ؤαѸˤμȤǡѸζޤοˤĤơ[2012-07-10-1]ε#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤοפdz⤷Ҳ𤷤ޤοϡѸ줬Ū줫ʬŪʸ (synthesis_to_analysis ؤȸžȤʤäѲǤꡤ켫ȤŪװǤʤťΥɸȤܿȤä쳰Ūװˤäư줿ȹͤƤ롥ϡѸˤ¿ΤʤǤ⡤ǤʥߥåǹǤϤʤʤˤǤȤϤϤΤŪŪװȵơѸ˾ѲΤ顤֤ѲˤͳΤʤפȴҤȤȤʤΤɬǤ롥ºݤˡ¿γѲΡָפͳפ褯Ǥȡľܤ뤤ϴܤ˥ȤǽҤ٤Ƥ
ȤΥȤ˼Τ褦ˤꡤܤڤָ줬ɤ뤫ϡˤǤʤʤȻפä
ȤƤϡѲˤϸͳꡤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ٤ɬŪǤ롤ȤȤޤοȤȤơĥ褦Ȥºݤˡ¿γμݤDzᤷݤȿøȿֶ״Ѥ졤˰ɽͤ줿ʹȤʤä
ѲθˤĤƤ causation γƵǰäƤ褦ˡ˸ؤˤǽפȹͤ롥ˤˤɬȶȽŤʤäƤꡤůؤȤäƤ褤ѲθȤƤ⡤θǤΤϤɤޤǤʤΤɤޤǤŪɬȤߤʤΤȤ꤬Ĥ롥֤СѲΤɤޤǤŪλʪʤΤȤˤʤ롥
٤ƶȸäƤޤȡǵϥȥåפ롥٤ɬȸäƤޤȡ٤ƤͿʤФʤ餺©줷ȤޤǤ϶ǡȤޤǤɬȤΤΤȹͤƤ뤬Ȥˤ˵Ҥˤ衤äƤʹƤⶽ̣ΤϡɬεͳȤͿʤͿ줿ۤ祤״Ф̣廊뤫γΥȤͶȯ䤤ϡƤ
ε#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1]) ǤϡѸʸˡ˾塤ťΥɸβ̤䤬礭⤷ޤοȡ̩ܤ˴ؤθ경ֻλѤγϡŪŪʣװΤǤꡤťΥɸȤθܿϡפǤϤ뤬Τ1ĤˤʤȤƤɬפ롥
쳰ŪװȤƤ⤦1Ĺͤ٤ϡեȤθܿǤ롥1066ǯΥΥޥʹߡɤˤѸϰ̤ϲűѸˤ¸ߤѸɸϼ졤դۤå줿ѸϡüԿǤߤХեⰵŪ¿äȤϳΤ ([2010-03-31-1])ҲŪˤϲäɽƤ褤θ塤Ѹˤ2Ķ֤ɬפäΤǤreestablishment_of_english) ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶȤƤϡäֻʤɸŪʤΤ¿ʾˡѸ줬ҲŪ˴뤳ȤˤʤäפǤ롥
̣ȤˡҲŪ˴졤ϲäȤˤꡤѸϤषȯŸ뤳Ȥˤʤä[2010-11-25-1]ε#577. Ѹ̩ʤ˱ɡפȡˡҲŪϰ̤ȤäƤ⡤ե¦θ쵬Ȥä褦ʼϹԻȤϤʤषͳ˱ˤ줿ɽۤŬڤʾäΤ褦ʾǡΥޥλޤǤˤǤ¾θˤꤢ٤ޤǿʤǤޤοϡڤʤʹԤ³뤳Ȥ줿ΤǤ롥رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ435֥Υޥͤȥե (74) ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤
ѸϤϲäλ¤ϱѸθѲʹԤƤ椯Τ乥ξͿξͤǤդɸबꡤ˼ҲŪʸҤտ路Ƥ¤ꡤϤñˤѤʤդɸϸ경ƯѲФϤȤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ޤѸϽ̱θȤƼ֤֤졤åǽԺߤΤʤ뤯ޤޤѲ뤲뤳Ȥ줿ɤˤɤѲƤïʸʤ䡤⤽ïؿ뤳ȤΤʤμ微ؤžΤ顤ѤѤޤޤʤȤʤäΤǤ롥
ơ54֤ʤޤष (99--100) ǡΤ褦ä
űѸθťΥɸȤܿȤʤäƸѸζϡѸ˥եˤäƱѸ줬ͤȤ줿椨ˡï˳뤳Ȥʤ߳˿ʹԤΤǤ롥ŪʥޥŪɺήťΥɸüԤȤܿեͥʼҲΤDZѸβͤ㲼ȡνװؤäƱѸ˾ΰѲΤǤ롥
Ѹˤˤ븲ĬήǤ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ˡťΥɸȤθܿ礤˴ؤäƤȤϡƤ롥ťΥɸȤθܿȡޤοȤδ֤ˤϰ̴طȤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ١夲Ƥä ##59,928,931 εȡˡѸ˾塤ǽפȤ¿αѸ˳Ǽ夲ƤΤûʸϤΤ褯⤷ΤޤʤѸˤŪʻȤϡषΥ줿βΤۤޤʬ䤹褦˻פǡä̻֤֤ʤ Lieber (103) ꡤϢսѤ褦
Why did English lose all this inflection? There are probably two reasons. The first one has to do with the stress system of English: in Old English, unlike modern English, stress was typically on the first syllable of the word. Ends of words were less prominent, and therefore tended to be pronounced less distinctly than beginnings of words, so inflectional suffixes tended not to be emphasized. Over time this led to a weakening of the inflectional system. But this alone probably wouldn't have resulted in the nearly complete loss of inflectional marking that is the situation in present day English; after all, German --- a language closely related to English --- also shows stress on the initial syllables of words, and nevertheless has not lost most of its inflection over the centuries.
Some scholars attribute the loss of inflection to language contact in the northern parts of Britain. For some centuries during the Old English period, northern parts of Britain were occupied by the Danes, who were speakers of Old Norse. Old Norse is closely related to Old English, with a similar system of four cases, masculine, feminine, and neuter genders, and so on. The actual inflectional endings, however, were different, although the two languages shared a fair number of lexical stems. For example, the stem bōt meant 'remedy' in both languages, and the nominative singular in both languages was the same. But the nominative plural in Old English was bōta and in Old Norse bótaR. The form bóta happened to be the genitive plural in Old Norse. some scholars hypothesize that speakers of Old English and Old Norse could communicate with each other to some extent, but the inflectional endings caused confusion, and therefore came to be de-emphasized or dropped. One piece of evidence for this hypothesis is that inflection appears to have been lost much earlier in the northern parts of Britain where Old Norse speakers cohabited with Old English speakers, than in the southern parts of Britain, which were not exposed to Old Norse. Inflectional loss spread from north to south, until all parts of Britain were eventually equally poor in inflection (O'Neil 1980; Fennell 2001: 128--9)
ƱǤʬ䤹Ķ̣褦˲ߤΤرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ54֤ʤޤष (94--100) Ǥ롥ǤϡޤοˤťΥɸβ̤ΤۤˡΥޥ˥ե줬̤ˤƧ߹Ǥ롥Ԥϡ̴طȤƤϡŪǤϤ뤬ܿȸˤΥʥߥåʴط̻ˤ̻ˤʬӤĤΤˤäƤĤǤ롥ˤĤƤεǡ
Lieber, Rochelle. Introducing Morphology. Cambridge: CUP, 2010.
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Fortson (132--33) ˤСĸˤϡѸ -ly 褦ʡƻ줫θ¸ߤʤäष̾ƻζѤ뤳ȤǡŪʵǽƤꡤˡϤ٤Ƥ̼ǹ롥Τ褦ˤ줿ŪΤǤꡤĸˤޤ̤ΤϤƾʤȤƻ줫Ūǽ߽ФŵμʡгʤñǤꡤ㤨С礭ʡפФ礭礤ˡפϰĸ *meĝh2 ƷƤ롥ϡHitt. mēk, Ved. máhi, Gk. méga, ON mjǫok 롥űѸǤ⡤ƻгñ˶ޤ efen "even", full "full", (ge)fyrn "ancient", gehwǣde "little", genōg "enough", hēah "high", lȳtel "little" ȤƵǽ (Campbell 276)
ŵ鳰줿ΤȤơۤˤ⡤ʤ줿 Lat. rursus "back(wards)"åʤ줿 Lat. meritō "deservedly"ʤ줿 Lat. quī "how" ʤɤꡤűѸǤ⡤°ʤѤ ealles "entirely", micles "much"ͿʤѤ ǣne "alone", lȳtle "little" ʤɤ (Campbell 276) ʷ͡ˤƻͳϡŪ˶ޤˤȹͤ롥
ŪϥޥˤѾ줿ޤ¿ʤȤʿʤʤɤȤηŪʶ̤ĤʤʤäǤ⡤̤ʽ֤ϻܤ줺ַƻǻѸˤƤ flat adverb Ǥ롥ѸǤϡflat adverb Ȥ̤ˡƻŪ˶̤ȤФ -ly ȯãƤäơѸϡǥޥΤʤǤðۤʿƤ褦˻פ롥
ޥɤγС[2012-03-01-1]ε#1039. ֿפ -mentפǼ夲褦ˡޥɤǤȯãƤ롥äơѸ줬ðۤǤꤹ뤳ȤɬǤʤ⤷ʤ
ϢơKillie (119) ϡѸθʬƻ줬 -ly 褦ˤʤäŪаޤĴʸƬǡѸΤοΥ륦졤ǥ졤ɥĸʤɤˤϸʤðۤʸݤǤȼƤ롥ʤѸ -ly Τ褦ȯãΤˤĤƤϡʸǤƤʤKillie (127) ϡѸ˾ΰ drift ȤƤ "adverbialization process" ˸ڤƤꡤ-ly ȯãϤΰĤǤƤ褦
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Killie, Kristin. "The Spread of -ly to Present Participles." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Mouton de Gruyter: Berlin and New York: 1998. 119--34.
űѸȸťΥɸθܿľܤʸڤ뵭ϿϤۤȤɻĤƤʤܿʸĤäƤ뤬ޤۤɤˤʤ
ξʸΤʤǤ褯ΤƤΤ1ĤThe Aldbrough Sundial ȸƤФפα˹ޤƤäǤ롥East Yorkshire ξĮ Aldbrough ˤ St. Bartholomew's church ɤˤϤޤƤΤǡʸϥΥޥȰ˹ޤ줿ΤȹͤƤ롥University of Pennsylvania Anthony Kroch ΥڡDzǤ롥 *
ΥڡˤѤΤ롤Page ʸɤפʸˤϡűѸȸťΥɸθܿ뵮ŤʸħȤʸݻȸѸź褦
+VLF LET (?HET) ARŒRAN CYRICE FOR HANVM 7 FOR GVNWARA SAVLA
"+Ulf had this church built for his own sake and for Gunnvǫr's soul."
űѸζηϤƤ뤳ȤCYRICE SAVLA 狼롥Late West-Saxon ɸǤС*cirican *saule ȤʤϤΤȤǤ롥Northumbrian ǤϸűѸˤϤǤˤμζޤοʿϿʹԤƤꡤäƸťΥɸȤθܿˤƶ뤳ȤϤǤʤGVNWARA ˤĤƤϡŪ°ʷȹͤ뤬Ѹ첽Ƥ褦ʤͭ̾ GVNWARA VLF ϤȤ̲Ϥ̾Ǥ롥
ηϤʾ˶̣ΤϡƵ̾Ϳʤɽ魯Ȥܤ HANVM ȤǤ롥űѸǤ3;ñ̾ͿʤȤƤη֤ϳǧƤʤťΥɸǤϤޤˤη֤ѤƤäơθťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿ȤϼƤ褤3;̾줬ƵŪѤƤ뺣Τ褦ʸ̮ǤϡťΥɸǤкƵ̾ sér ѤΤǤ롥űѸǤϡƵ̾Ƶ̾ηŪʶ̤Ϥʤäʾͤ碌ȡϡűѸ3;ñ̾εǽˡݤäޤޤˡη him ťΥɸб HANVM ֤äȤȤˤʤ롥
VLF GVNWARA ʤʪƤʸʪϡťΥɸüԤäǽ롥ϡűѸüԤȤοͻΤˡʸ˼褦ʡܿˤäѷѸä褦ˤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤPage (178) ϡʤڵ餽Τ褦ʲǽФȤˤդפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Even in the highly Scandinavianized York, people with Norse names need not be of Norse descent. Surviving English inhabitants may have given their children fashionable Norse names in imitation of a Norse dominant class.
Page ϡ֥ɤǸťΥɸϤĤޤäƤפȤΤΤʷĤƤ롥Page ŪĴϡޤĹ⤿ʤäΤǤϤʤȤɤ롥
Page, R. I. "How Long Did the Scandinavian Language Survive in England? The Epigraphical Evidence." England Before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy Whitelock. Ed. P. Clemoes and K. Hughes. Cambridge: CUP, 1971. 165--81.
ε[2012-06-12-1]˰³ѸγϻꡥűѸѸζ1000ǯˤ Malone θϡüᤤȤơߡۤȤɼƤʤжˤˤΤ1200ǯˤ٤Ȥ Kitson ͤǤ롥
Kitson (221--22) ϡޤߤμήθǤ1100ǯ뤤1150ǯȤǯ夬ɤΤ褦ʵ߽ФƤ⤷Ƥ롥[2009-12-19-1]ε#236. Ѹˤλʬ (5)פǼ褦ˡHenry Sweet 3ʬϸ˰ŪʱƶϤĤȤˤʤäSweet ȤѸγϻˤĤƤΰոɤƤ1888ǯʳǤ1150ǯ줫4ǯ1892ǯʳǤ1200ǯ˶ڤꤷƤǤʸԤ[2009-12-20-1]ε#237. Ѹˤλʬ (6)פǼƤ븫ˡθ塤1150ǯȤ븫Ū¿λٻԤߤǤ Hogg (9) "by about 1100 the structure of our language was beginning to be modified to such a considerable degree that it is reasonable to make that the dividing line between Old English and Middle English" ȤθƤ褦ξ⡤Фϡ첻 [ə] ؿʿȤǤ롥
Kitson εСѸγϻ꤬Τϡ첻οʿΤǤϤʤ֤ơˤäưۤʤ®٤ǿʹԤǤ롥ޤ첻οʿϡŪʲѲȤƿʹԤ櫓ǤϤʤʣ (analogy) ѲȤƿʹԤΤǤꡤβפŤ뤳Ȥ;פˤ䤳ǡѸγϻˤäƤϡ(1) ɤˤ첻ʿ濴˿뤫(2) 첻ʿλϤޤäŻ뤹Τ뤤ϴλŻ뤹Τ뤤ֻŻ뤹ΤʤɤδˤʤФʤʤ
Kitson (222--23) ϡ(1) ˤĤƤϡűѸɸ濴 Winchester äȡѸɸಽ줿ɽȤ South-West Midland "AB-language" äȡ첻ʿܺ٤פŤ뤳Ȥǽʤۤɤ¿μܤ鸽¸Ƥ뤳ȡSweet ζʬǤ South-West Midland Laȝamon ȤѤƤ뤳ȤʤɤŦʤ顤"the area between, broadly, Wiltshire and Herefordshire" 뤤 "the north Wessex--south-west midland area" (223) ܤ˿٤ȷŤƤ롥(2) 첻ʿδλ٤ȤˤĤƤϡѲȤƤ첻ʿ褷ƵչԤʤʳʤ˽λʳäѸγϤΤŬäƤȷƤ롥
And bearing in mind that the linguistic processes of the transition were to a large extent analogical rather than strictly regular sound-changes, it seems most reasonable to date the beginning of Middle English, as against Old English whether or not with a sub-period specified as Transitional, to the point of time from which even if external events influencing linguistic change had taken so different a course as to lead to directions of analogy violently different from the actual ones, reduction of inflectional variety to the single-un-stressed-vowel level characteristic of actual Middle English was irrevocable. (223)
Kitson ϡΰܹԴ֤ǽ줿ʸˤֻȯδط̩Ĵ1200ǯޤǤϡޤ첻ȸ첻ζ̤ĤäƤȼĥΤ褦˷ŤƤ롥
. . . even at the end of the twelfth century the replacement of language with at least some variety of inflections by language with fully levelled inflections was not absolutely irrevocable. . . . Granting the level of fuzziness at the edges inescapable in all tidy divisions of linguistic periods, Sweet's 1892 dating really is right after all.
Malone, Kemp. "When Did Middle English Begin?" Language 6 (1930): 110--17.
Kitson, Peter R. "When did Middle English begin? Later than you think!." Studies in Middle English Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997. 221--269.
Hogg, Richard M., ed. The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 1 The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: CUP, 1992.
ѲϢ³ŪǤ뤿ᡤŪʴΤߤˤꡤˤʬ뤳ȤԲǽǤ롥Ūʴ˲ä¿ʬ˸쳰ŪʴޤơʬƤ椯ΤǤ롥ޤʬäޤäƤޤȡȤʤä̵Ƚ˼ѤƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥Ω줿ʬϸϰϤˡŤϤꡤưͿץ饹¦̤ƱˡƤޤޥʥ¦̤äƤ롥äơʬȽŪ˸ƤȤ˽פǤ롥
ѸˤλʬŪˤĤƤϡ##232,233,234,235,236,237 Ϣ³Ǽ夲ƤHenry Sweet 3ʬߤ˻ޤŪ˼ѤƤ뤬Ȥ櫓ѸλϤޤɤǯƤ뤫ȤˤĤƤϡޤȤδ֤Ǥ⸫ɤƤ롥¿γǤϡ1100ǯ뤤1150ǯȤǯ夬褯ߤ롥ߤȾۤʤȤΤϡ˽ʬǤ롥
ŤϤ뤬褯ѤȤơפڤä Malone ͤΤƤߤ褦ޤMalone ϡSweet θŵʤ顤Ū3ʬޤλ¸٤ˤΤǤ뤳Ȥǧ
I propose, therefore, to start with the three main divisions of Old, Middle and Modern, based mainly on the inflectional characteristics of each stage. Old English is the period of full inflections (nama, gifan, caru), Middle English of levelled inflections (naame, given, caare), and Modern English of lost inflections (naam, giv, caar). (qtd in Malone, p. 110 as from Sweet, A History of English Sounds, printed on p. 160 of the Transactions of the Philological Society for 1873--74.)
Sweet θűѸѸ̤ϡʿƤ뤫ɤȤˤ롥ŪˤС˸롤͡첻ɽ蘆첻줾ħŪʲݤäƤ뤤 [ə] ؤۣ沽ƤȤˤ롥ۣ沽켫ΤϢ³ŪǤ뤿ᡤ줬Ϥޤäǯ⽪äǯΤ˸ꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ褽θȤȤǤС¿Ԥ12դƧǤꡤ줬ߤͼƤ1100ǯ1150ǯʤɤζڤǯȿǤƤ롥
Malone ϡSweet ˽äơ첻 [ə] ǯ夬ʤűѸѸʬǯǤȤΤǤС1000ǯˤޤǤΤܤ餻ɬפƤ롥ȤΤϡ10ΤΤȤ4 (the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, the Junius Codex, the Beowulf Codex) ˤ첻ʬۤܺ٤˸ƤȡǤ˶첻 [ə] ʤǤͻҤ "scribal error" ̤Ʊ뤫
εϡƱΥƥȤθ줬ɤޤǸȡ Schriftsprache ȿǤƤΤȯֻδطɤޤΤͤߤΤȤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ롥ֻΤߤͤΤǤС첻餫 <e> 11뤤12ԤɬפΤ⤷ʤȯ䤷̤ΤǤС첻 [ə] ϡ10˸ȤȤˤʤ롥¸Ǥ϶üᤤǯǤϤ뤬ε̤ơѸϤĻϤޤäȤ䤤װΤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥
Malone, Kemp. "When Did Middle English Begin?" Language 6 (1930): 110--17.
ɸϡѤʵؤ˴줿䡥 five Фƽ fifth ǤΤϤʤ twelve Фƽ twelfth ǤΤϤʤȤΤƱǤ롥
εΤ褦ˡִܷ A ФơϢ A' Ե§ӤӤƤΤϤʤפȤפϾʤʤդ˸ۤŪ¤Ф¤ǤȤȤФФ롥ΥǸС /v/ Ĵ five ФơϢ줬Ե§ /f/ fifth ȤʤäƤΤϤʤפǤϤʤ /f/ Ľ fifth ФơϢ줬Ե§ /v/ five ȤʤäƤΤϤʤפȹͤ٤Ǥ롥Ūˤ fifth /f/ ϼǤꡤfive /v/ פʤ Ǥ롥
űѸ̤ȡ5פ fīf Ǥꡤ12פ twelf äֻ˼Ƥ̤ꡤ̵ [f] Ǥcf. ɥĸ fünf, zwölfˡűѸǽ -(o)þa äҲ [f] θǤ [t] ȤƼ¸졤űѸǤб fīfta, twelfta ȤƸ줿Ѹʹߤˡ¾νȤ (analogy) ˤ t th ֤졤Ѹ fifth, twelfth ޤ줿
⤦1ä٤ϡűѸǡ5ܤΡפ fīfta Ĺ첻ߤǤû첻Ȥϡ2Ҳ³ĶľĹ첻ûȤѸˤŪʲѲη̤Ǥ롥ƱѲФޤڥĤѸǤϤƤ첻βؤ롥[2009-05-14-1]ε#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡפ⻲ȡ
feel -- felt
keep -- kept
sleep -- slept
broad -- breadth
deep -- depth
foul -- filth
weal -- wealth
wide -- width
fifth ˤĤƤϡΤ褦λҲ촴첻̤˴ؤ¿Ѳä촴2ҲȤƤϸűѸӤ̵ /f/ ѾƤƤꡤűѸδ fīf ľϤλ¹ȤäƤ褤
ǤϡܼŪꡥűѸδ fīf θҲͭ /v/ ȤʤäΤϤʤѸǤ⤽ϡ5פΤ褦ñȤ̾ŪѤȡ5ĤΡפΤ褦˷ƻŪѤ礬롥űѸǤϡƻȤƤδϡ¾̾ηƻƱͤˡط̾ʡʤɤʸˡƥ˽äζȤäfīf ϡʤ顤Υƥ˴ؤʣȤƤζȤäŵŪˤ -e ä¾θ⡤ɡѸޤǤˤ -e ؼ̤ˡűѸǤϡ§Ȥͭ˶ޤ줿̵Ʊ (assimilation) ˤͭΤǡfīfe2Ҳ <f> ֤ƤƤ [v] ȯ줿ơ䤬Ƥͭķ̵֤ķ֤֤ܷȤߤʤ褦ˤʤätwelve ˤĤƤƱͤλǤ롥ºݤˤϡζޤξϰ̤ηƻʣǤꡤʤ [v] ĶΤۤͥȤʤꡤܷǧ褦ˤʤäΤϡ̤٤ȤƻĤ롥
ΤʤǤϡޤ five / fifth twelve / twelfth Τߤ嵭βѲξ˹פˡ̤ȤơԵ§פ˸ѤԤȤΩäƤ롥ŪˤԵ§ȸ븽ݤ⡤̻Ūˤϡʤٵ§ŪѲη̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥§ŪʲѲԵ§ʽϤͿȤΤ̷⤷Ƥ褦ˤϤФдѻ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤԵ§ʷѲ§ŪʽϤͿ㤨ѡˤȤΤޤˤϤФдѻΤǤ롥
##626,1077,1078 ˰³Rivarol Υեͥꡥε[2012-04-09-1] (3) ǡRivarol ˤȡեΡפȤϡޤηǡȴϢSVOθꤷ礽ΤΤǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤ޤκ˵ΤǤСषѸΤۤǤȤȤŦϤδ顤Rivarol ɾ
ޤޤȤȤǤС̾졤̾졤ư졤ƻΤθˤƤ⡤ѸեΤۤޤμ¿եȸƤ֤ˤ뤫⤷ʤѸ٤жŪǤȤϤäƤ褤Ϣơ˥եñ줬ѤƤŪ褯ݤƤȤŦˤĤƤϡñ줬˼ѤˤϳƤϤޤ뤳ȤǤꡤե˸¤ääǤϤʤ
ˡSVOθꤷ硤Ȥ櫓1ΰ֤ˤĤƤ⡤ϥեõǤϤʤषѸˤ褯ƤϤޤ쵬§Ǥ롥ºݡ Rivarol ΰʬߤƤ⡤Lodge (24) λŦ褦, "C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté" que Ǥϼư줬֤Ƥ롥ƱͤˡĥäʸΤǤϡ"aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles" ˸褦ˡư֤Ϥ̤˸ (Lodge 26--27) ϡ"on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe" ֺǤѲ٤ư䤢ˡμʤѤƤθȤƤ̵̤ǤꡤθϾ¸ߤʤΤǤפȤ Rivarol μĥȤϴȿ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦 Rivarol ŪȽ뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݤȽϤʤƤ褦ǤöŤƤޤȡäȤ䤽äȤȿǤϤĤʤΤäȤΤǤ롥ԻĤʤΤϡեȤư͡ΤߤοäƤȤȤǤФޤǤΤѸüԤǤƱäƤԤʤʤˤäƤϸؼԤǤäݤޤƤޤäƤȤȤ (Lodge 25--26) Rivarol οäθŪȽϤ䤹Ȥ⡤ʤοä褦ˤʤäΤȤ䤤ˤϡӡȹȤȤҲŪʥץɬפˤʤäƤθȤƤϡΤ褦ޤǤɬפȻפ
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
Lodge, Anthony. "French is a Logical Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 23--31.
ε[2012-04-08-1]ʵڤ[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤáסˤ˰³Rivarol ̾¡ʸ Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français ʤ餶Υեˤ餺פطʤˤĤƤꡥRivarol ϡ¾ʼ˱Ѹƥˤ¾٤ơեΤɤΤ褦ʸħͥƤȹͤƤΤȯꤽ줾1ļ夲褦
(1) եȯϡե첻¿Ǥ褯Ĥ̥ե餫Ǥ롥̵ e ϡӤκǸοưӤ졤鷺Ĵ¤߽Ф (119)
(2) νƥθϱˤƤꡤ뤳Ȥ˼ѤƤեθϡʤȤֻϤ褯Ƚ̤Ǥ (102) Rivarol ϡä˱Ѹ˼ѤƤʤֻμΧäƤʤեñǰƬƤ롥˭٤äƥθޤȤȤƤäΤФơե϶ޤ˰¸Ƥ餺촴ȤʴطݤäƤ뤫ȤͤΤ褦Ǥ롥ƥ˸褦ʷ㤷ޤκѤϤष»ʤȤϡ (3) ˤطƤ롥
(3) եϡSVOθθˤäƳݤƤ롥SVOθϡľŪɬŪǡפꡤּפˤʤäƤꡤʹ֤Ρ־QפȡפˤäƤȤŪ֤ˡǤϤʤǮͥ褵ʤǤꡤեʳ¿θ줬ΰ˴٤äƤ롥ޤȯãƥʤɤϡ礬ꤷƤʤˡषΰ˴٤䤹
ʸɤǽΤäΤ̾ʸˤ "clair" Ȥϼ¤ΤȤSVOθΤȤˤۤʤʤΤǤ롥(2) ˤ (3) ˤϢޤηǡȸθȤȤǤСˤ⡤ѸΤۤեǤ롥䡤ѸϤ̤Ǥϰ²桤üäƤ[2011-02-12-1]ε#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language."פȡˡRivarol Ѹη˴̵ΤäȤϻפʤˡȯˤϼʤ
³뤬 Rivarol ̾ʸʸ̮碌ưѤƤʸ̮ΤλѤΤǤ롥
Ce qui distingue notre langue des langues anciennes et modernes, c'est l'ordre de la construction de la phrase. Cet ordre doit toujours être direct et nécessairement clair. Le français nomme d'abord le sujet du discours, ensuite le verbe qui est l'action, et enfin l'objet de cette action : voilà la logique naturelle à tous les hommes; voilà ce qui constitue le sens commun. Or cet ordre, si favorable, si nécessaire au raisonnement, est presque toujours contraire aux sensations, qui nomment le premier l'objet qui frappe le premier. C'est pourquoi tous les peuples, abandonnant l'ordre direct, ont eu recours aux tournures plus ou moins hardies, selon que leurs sensations ou l'harmonie des mots l'exigeaient; et l'inversion a prévalu sur la terre, parce que l'homme est plus impérieusement gouverné par les passions que par la raison.
Le français, par un privilège unique, est seul resté fidèle à l'ordre direct, comme s'il était tout raison, et on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe; et c'est en vain que les passions nous bouleversent et nous sollicitent de suivre l'ordre des sensations : la syntaxe française est incorruptible. C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté, base éternelle de notre langue. Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français; ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin. Pour apprendre les langues à inversion, il suffit de connaître les mots et leurs régimes; pour apprendre la langue française, il faut encore retenir l'arrangement des mots. On dirait que c'est d'une géométrie tout élémentaire, de la simple ligne droite, que s'est formée la langue française, et que ce sont les courbes et leurs variétés infinies qui ont présidé aux langues grecque et latine. La nôtre règle et conduit la pensée; celles-là se précipitent et s'égarent avec elle dans le labyrinthe des sensations et suivent tous les caprices de l'harmonie : aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles, et la nôtre les eût absolument décriés. (112--13)
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
ȷƻεǽŪʶ̤ϤФۣǤꡤϷ־ʬˤĤʤäƤ롥㤨СThe sun shines bright. Ȥʸˤơbright ư shine ȼ뤳ȤǤСȤƵǽƻȼ뤳ȤǤ롥 bright brightly ȤƤƱǤ뤳ȤͤСȤƤβŬäƤ褦˻פ롥ޤŪˤߤС bright -e ΤĤ beorhte Τ褦ʸǤꡤ -e Ѳη̼줿˷ƻƱˤʤäƤޤäΤ졤ϤȤƤβʬŪ -e ȴϢơ[2009-06-07-1]ε -ly פȡˡ
shine [glow, burn] bright ϴŪɽǤꡤɬΤʬϤˤʤ櫓ǤϤʤˡƬ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ衤ȷƻϵǽŪˤŪˤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τ顤̤뤳ȼΤ˰̣Τɤ路⤢Ϥ
¡¿Ǥϡƻ줬ʤФȤ뤳ȤǡˤΤޤŪǽ̤ȤϤ褯ΤƤʺٹp. 127ˡ嵭θűѸ -e Ϳʸˤˤ첽ϤȤơƥ nimium felix "exceedingly happy"ե une fille nouveau-née "a new-born girl"ꥢ Egli lo guardò fisso "He looked at him fixedly" horasho gavareet "to speak well" ʤɡ¿ʾ夫顤ȷƻεǽŪӷŪʺϤʤϤϾǤ뤳Ȥ狼
ѸǤϡäѸʹߡޤŪ˿हˤĤơ-e ʤɤζˤȷƻηŪʶ̤ϼ줿ơˡ-ly ʤɤŪƬƤѸǤФȤ "go slow" ˸褦ʡ-ly ǤϤʤñ (flat adverb) ˡ⡤嵭Τ褦Ū̻Ūʸ̮Τʤɬפ롥
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ε#976. syntagma marking ([2011-12-29-1]) Ǽ夲ϺΤäΤϡ˸زˤơ̳ƻؤΡ֥ޥΡnæפȷƻѲΡʸˡספꤹ븦ȯɽΤʤǤ̾ƤǤ롥
űѸ䡤ʬŪѸˤ⸫줿ޥηƻѲŵŪʸ -n ǤƤ椯ȤˤäơʤΰפȤʸˡŪǽͭƤѲζηϤʸˡפƤ椯ˤĤ븦ȯɽä-n ޤƻѲ˾üƤޤäΤǤʸˡⲿʤ櫓꤮ΤȤ -e ʤɤ첻ĤäƤꡤǤƤθϤĤƤΤ褦Ūʰפ櫓ǤϤʤȤȾüʳĤΥޥ˸롥㤨СեꥫǤϡĤƤζͳ褹 -e ̵ͭϡƻ촴ηŪˤäƼưŪ˷ޤäƤΤǤꡤŪʾϴƤʤȤ
ϡƻʸˡȤϡ̤θС줬ַƻ̾פϢ뤹ñʤ֥ơספƤȤȤǤȻŦ롥֥ơספȤϡƻ̾Ϣ٤뤿첻 -n ֤˶߹Ȥ syntagma marker ȤƤƯˤۤʤʤϲ (euphony) ȤƤΩĤȻפ졤Ūǽϸ¤ʤ夤ȤƤ⡤¸߰յޤäʤȤȤˤϤʤʤޤ¿ΥޥǡˡǤϷƻζݤˤȤ¤뤬ϴط̾ȤϢ٤ˡξ夤Ǥ
ޤޡܲѸηƻηϤ (ilame) ˴ؿΤǡβDzŪ˻ĤäƤƻϡޤ syntagma marker ȤơĤʤΡ֥ơספȤơǽƤˤʤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤȡȯɽİƻפäǤ롥
ѸΤƻϾüˤʤʤ⡤֤Ȥʤ館ƤŪʰפΰռƻĤäƤ椨Ȥͤ뤬Ȥ̤ˡŪ syntagma marking ä椨뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤspeculative ǤϤ뤬ɷŪʵȤʤꤦ롥
Ϻظء١罤ۡ1981ǯ
Ϻˤ syntagma marking ȤͤΤä
[2011-06-02-1]ε#766. פǿ줿褦ˡä˲ˤ (linearity) θ§˽虜ʤäˤƤ褯ΤƤ褦ˡǽϤϳ (hierarchy) ˤ2ǹƤ뤬ʪŪ¸ȤƤβϻ֤˱ä1ۤۤʤǡüԤϡ¸ȤƤ1Ȥʤ餶ʤϢ³Τʤˡظˤ2Ūʳؤ碌ҥȤ͡ʷǤФ롥ơİԤϤȤ2Ūʳؤ롥ΥҥȤ䡤طʤˤ2ñ̤ϰϤɸ뵡ǽܤ syntagma marking ȸƤǤ롥
ҥȤμ¿ˤ錄롥첻Ĵ¤ʤɤβŪʡʤʤɤɽ魯ܼŪפܼȤŪʼʡĴȥ͡ٻߤʤɤĶʬŪʼʤˤޤ͡㤨С[2011-11-09-1]ε#926. ŪǽפǽҤ٤ contrastive 뤤 culminative ȤϡСȤñ̤ϰϤ syntagma marking ΤȤǤ롥ܤθڤ䤪 (159)
ĤޤꡤˤäƤϡ
ФƤ첻μʥ륿
Ȥνܸ졤īʤɡ
ĴΥǥ閩졤Ҳȸ
硤
ʼʥɡ衼åѸ
ʬʻҲ첻ˤΥǥʥåȡ
Τ褦ˡʪŪȤƤϡޤޤǤ뤬ݤȤƤϡݲСˤ٤ơ줾θˤ륷ޤΥޡȤƤΡŪΤ뤳Ȥ狼äƤΤǤ롥
ˡܤϸΰ̸ȤƤ syntagma marking ˤĤƼΤ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ (394--95)
ޡޡˤϡΤۤˤ⡤ˤäơٻߡʥݡˤĤäꡤޤȥޤΤ첻ꤹȤ褦ʡʤ꤫롥¿ޤ̵¤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤηϤηħȤơݲС٤ơޡޡȤơŪˤȤ館뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ɽΤΡޡΤΤϡ֤ޤˤŪפǡȯǤʤ⤷ʤΥޡȤΡġθʪŪֻפϡθäƤҤȤʤ顤Ǥ⡤ưפ˲ʳˡθʤΤ˺ƸǤ롥ΰ̣ǤϡߤˤȤäȤꡤϡֲǡפֲפˤ٤Ƥ⡤ޤȤ⤪Ȥ̡äʪʤΤǤ롥
ѸˤδȤ櫓̣ΤϡѸǤ syntagma marker ȤƤζηϤϿषƤ뤬˶ηϤäƤΤǤϤʤȤܤθڤǤ (160--61) Ԥοब褫Ԥȯã褫ϡ˥ȥȥޥδطǤȽҤ٤Ƥʤ⡤ߤ˴طȤȤϼƤ롥
ޤοȤѸ˾ʤƥޥ˾ˤ礭ͤˤäơʻĤפ롥
Ϻظء١罤ۡ1981ǯ
[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפ[2011-11-14-1]ε#931. űѸȸťΥɸζκۡפǡťΥɸȤθܿ˵űѸζηϤδñˤĤƼ夲ƤO'Neil neutralization ȸƤ֡αѸκˤĤƤϡξüԤˤѶŪڤȤȤ¦̤Ĵ뤳Ȥ¿Ωʤ¦̡allomorphy ν̸Ȥ¦̤⸫ƨƤϤʤʤ
εǼѥоɽСκۤڤȤۤƱθ촴ˤ̤ȤüԤάͭǤ뤳Ȥʬ뤬촴ΤΤƱɬݤǤʤ롥ѥΥåȤˤäƤϡ촴۷ (allomorph) ȤƸ뤳Ȥ롥Ǥϡdrīfan βˤƤϡñ13; (drāf) ā θ촴첻ñ2;Τʣ (drifedrifon) i θ촴첻
¾ˤ⡤ñ23;ΤζޤˤƸ촴첻 i-mutation űѸưϾʤʤOE lūcan "to lock" θ߷γɽȡʲΤ褦˸촴첻Ѱۤ (O'Neil 262)
| Old English | |
| Inf | lūcan 'lock' |
| Pres. Sing. 1. | lūce |
| 2. | lȳc(e)st |
| 3. | lȳc(e)ð |
| Plur. | lūcað |
I think it clear that working from quite similar, often identical, underlying forms but with different sets and intersecting sets of endings associated with them and bewildering allomorphies as a result of the conditions established by the endings, the basic underlying sameness of Old English and Old Norse had become somewhat distorted and thus a superficial barrier to communication between speakers of the two languages had arisen. It is not surprising then that the inflections of the languages were rapidly and radically neutralized, for they were the source of nearly all difficulty. (O'Neil 262--63)
allormophy ν̸ϡܿˤ neutralization βȤƤǤʤŪ (analogy) ñ㲽 (simplification) βȤƤª뤳ȤǤ롥ºݤˤϡΤߤѤƤȹͤΤǤϤʤξԤ˺ѤƤȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
allomorphy ν̸ϡѥ levelling ʿʿˤɤؤ뤳ȤǽѸˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-03-1]ε#555. 2 analogyפȡ
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
[2011-11-11-1]ε#928. ޤ neutralization simplificationפǤϡűѸθηϤťΥɸȤܿˤñƤäO'Neil ѸѤ neutralization ȸƤβϡűѸȸťΥɸȤδ֤ǡб촴ϤۤƱǤˤ⤫餺бϷ㤷ۤʤäƤˡԤѶŪڤȤ줿ȤȤä
ǤϡŪˤɤΤ褦ξζηϤΤäΤƤߤ褦ʲϡŵŪʶѲư졤Ѳư졤Ѳ̾졤Ѳ̾ (o-stem) ζޤоɽǤ (O'Neil 257--59)
Strong Verb
| Old English | Old Norse | |
| Inf | drīfan 'drive' | drífã |
| Pres. Sing. 1. | drīfe | dríf |
| 2. | drīfest | drífR |
| 3. | drīfeð | drífR |
| Plur. 1. | drīfað | drífom |
| 2. | drīfað | drífeð |
| 3. | drīfað | drífã |
| Past Sing. 1. and 3. | drāf | dreif |
| 2. | drife | dreift |
| Plur. 1. | drifon | drifom |
| 2. | drifon | drifoð |
| 3. | drifon | drifð |
| Pres. pple. | drīfende | drífande |
| Past pple. | drifen | drifenn |
Weak Verb
| Old English | Old Norse | |
| Inf | tellan 'count' | teljã |
| Pres. Sing. 1. | telle | tel |
| 2. | telest | telR |
| 3. | telð | telR |
| Plur. 1. | tellað | teljom |
| 2. | tellað | teleð |
| 3. | tellað | teljã |
| Past Sing. 1 | talde | talda |
| 2. | taldest | talder |
| 3. | talde | talde |
| Plur. 1. | taldon | tǫldom |
| 2. | taldon | tǫldoð |
| 3. | taldon | tǫldõ |
| Pres. pple. | tellende | teljande |
| Past ppl.e | tald | tal(e)ð |
Weak Noun
| Old English | Old Norse | |
| Sing. Nom. | guma 'man' | gume |
| Oblique | guman | gumã |
| Plur. Nom. | guman | gumaR |
| Acc. | guman | gumã |
| Gen. | gumena | gum(n)a |
| Dat. | gumum | gumon |
Strong Noun (Feminine ō-stems)
| Old English | Old Norse | |
| Sing. Nom. | bōt 'remedy' | bót |
| Acc. | bōte | bót |
| Gen. | bōte | bótaR |
| Dat. | bōte | bót |
| Plur. Nom. | bōta | bótaR |
| Acc. | bōta | bótaR |
| Gen. | bōtena | bóta |
| Dat. | bōtum | bótom |
ѸˤǤϡűѸ줫ѸˤƵäηϤδñޤοʿ (levelling) ñ㲽 (simplification) ȤѸɽΤ̤Ǥ롥Ʊͤθݤ¿쾯ʤ¾ΥޥǤƤȤϡε#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ˤƤǤʿñ㲽ȤѸ줬ŬѤ
O'Neil ϡޥ˸ޤοϡΤ˶̤٤2ĤѸ neutralization simplification ˤäƵҤ٤ȶĴƤ롥줾ϡO'Neil (283) ˤȼ̤ꡥ
(A) If there is significant and more-or-less permanent contact between two closely related languages differing for the most part only in superficial aspects of their grammars (inflections, accent, tone, etc.), these superficial differences will be rapidly neutralized or erased. (283)
(B) Without language contact, inflectional systems will simplify only so far as there is room available for easing learning without greatly decreasing perceptibility. (283)
ĤޤȤܿȤʤäʸˡƥζ̤褦ʸηϤδñ neutralization ȸƤӡܿȤϴطʤؽγФ˴ؤüԤθ쿴Ū˴ŤƼ˿ʹԤηϤδñ simplification ȸƤʬ٤ȡO'Neil ϼĥƤ롥Ū˸Сneutralization ǡȤƷ㤷Ѥǥϡsimplification Ͼ˾ĺѤƤ륢ʥϤª
ѸǥޥζηϤδñƵҤȡΤ褦ˤʤIcelandic High German ʤɤŪݼŪʸǤϡȤ simplification ˤηϤδñΤߤѻΤФơñѸ졤Φʥӥ졤եꥫʤɤǤϡsimplification ˲äơܿˤäư줿 neutralization Ѥ
űѸŪ˿ʹԤƤޤδñťΥɸȤܿˤ®ȤŪϡǤϹƤ뤬Τ˶̤2ĤѸˤʤȤˡO'Neil ΰյ롥˿ʹԤƤץ (simplification) ΤޤޱĹ줿ΤǤϤʤñȤ̣Ǥϰˤ뤳ȤǤΤΡťΥɸȤܿˤͶȯ줿̤Υץ (neutralization) ˤäƸ岡줿ȹͤƤפǤ롥
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơŪ졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥
Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)
ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյäפȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥
It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)
ˡѸΦʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥
. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)
¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥
. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)
ǸˡϿλշǼޤŪʶ٤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥
. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
ޥʸˡѲۤƤפ2ĤװˤĤơ[2011-02-11-1]εֶޤο캬ξפ Meillet Ѥ1ĤϡָƬζ캬˿ʽͿפȤǤꡤ⤦1ĤϡָοबޤפǤ뤳Ȥ2Ĥװϡݲ1ĤκŪħؤȴԸ롥ʶȡˤ1ȤħǤ롥
ָ촴1˶פȤޥħˤĤƤϡ֥ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]), 1˥ȤΤʤűѸñ ([2009-10-31-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤMeillet ϡޥħȾΤ뤤ĤΤʤǤǤפħǤǸ롥ơħĸˤϸʤäȤ顤ޥ²ˤ뤽ȯϳ̿Ūä⤹ΤǤ롥ĤǰѤ롥
L'introduction de l'accent d'intensité à une place fixe, l'initiale, a été une révolution, et rien ne caractérise davantage le germanique. (72)
ƬȤꤷ֤ؤζȤƳϳ̿äΤǤꡤʾ˥ޥħŤΤϤʤ
Ȥĸϰ²⳰ˤ¸ߤ롥²Ǥϡ㤨Х䥢ɸʤɤ롥²ΤȤƤħͭΤϥޥ²ΤߤǤꡤʤΤ Meillet Ϥ
En germanique,... l'accent sur l'initiale est une propriété du groupe tout entier, et il a une force singulière qui a manifesté ses effets durant tout le développement historique de ce groupe. (73)
ޥˤƤϡƬȤϸ²ΤȤƤħǤꡤ²Ūȯã̤Ƹ̤路ƤðۤϤäƤΤǤ롥
Ǥϡγ̿ŪħϤɤΤ褦˥ޥ²ˤ⤿餵줿ΤMeillet ϴظƶ ( substratum theory ) Ƥ (75) ˥ޥȤʤ轻̱θħȤγˤĤƤ[2010-06-17-1]εSecond Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤäפ[2011-02-06-1]ε֥˥ȥˡ§פǤ줿ȿǽ餳̥Ū˶ޥ²ۤħȤȤϡѸΤۤƤħȤ櫓ǤꡤˤϱѸ̤ۤħȤȤˤʤΤ
Meillet, A. Caracteres generaux des langues germaniques. 2nd ed. Paris: Hachette, 1922.
ѸħŤǤϿ¿뤬ʤΤ1Ĥ˸ʬ롥Ѹ -ing 礭ʬ -ing, -ande, -ende, -inde 4बꡤ줾ħŪʬۤʲϡLALME Dot Map 345--51 Ȥơ褽ʬۤƸΤǤ롥

-ing ϤǤ England ʬۤƤꡤħȸƤ֤ΤϤդ路ʤ⤷ʤΰ۷֤ȤƸ -nd(e) 첻ʬκ褯̤롥-ande ʬۤ Northern East Midlands ˤƤϰʤĤƤ Danelaw ˤ˰פ롥-ende East Midlands -inde South-West Midlands ˽椹롥ɥնʣΰ۷֤ѻΤϡϤޤ˽ζǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
ʬ¾ˤϡľˡ3;ñ߸ľˡʣ߸ħ褯ɽ魯ΤȤΤƤ롥2ܤʬۤϻǰʤľ LALME Dot Map ˤͿƤʤŪǤϤ뤬Burrow and Turville-Petre (31--32) εҤͤˡϿƤߤ


3ĤưܤǤ⡤١ѸιʤߤǤ
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
[2009-11-04-1]εָűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫פǡޥΡ֥ޥ١פӤӤδϡȤƷŪʴ Lass ӽФ10Ĥιܤˤ롥10ܤޥ٤λɸȤƤɤΤ餤ҴŪʤΤɤΤ褦ӽФ줿ΤʤɤϤ뤬ӸԤʤݤΤȤƤ˻ͤˤʤ롥Lass (26) ꡤ10ܤƤ
(1) root-initial accent
(2) at least three distinct vowel qualities in weak inflectional syllables
(3) a dual
(4) grammatical gender
(5) four vowel-grades in (certain) strong verbs
(6) distinct dative in at least some nouns
(7) inflected definite article (or proto-article)
(8) adjective inflection
(9) infinitive suffix
(10) person and number marking on the verb
δϡޥɤӤ˸¤餺㤨ѸɤӡˤѸθġΥƥȤθӤˤѤǤ롥ºݤΤȤ¿ѸƥȤδܤΥȥˤ褦ʸŪҤϡ嵭10ܤΤ٤ƤǤʤȤܤ夲Τ̤Ǥ롥
ѸƥȤӤ˸¤ΤǤСĿŪˤ "nominal plural formation" äȤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 7--41.
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