp. 170--71 ȡ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Williams αѸˤɤǤợѲΰܳŪǤ7Ϥ8Ϥ̣ѲƤƤˡѸ˳ΤʤǤŪ褯ޤȤޤäƤ褦˴ʲĤȤ
Williams (170) ϰ̣Ѳζ̤ "reasons", "mechanism", "consequences" 3ʬƹͤ褦ȤƤ롥ƶˤꡤ̣Ѳʬ˴ؤƤĤƤƬꥢˤʤä褦˻פȤΤϡʬǤϤζ̤ޤŪ˶̤Ƥʤäܥ֥Ǥ̣ѲʤθˤʬˤĤơ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1])#1973. Meillet ΰ̣Ѳ3Ĥθ ([2014-09-21-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1]) Ǽ夲ƤޤŪʬȤΤϤʤȤäƤ褤ʬˡϡԤοȤäƤǤϤʤۤɤStern ֤ⷫƤ褦ˡ2Ĥΰ̣ѲưŤƱפäȤƤۤʤ륿פ˵뤹뤳ȤϤ뤷դ˵ΥפƱǤäƤ⡤ͳΥפϰۤʤȤ褦ʰ̣Ѳ⤢롥ޤۤʤʣװ߹äơ1Ĥΰ̣ѲȯȤȤ⤴̤ˤߤ롥⤽̣ѲʬȤäƤ⡤̣ѲΤɤζ̤ܤʬह뤫Ȥͤ⤢ꡤǤϤʤäΤWilliams ä˲ȤҤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤ"reasons", "mechanism", "consequences" 3̤̤ƤɾǤ롥
ޤWilliams ϰ̣Ѳˡ§ (semantic laws) 1䤤Ƥ (207--10) ˤĤƤϡ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1])#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1]) εʤɤǿƤWilliams (207) ⡤̣Ѳˡ§ȤϤ鷺ȤⷹȤƻŦǤ뤳ȤȤơŪ̵ʹܤĤƤ롥
1. Words for abstractions will generally develop out of words for physical experience: comprehend, grasp, explain, and so on.
2. Words originally indicating neutral condition tend to polarize: doom, frame, predicament, luck, merit.
3. Words originally indicating strong emotional response tend to weaken as they are used to exaggerate: awful, terrific, tremendous.
4. Insulting words tend to come from names of animals or lower classes: rat, dog, villain, cad
5. Metaphors will be drawn from those aspects of experience most relevant to us: eye of a needle, finger of land; or most intense in our experience: turn on, spaced out, freaked out, for example.
Williams (208) ϡ궯Ϥʰ̣Ѳˡ§Ȥơ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǿ줿Ѹ®ע֤ˡפΰ̣Ѳ夲Ƥ뤬ϡ־ˡ§פǤϤʤֲˤĤƤθꤵ줿̲פǤɾƤ롥⤦ˡ§̾ͤΤȤƤϡBasic Color Terms ˤߤ̸Ūȡ餬붦 (synaesthesia) ƤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1]) ȡˡWilliams ˤСְ̣Ѳˡ§פˤʤΤϡ"universals of change which, because they are so regular and so general, reflect internal influences either peculiar to the particular language or to human language and cognition in general" (208) Ǥ褦
Williams ϡ̣ѲȴϢ slang, argot, cant, jargon ȤäѰΡ㤤ˤܤƤꡤ "A Social and Linguistic History" ˤդ路ҲŪʴƶäƤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
Williams, Joseph M. "Synaesthetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change." Language 52 (1976): 461--78.
#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1]) ǰ褦ˡμ (borrowing) ϲǤꡤѸ (loanword) Ϸ̤Ǥ롥Weinreich Ūˤζ̤ĤԤϾʤäȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Roberts ȤԤζ̤ˤĤƤ롥Roberts (31--32) ϡܿβ "fusion" ȸƤӡ̤ȤƤξ֤ "mixture" ȸƤʬޤRoberts "fusion" "mixture" 줾ʬȤȤˡΤ褦ʲ̤ʳˤ2ѾΥפ2ĤʬΤȤƸܿȤ٤ΤƤ롥ʲRoberts (32) οƸ褦

ľʸɤߤʤˤȴ¿Ѹ줬Ω¤Ǥ뤬줾ŪʻȤδ֤ߤδطȤ館ˤΤBILINGUALISM FUSION MIXTURE ȤŪȸ2ν̤ɾǤȤƤ⡤ʳˤĤƤѸ줬äƤݤǤꡤƤɤδطƤRoberts (31--32) ˤΤޤäƤ餪
When a bilingual situation ends, the surviving language (that is, the language whose grammar prevails) is colored in greater or less degree by the perishing language (that is, the language whose grammar succumbs). The extent of this coloring depends upon the relationship of the two languages during the antecedent bilingualism. Subordinative bilingualism results in admixture; a portion of the weaker language is added to the stronger, which still retains both its grammatical and its lexical integrity. Co-ordinative bilingualism results in intermixture; virtually the entire vocabulary of the weaker language is swallowed up by the stronger, which thereby loses its lexical, though not its grammatical, integrity.
The words admixture and intermixture, as here used, denote accomplished situations, the results of processes. To designate the generative processes, the terms affusion and interfusion, corresponding respectively to admixture and intermixture, are proposed. Affusion has three modalities: infusion, suffusion, and superfusion. Interfusion has three stages or temporalities: diffusion, circumfusion, and retrofusion.
Affusion 鸫ƤȡInfusion ̾θμѤ롥Suffusion ϡظƶ (substratum_theory) ξظ줫θŪƶ롥Superfusion (loan_translation) 롥importation substitution ȤΩȡռŪʴĤ̵ռŪʴĤȤΩޤˤʤä褦ʬ
Interfusion ܤȡDiffusion äȼѸäѰ˴ؤʬؤƤ롥Ѹäˤ̤λع¤ʤɤˤߤФ褤 Interfusion ʳ餵˿ʤȡCircumfusion ʳȤʤ롥Ǥ㤨ƸϤ٤ƥեƥѸǤäƤ⡤괬ǽȤʤ褦ʾ߽Ф롥ˡRetrofusion ϥ줫ΰΡפβǤꡤեθˡαƶ house beautiful, knights templars, sufficient likelihood, nocturnal darkness ʤɤɽ߽Ф롥
Roberts 2 (bilingualism) δǤΩƤ褦ȤŪǤʸ褦ǰʤ餦ޤäƤ褦ˤϻפʤϤΤܿȤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Thomason and Kaufman ˤǥ뤬ǯǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
Ѥ˴ؤȷ̤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ⻲ȡޤϢơ#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) εȤĥä⻲Ȥ줿
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Roberts, Murat H. "The Problem of the Hybrid Language". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939): 23--41.
Ѹäع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) ʤɡ¿εǸڤƤ#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäλع¤椨˱Ѹ̱ŪʸǤȤ뤳Ȥ뤬ѸäΤħϸˤäƤȤȤʤतΤΤǤ롥
Jespersen (121--39) Ƥ롥ޤĹ꤫顥
(1) ʩͳ褹줬¿Ȥˤꡤ̣ "subtle shades" ɽ褦ˤʤä
(2) ʸŪŪɽǽˤʤä
(3) ѸˤĹñ줬¿ΤǡȤüԤϹθΤλ֤ݤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) ƥѸˤôݤ롥
ޤ (1) (2) ϴϢƤꡤɽϤ礭ȤϳΤȤ٤ܤܸäλع¤ӤСɽԤˤȤäƤΥåȤϼ´褦ʹؽԤˤȤäƤħȤ⤤ϤޤŪʤΤǤȤȤ˺ƤϤʤʤ(3) Ϥ⤷ŦǤ롥üԤȤƱѸäݤˤϡߥñ̡ʡˤΤϤʻֲԤǤΩĤȤ롥ĹñǻֲԤȤΤϡˤ뤬άȤƤϳΤˤΤǤϤʤ(4) ϥƥѸǤϤʤꥷѸˤĤƤϢơ#512. ̾ ([2010-09-21-1]) #1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ˡJespersen Ƥû롥
(5) ɬסŬڤʥƥѸλѤˤꡤ̣ξܤ䤱뤳Ȥ롥
(6) ȯֻʤɤˤĤƵô롥㤨С#859. gaseous ȯ ([2011-09-03-1]) γƼΥꥨ#573. ̾ȷƻбطʣǤ3Ĥλ ([2010-11-21-1]) Ǥߤ labyrinth ƻʤɤǤ롥
(7) ʳؤﲽˤꡤϢäˤϹǤˤʬ䤹褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥㤨 insomnia sleeplessness Τۤʬ䤹ͭѤǤȤ롥
(8) ͳǤƳˤꡤ֤ζ֤꤬ (ex. Cánada vs Canádian)
(9) ƥʣ (ex. phenomena, nuclei) Ѹؤ⤽ΤޤۤʤɤŪ줿
(10) ä̱Ūˤʤä
ȤϥɽδطˤꡤŪȽǤϲˤȤ狼ɤΤȤѸθù¤켫ΤȤϡѼԤ˻ȤȤʤΤѸθù¤ϡƻθܿʤɤ߽ФƤ͡ʸûŪʪˤ켫ΤɤⰭʤäơ̱Ū뤤̱ŪȤ褦ɾäȤȤϡɾԤѸä뼫Ω֤ɽƤȤȤǤ롥Jespersen (139) ϼɾƤ롥
While the composite character of the language gives variety and to some extent precision to the style of the greatest masters, on the other hand it encourages an inflated turgidity of style. . . . [W]e shall probably be near the truth if we recognize in the latest influence from the classical languages 'something between a hindrance and a help'.
ܸˤ̤줿ʥץ˴20ˤ⤿餵줿ʸˤ⡤褦ɾä뤳ȤǤʡ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) Ȥĥäȡˡ
ѸȤ̱̱ȤˤĤƤϡ#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1])#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1])#1845. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (2) ([2014-05-16-1]) Ǽ夲Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿ޤѸäΥޥ (romancisation) ˴ؤɾˤĤƤϡ#153. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset ([2009-09-27-1]) #395. ѸΥޥ첽ˤĤƤɾ ([2010-05-27-1]) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ε#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1]) ǰѤ Meillet ϡʸˡΤߤʤ餺ΰ̣ѲˤĤƤפʹͻäƤ롥#1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ʬŪ˿줿褦ˡä˰̣ѲθˤĤơޤȤޤäҤĤƤ롥
Meillet ˤС̣ѲΰŪˤϡŪŪҲŪ3郎̤롥ϸߤˤۤȤɴϢȤʤᡤΤ˶̤٤Ƥ롥ޤϡŬϰϤζȤŪ顥
Quelques changements, en nombre assez restreint du reste, procèdent de conditions proprement linguistiques : ils proviennent de la structure de certaines phrases, où tel mot paraît jouer un rôle spécial. (239)
°ΤϡʸˡλʤɤǤ롥ե homme, chose, pas, rien, personne ʤɤˤơŪʰ̣ŪʸˡŪʰ̣ؤѲ㤬Ƥ롥2ĤϡŪǤ롥
Un second type de changements de sens est celui où les choses exprimées par les mots viennent à changer. (241)
ϻؼоݤ뤤ϥΤŪѲ˰¸ΰ̣ѲǤ롥#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǤСǽ˵Ƥ (substitution) 롥ե plume ʥڥˤϡĤƤŴɮؼڥؼ褦ˤʤäȤ㤬Ƥ롥̾ѤʤѤȯŸʤɤˤꤽ줬ؤΤѤäŵŪˤߤ̣ѲǤ롥3ĤϼҲŪǤ롥
... la répartition des hommes de même langue en groupes distincts: c'est de cette hétérogénéité des hommes de même langue que procèdent le plus grand nombre des changements de sens, et sans doute tous ceux qui ne s'expliquent pas par les causes précitées. (243--44)
Meillet ϤμҲŪʸǤפװǤȹͤƤꡤ䤤Ƥ롥1ĤθΰۤʤѼˤƤϡ줾üԽĤͭ register ˺̤줿Ѥȯã롥ŪѼˤƤ̣äѤƤ줬ü첽Ѽˤ̤ΰ̣äѤ뤳Ȥϡ̤˸롥ȺԽĤα졤ȽĤ¯졤罸ĤνѸʤɤǤ롥ѼȯѼ֤ζۤƱ褹С̤ȤƤθΰ̣Ѳʤ뤤¿ˤȤˤʤ롥
̣Ѳ3θ¿ǡMeillet ϼΤ褦äƤ롥
Ces exemples, où l'on a remarqué seulement les plus gros faits et les plus généraux, permettent de se faire une idée de la manière dont les faits linguistiques, les faits historiques et les faits sociaux s'unissent, agissent et réagissent pour transformer le sens des mots; on voit que, partout, le moment essentiel est le passage d'un mot de la langue générale à une langue particulière, ou le fait inverse, ou tous les deux, et que, par suite, les changements de sens doivent être considérés comme ayant pour condition principale la différenciation des éléments qui constituent les sociétés. (271)
ٳؤΤƼҲŪΩ줬ɽƤȤ
Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 230--71.
ѸäħŪع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ʤɤεǤߤƤع¤ȤɽΤϡ岼طȳؤΤӥΤ褦ʷʪΥ⤷ʤӥȤϡĺԥߥåɤΤ褦ʷۤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ顤ι㳬ؤá䶹ޤä泬ؤΥեáⳬؤΥƥꥷäȤ
ԥߥåɤȤŬڤʤΤϡ1ĤˤϡⳬؤΥƥꥷäΤøŪϰ̤Ȱҿ褯Ƥ뤫ҲŪʸŪ¾ݤݥˤĤƤ뤳Ȥϡӥ뷿ԥߥåɷΤۤ褯ɽǤ롥
2ܤȤơ줾θä٤ԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤȤɽǤ뤫Ǥ롥ε#1959. ʸػˤʸػˤˤפԤѤäˤγ ([2014-09-07-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäդΤߤʤ餺դˤƤ⡤ä٤¾ݤƤʤʤʬۤϡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܸˤƤƱͤäˡоŪˡⳬؤθä٤㤤ġθˤĤƤȿ⤢ŪʷȤƤϡƳؤ٤ѤȤб롥äȤ⡤Ƴؤθ̡ʰۤʤˤȤȤǤСɬ⤽줬ԥߥåɤѤб櫓Ǥʤ100cf. #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ ([2010-03-02-1]) Ⱥ600cf. #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])ˤǸ¤ꡤ̤ѤϤ褽бƤ뤬10000Ȥ٥Ĵȡ#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤƤ3ؤξ岼ط롥
ԥߥåɤȤͭȹͤ3ܤͳϡԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤ٤Τߤʤ餺ΤỊ̇ˡιˤбƤ뤫ŪܶǤ٤⤤ФǤʤ¿Ǥꡤˡ¿ˤ錄롥ŪʸƱͿפǤ⡤ give Ūʸ¿ˤ¿ƥѸ donate ϸꤵƤ롥ޤgive ʸȤ SVOiOd SVOd to Oi 뤳ȤǤʤʤ dative shift ǽˤdonate ϸԤʸƤʤۤˤϡ#112. եƥѸȲˡߡ ([2009-08-17-1]) Ǽ褦ˡóؤŪʿ˴ͿƤȵ륱롥
3δ顤Hughes (43) ϡΤ褦ʥԥߥåɹ¤
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嵭3Τۤˤ⡤ƳؤѤȸ䤹 (comprehensibility) طƤȤ⤢롥ɤΤȤóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤȤȤԥߥåɤȤϹߤǤ롥
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Ѱ (register) ˤäỌ̇̄ιˤĤơ#611. Murray θ ([2010-12-29-1]) Ǹǿ褦ˡCOMMON (meaning) 濴ˡLITERARY, FOREIGN, SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, COLLOQUIAL, SLANG, DIALECTAL ؤ;˸äỌ̇̄äƤȤΤMurray ªοޤŪʸỌ̇̄Ƥߤ褦ʲο (Hughes 5) Ǥϡǥ (PREGNANT) Ȥ̣ξäơθ礬٤֤Ƥ뤳ȤƤ롥

ʿŪ줬ʰ̣ξ˻ѰȤäŪʴطΩŪȤǽȤǡָפȤθϱԤƶäHughes ϸΤ̻ŪѲȤ뤳ȤϤʤȤѸθ륬ʻѰˤϡޤޤ¿˵ڤǤƤMurray 100ǯä̤οɬפȡơMurray θΤ褦˲ɤ (372)

٥뤬ä줿֤ѲꤷƤ뤬Hughes (370--71) ˤСϸѸθäȿǤΤǤȤ㤨СϼѸФ (purism) ޤꡤ¾줫äή䤹ʤäƤȤǡFOREIGN Ȥ϶̤٤ޤ줿Ǥ٥ EXOTIC ɬפʤѸŪ˸üѤäƤƤ뤳ȤˤĤơ#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ȡˡޤSCIENTIFIC TECHNICAL θäѲȼäơξԤΰִطˤĤƤƹͤɬפ⤷ʤ嵭4٥뤬 ARCHAIC ȤȤ濴Υ줿դ˰֤ƤΤϡθäƩȿǤƤ롥ˡLITERARY Ȥ٥μϰϤۣˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥ顤Υ٥ϤʤȤʬŪ FORMAL, ARCHAIC, ˤäƤ COLLOQUIAL, SLANG, OBSCENITY ¾Υ٥䤦Τ⤷ʤ
οޤȿǤƤʤΤȤơ¾Ѽ狼θä롥㤨СꥹѸθäǰƬˤȤΤʤ¿Ǥ褦ˤʤäꥫѸθ (americanism) 䤽¾ѼθäϤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤFOREIGN EXOTIC Ȥ㤦ŪϰǰƬˤ DIALECT Ȥۤʤ롥
ù¤̣¤ȤȤѲ롥Ѹ⤽ϳʤѸǤ⡤ѰȤŽդ٥롤ƸοƹͤƤ롥
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Hughes (xvii--viii) ϡ A History of English Words ǡûˤȼˤǰƬ֤̻ˤŻ뤷ѸǯɽͿƤ롥άǯɽǤϤ뤬Ȥ櫓ûˡȤδϢ̤˲ФƤǡԤƩƸǯɽǤ롥
| 410 | Departure of the Roman legions |
| c.449 | The Invasion of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians |
| 597 | The Coming of Christianity |
| 731 | Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People |
| 787 | The first recorded Scandinavian raids |
| 871--99 | Alfred King of Wessex |
| 900--1000 | Approximate date of Anglo-Saxon poetry collections |
| 1016--42 | Canute King of England, Scotland and Denmark |
| 1066 | The Norman Conquest |
| c.1150 | Earliest Middle English texts |
| 1204 | Loss of Calais |
| 1362 | English restored as language of Parliament and the law |
| 1370--1400 | The works of Chaucer, Langland and the Gawain poet |
| 1384 | Wycliffite translation of the Bible |
| 1476 | Caxton sets up his press at Westminster |
| 1525 | Tyndale's translation of the Bible |
| 1549 | The Book of Common Prayer |
| 1552 | Early canting dictionaries |
| 1584 | Roanoke settlement of America (abortive) |
| 1590--16610 | Shakespeare's main creative period |
| 1603 | Act of Union between England and Scotland |
| 1604 | Robert Cawdrey's Table Alphabeticall |
| 1607 | Jamestown settlement in America |
| 1609 | English settlement of Jamaica |
| 1611 | Authorized Version of the Bible |
| 1619 | First Arrival of slaves in America |
| 1620 | Arrival of Pilgrim fathers in America |
| 1623 | Shakespeare's First Folio published |
| 1649--60 | Puritan Commonwealth: closure of the theatres |
| 1660 | Restoration of the monarchy |
| 1667 | Milton's Paradise Lost |
| 1721 | Nathaniel Bailey's Universal Etymological English Dictionary |
| 1755 | Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language |
| 1762--94 | Grammars published by Lowth, Murray, etc. |
| 1765 | Beginning of the English Raj in India |
| 1776 | Declaration of American Independence |
| 1788 | Establishment of the first penal colony in Australia |
| 1828 | Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language |
| 1884--1928 | Publication of the Oxford English Dictionary |
| 1903 | Daily Mirror published as the first tabloid |
| 1922 | Establishment of the BBC |
| 1947 | Independence of India |
| 1957--72 | Independence of various African, Asian and Caribbean states |
| 1961 | Third edition of Webster's Dictionary |
| 1968 | Abolition of the post of Lord Chancellor |
| 1989 | Second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary |
ɽΰ̣ˤϡǰỤ̄ (conceptual meaning) ǰỤ̤̄롥ǰỤ̄ϼỤ̄ (dictionary meaning) ȤƤФ졤ʪƥȤƤȤ館켫ȤʳΤΤ̤뤿Ф줿ŪܼŪǤν礫ʤ롥ǰỤ̄ϡʸ̡̮뤤ϤȤϢۤˤ공ǰỤ̄դạ̈Ǥ롥ǰỤ̄ˤϡĤμबǧ롥Leech ȤƳ⤷Ƥ (23--26) ˵äơñ˲ܤ
(1) Ụ̄ (connotative meaning)
λؼоݤϢۤؼоͭؤ ("what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to") 㤨СѸ mother ܸΡפϡλؼоݤϢۤͥοʤɤΥȼ⤷ʤΥϼŪǿͤˤäưۤʤΤǤꡤҲΤʤǰꤷƤʤ
(2) ҲỤ̄ (social [stylistic] meaning)
ѤطʤˤҲŪˤĤ ("what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use") ǯء̡Ҳءϰ衤Ρ줷ɰաʸʤɤμҲŪطʤȿǤΡʸŪħȤɽФΤǡʸỤ̄ȤƤФ롥Ѹ father, dad, daddy, pop, papa ܸΡס֤㤵ס֤סֿס֥ѥѡס֤Ȥפʤɤϡ줾ۤʤ register °ƤꡤѤμҲŪطʤۤʤäƤ롥#839. register ([2011-08-14-1])#227. ѸѼΥǥ ([2009-12-10-1])#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#849. ä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
(3) Ụ̄ (affective meaning)
ѼԤδ٤ˤĤ ("what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer") Stop being so bloody arrogant." "What a darling little dress!" ˤ륤åʬΤ褦ˡäΰɽ蘆褦ʾ硥
(4) Ƥ줿̣ (reflected meaning)
ɽ̤θϢۤˤ̣ ("what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression") ¿줬ѤݤŪʰ̣ؤض (taboo) ŵŪ˸롥㤨СκݤˤϡڤסֵסʬפϤ줾γǰỤ̄ˡΥ۵Ƥ줿̣롥Ѹ cock, ass ʤɤŪƤ줿̣ȼˡѼˤäƤ뷹롥
(5) ϢỤ̄ (collocative meaning)
ϢȤƶ뤳Ȥ¿˴ϢŤ ("what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word") 㤨СŵŪ pretty Ͻɽ魯ȶhandsome ɽ魯ȶ롥ξγǰỤ̄ϡִ̤Τ褤פǰפ뤬ϢỤ̄ϰۤʤ롥ϢỤ̄ˤꡤԤϤ襤餷ԤüʴΩȤްդ롥
嵭 (1) (5) ϡ줬Ị̇ǤꡤޤȤϢỤ̄ (associative meaning) ȤƤФ롥μỤ̄ʸỊ̇Ǥ롥
(6) Ụ̄ (thematic meaning)
䶯ĴˤäƺФ¤ (information structure) ˴ؤ̣ ("what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis") 㤨Сγƥڥˤơ1ܤ2ܤʸǤϡο֤ˤäƼỤ̄ۤʤ롥
(a) John owns the biggest shop in London.
(b) The biggest shop in London belongs to John.
(c) I like Danish cheese best.
(d) Danish cheese, I like best.
(e) Bill uses an electric razor.
(f) The kind of razor that Bill uses is an electric one.
ʾǰỤ̄Ȥ櫓° (1)--(6) ϢỤ̄ϡǰỤ̄Τ褦˸ŪǤϤʤѼԤѤطʤˤѰۤ뤿ᡤ˵ܤ뤳ȤϤʤ㳰Ȥơ(2) μҲỤ̄ŪäǰꤷƤΤǡ˥졼٥ȼäƵܤ뤳Ȥ¿
ְ̣Ȥϡסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ1--27ǡ
emplóyer ʸۤˤФ employée ʸۤƤ͡ˤȤڥϤ褯ΤƤ롥appóinter/appointée, exáminer/examinée, páyer/payée, tráiner/trainée ʤɤΥڥƱͤǡ줾Ȥ -er ԤǽưŪư-ee ĸԤưŪưɽ魯
absentee ʷʼԡ, escapee æԡ, patentee õͭԡ, refugee ̱, standee Ωҡˤʤɡ̣Ū˼ȤȤϲǤʤ¸ߤ롥ºݡstandee stander ƱǤϤʤȤƤ⡤ʤȤǤϤ롥-ee ȤƬƯϤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
-er ŪʸűѸ -ereˤ-ee ϥե줫ѤǤ롥ե -é(e) ưβʬǤꡤ¾ư³мȤΰ̣Ȥʤä켫Τϥƥ1Ѥưβʬܼ -ātus ̤Τǡcommunicatee, dedicatee, educatee, legatee, relocatee ʤɤǤƱ2ĤղäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ-ate ˤĤƤϡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ȡˡ
-ee δŪʵǽϡư촴ͤͭʪɽ魯ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥¾ħȤƤϡ -ee /ˈiː/ ˶뤳ȡջηǡȤ̣뤳ȡˡΧѸȤѤ뷹ȡʤɤ롥ˡΧȤѰ (register) ˤĤƤСAnglo-Norman ˡΧѸ apelour/apelé Ѹä appellor/appellee ʾʿ͡ʿ͡ˤʤɤΥڥȤʤꡤѸʹߡΤθ츻ˤ餺 -or (or -er) -ee ˤˡΧѸڥ³ޤ줿
ưȤҤȤˤäƤ⡤ŪˤϴΤưľŪ졤Ū졤ֻŪΡ˼Τ䡤ưȤľܤ˴ϢʤΤޤơ͡ʼब (Isozaki 5--6)examinee "someone who one examines" ľŪpayee "someone to whom one pays something" ǴŪlaughee "someone who one laughs at" ֻŪ standee attendee "someone who stands" "someone who attends something" Ǽ롥¾§ŪʼȤơamputee "someone whose limb was amputated" ʣطpatentee, redundantee, biographee ̾ƻΤȤƤġ
ˤĤƸѸ줫鸽ѸؤƤ̻Ūܤߤȡޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡstandee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȤŦ롥ĬήˤĤƤϡεǡ
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
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