#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǿ줿Stern ͡ʼΰ̣̤Ƥ롥2ΩǤ狼䤹ΰ̣˴ŪʻΤȤɾǤ롥ΤʤǤŪʴˤȤΰ̣ζ̤褦 (Stern 68--87)
(1) actual vs lexical meaning. ԤϼºݤȯäΤʤΰ̣Ԥϸʤˤʸ̮Ω֤ñΤȤƤỊ̇ԤϼŪʰ̣Ȥ⤤ʸˡʸȤƤʸΰ̣⡤ʸ̮ΩƤȤǡlexical meaning ह롥̣̾ϼºݤȯäΤʤˤƸΤǤꡤñΤǸΤϾ嵭Τ褦˼ʸˡʤɸؤ˴ؤ̤Ƥۤˤʤactual meaning (definiteness) Ĥlexical meaning (indefinite) Ǥ롥
(2) general vs particular meaning. 㤨 The dog is a domestic animal. μϽŪŪʰ̣ĤThat dog is mad. μϸ̤ΰ̣ġ٤Ƥ̾ϡΤ褦˼ɽ魯ŪˡȸΤɽ魯Ūˡġ̾Ȥϼ㴳ϰۤʤ뤬ƻưˤƱζ̤롥
(3) specialised vs referential meaning. λؼоݤĤͭȤüԤϤ1Ĥ뤤ϤĤ˾Ƥʤ餽θѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨 He was a man, take him for all in all. Ȥʸˤ man ϡƻŪäƤΤȤƤ롥Τ褦ʻؼλʤȤѤƤ specialised meaning ͭƤȤߤʤ롥He had an army of ten thousand men. ȤȤ men ϡơθäƤꡤޤǻؼŪʰ̣ (referential meaning) ͭˤʤ̩ˤϡreferential meaning specialised meaning ΩȤϡüʸ1ĤȤȤ館٤ particular meaning ܹ specialised meaning ϺƱ䤹particular meaning ϸλؼоݤϰϤθȤơspecialised meaning ϸΰ̣ϰϤθȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) tied vs contingent meaning. ԤϸȸŪʸ̮ˤؼоݤꤹΰ̣ǤꡤԤϤǤϻؼоݤꤻüԤ䤽¾ξθʤФʤʤΰ̣Ǥ롥Ԥϰ̣Ūʰ̣ԤϸŪʰ̣ȤäƤ褤
(5) basic vs relational meaning. 줬ָ촴פäƤ硤촴ΰ̣ basicΰ̣ relational Ȥ롥㤨Сƥ lupi ϡϵȤỤ̄ͭ촴 lup- ñ°ʤȤطỤ̄ (syntactical relational meaning) ͭ -i ʤ롥طỤ̄ˤäɽ蘆Ȥϸ¤餺촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. ring -- rang -- rung) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. Jack beats Jill. vs Jill beats Jack.) ⤹СˤäƤɽ蘆ʤȤ⤢롥طỤ̄ (derivational relational meaning) ϡ㤨 like -- liken -- likeness Υˤߤ褦 -en -ness ˤäɽ蘆Ƥ롥绨ĤˤäơطỤ̄طỤ̄ϡ줾ܼܼбȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(6) word- vs phrase-meaning. δѶ (idiom) 䴷Ūʸ (ex. How do you do?) פ⤫٤Ф狼褦ˡΰ̣ϡФФʣñΰ̣¤ˤϤʤʤ
(7) autosemantic vs synsemantic meaning. ʹ˥տޤȯɽŵŪˤʸ̾ˤϡautosemantic meaning ĤȤ롥ֻ졤³졤ƻ졤ưη (ex. goes, stands, be, doing) °ᡤгʤ̾졤ʣγǤ synsemantic meaning ĤȤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ˰³ƤꡥAAVE 3ñ -s æ뷹ˤĤơ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǤҤ٤æҤ뤳ȤϤޤäñǤϤʤAAVE ȤäƤǤϤʤϰˤäưۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭Ȥ롥æ뤫ʤΥѥʣ¸ߤ줾θѰۤ롥
㤨СSchneider (100) ϡĤԸȤ3ñ -s æΥѡơޤȤƤ롥Harlem ǯĤĴ42--100% ʿѤ 63%ˡDetroit βήϫƯԳĴ71.4%5лĴ72.5%Oakland βήνĴ57.7%Washington, D. C. λҶĴ84%Washington, D. C. βήĴ65.3%ήⶵդĴ17--78%Maryland γĴ83.3%ʤɤǤ롥-s æŪǤ뤳ȤϳΤǡ绨Ĥˤä31 -s ƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤæ§ŪǤȤȤϤǤʤ
AAVE ˤ3ñ -s Τߤʤ餺ư츽߷ -s ˴ؤ뽾θǤϡ͡ʡʼҲ˸ŪʥѥƤɸѸ˸褦ʿ;ΤξϤȤꡤbe ư is ʣѤ븽ݤȤδͿɸѸεϤؤν١dialect mixture ʡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡˡꥹŪʱƶʤɡ͡Ǥ롥
͡ʥѥΤʤ Bailey et al. Ȥ櫓ܤդΤ줬̾ (PRO) ̾ (NP) ζ̤Ǥ롥ԸǤϡAppalachian English, Alabama White English, Samaná, Scotch-Irish English, black and white folk speech in Texas ʤɡAAVE ˸¤餺Ѽ䥤ꥹѼǤ⡤δबѤƤ뤳ȡʤ߷ NP 줬 PRO -s 뤳ȤŦƤηϡ#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ǿ줿 "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" ("Northern Present Tense Rule") θ̤Ƥ롥Bailey et al. ϡ "NP/PRO constraint" 1472--88ǯ˥ɥӾȤĤʽ the Cely Letters 17--18ΥꥹҳΤѤ "Ship English" ˤߤ뤳ȤŦǡŪĴ̤ơƱ̤ AAVE νѼˤѤƤ뤳ȤƤ롥Bailey et al. (298) ϡ"NP/PRO constraint" Ǥ줤˵ҤǤۤñǤϤʤȶĴʤ⡤˾ߤäƼΤ褦äƤ롥
By examining data from EME and looking at parallels in present-day black and white vernaculars, we have shown that the NP/PRO constraint is a powerful one that has affected English for quite some time and that currently affects a wide range of processes. Although it is important to stress that this constraint does not account for all of the variation in the present tense verb paradigms of the black and white vernaculars in the South (for instance, -s used to mark historical present), it does play a major role in a number of previously unconnected phenomena.
Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
Bailey, Guy, Natalie Maynor, and Patricia Cukor-Avila. "Variation in Subject-Verb Concord in Early Modern English." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 285--300.
#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħȤ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤƤ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7褦
(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ
(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥȤͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥
(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ
(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ
(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ
1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE ȤƥꥫذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬ǤȹͤʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) ȤƼɮ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ε#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ˴ϢơѸǤ generic 'he' ꡤƤβȤƻ̱ƤƤ#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) ꤬פФ롥singular they ˤĤơǶᥦ־ A Linguist On the Story of Gendered Pronouns ȤĤΤǾҲ𤷤singular they 㤬 Chaucer ʤѸߤ뤳ȡgeneric 'he' 18ȾεʸˡȤˤФ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥʤɡ˱ѸŪʴäƤꡤɤβͤ롥
θȾˤǡե줬ѸʸˡξüʬŪ˴ͿƤȼƤսˤĤƵ䤬ɮԤˤСΥɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤäȤμ礿븶ȹͤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʵϰŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) 䡤Ѹ줬űѸȥեκǤȤ륯쥪첾ε ##1223,1249,1250,1251 Ȥ줿ˡ
So what you really have is an extended period of several centuries in which many people were more-or-less proficient in both Norman French and Anglo Saxon, which in actual fact meant speaking the highly intermingled versions known as Anglo-Norman and Middle English. But words that belong to one gender in one language don't necessarily belong to the same gender in the other. To use a modern example, the word for "bridge" in French, pont, is masculine, but the word for "bridge" in German, ''Brücke, is feminine. If you couple this with the fact that people had begun to stop pronouncing altogether the endings that indicate a word gender and case, you can see how these features became irrelevant for the language in general.
ޤΥɤ¿οͤ٤κϤ2üԤäȤȤɤٻ¤ȹäƤΤȤ䤬롥²Υեϥɿͤμο͡¿쾯ʤХäǽϹ⤤¿ν̱ϱѸΥΥäʡ#338. Norman Conquest ΥɤΥեüԤγ ([2010-03-31-1]) ӡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) εȡˡѸθѲĬή褷ΤϤ¿ΥΥѸüԤä˰㤤ʤҲŪʸϤϤˤ辯ΥХ뤬˸ŪƶڤܤΤϤʤϤǤ롥
ˡ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤˥եαѸؤľŪʸŪƶϺ٤ǤȤϤΤ롥äֻСե줬ѸηŪ˱ƶͿܤϿʤŪʱƶҲŪʱƶϿäɾƤ롥ϡ#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) #1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ξüȤФˤϡեˤ뤳δŪʸ̡ξüŪ¥Ȥ̤ŦǽʬǤϤʤ
#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1]) εäεǤϡѲưθ촴 rhyme ιִˤ첻û첻ˡܻ /d, t/ פǤ {-ed} դȡűѸ줫Ѹˤη̡߷ʬ٤ƱȤʤäƤޤä
ºݤΤȤ嵭βˤˤϼ㴳οʤĤ롥ꤵƤ벻ΤæŻҲ (degemination) ѸǤβȤȤ館ˤƤ⡤ΩϢ첻æŻҲȤϸűѸʳΤȹͤʤФʤʤȤεѸˤ̵ѲѤư췲Τ٤ƤεűѸˤޤ̤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 hit (< OE hyttan), knit (< OE cnyttan), shut (< OE scyttan), set (< OE settan), wed (< OE weddian) ʤɤϸűѸ̤뤳ȤǤƤ⡤cast, cost, cut, fit, hurt, put, split, spread ʤɤϽФѸʹߤμѸ줢뤤¤Ǥ롥ޤ bid, burst, let, shed, slit ʤɤ϶ѲưǤ˼ѲΤΥߥȾ嵭ꤵ벻ΥߥȤɤΤ褦˴ؤäƤ뤫ʬʤűѸμѲư˳μ¤ˤ̤뤳ȤΤǤʤưˤĤƤ⡤set shut ξƱͤˡˤŬѤ뤳ȤϤǤΤ
षΤ褦ưϡ촴 rhyme ̤ƤȤǡŪˡʡ̵ѲѤư set shut ȶŪ˴ϢŤ졤 (analogy) ˤä̵ѲѤѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤѸˤˤƶѲư ѲưȤήʶܹԡˤϰŪǤꡤѤκǤȤƤФиڤ뤬̤μѲư ̵ѲưȤѤή⡤ŪǤϤ졤Τ褦¸ߤȹͤΤǤϤʤ̵ѲѤưξʤȤϡʲѲη̤ȤƤǤϤʤŪѤη̤Ȥªɬפ褦˻פ롥Τ褦˹ͤƤȤˡJespersen (28) ƱݤεҤĤ "this group" ȤϸűѸ˵̵ѲѤư췲ؤ
Even verbs originally strong or reduplicative, or of foreign origin, have been drawn into this group: bid, burst, slit; let, shed; cost.
ưζܹԤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) γƵȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ -eþ Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤
In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.
"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ε#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ǻȤ Kytö (115) ϡ17ɾԤľܰѤʤ顤17Ⱦˤ -eth ֤줿Ǥ -s ȤȯƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Contemporary commentators' statements, and verse rhymes, indicate that the -S and -TH endings were pronounced identically from the early 17th century on. Richard Hodges (1643) listed different spellings given for the same pronunciation: for example, clause, claweth, claws; Hodges also pointed out in 1649 that "howesoever wee write them thus, leadeth it, maketh it, noteth it, we say lead's it, make's it, note's it" (cited in Jespersen, 1942: 19--20).
Kytö (132 fn. 10) ǤϡHodges θǤǤȯҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
In the third (and final) edition of his guide (1653: 63--64), Hodges elaborated on his statement: "howsoever wee write many words as if they were two syllables, yet wee doo commonly pronounce them as if they were but one, as for example, these three words, leadeth, noteth, taketh, we doo commonly pronounce them thus, leads, notes, takes, and so all other words of this kind."
17ˤϰŪ <-eth> /-s/ ȤȯƤȤϡ/θ/ /s/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤǤȤĤޤƤ䤿ˤȤäƤϡ츫ۤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤϡäդǤѲԤդǤѲɤĤƤʤȤѲΤդ줿1Ĥˤʤ˽դäդ˹碌 <-s> ֤褦ˤʤäֻȯɤĤˤ¿ʤȤֺäȤȤǤ롥ܸɽ줫ʤŤ鸽夫ʤŤؤȲޤǤƻΤ٤С<-eth> <-s> ؤֻѲϤष®äȸۤɤǤ롥
ʤJespersen (20) ˤȡĶ٤ư hath, doth, saith ˤĤƤϡ<-th> 18ȾФޤ̤˸줿Ȥ
ɽʸȯȤЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ȡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) εȤ줿
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Hodges, Richard. A Special Help to Orthographie; Or, the True Writing of English. London: Printed for Richard Cotes, 1643.
Hodges, Richard. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That Ever was Hitherto Publisht. London: Printed by Wm. Du-gard, 1649.
Hodges, Richard. Most Plain Directions for True-Writing: In Particular for Such English Words as are Alike in Sound, and Unlike Both in Their Signification and Writing. London: Printed by W. D. for Rich. Hodges., 1653. (Reprinted in R. C. Alston, ed. English Linguistics 1500--1800. nr 118. Menston: Scholar Press, 1968; Microfiche ed. 1991)
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ư3ʣˤĤơ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1])#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ǰäƤ3ñˤˤĤƤϤޤ夲Ƥʤäͽۤ褦ˡ3ñΤۤʤǤꡤȤ櫓ɤǸűѸ -th ΤѸ -s 褦ˤʤäаޤˤĤƤϡ¿ФƤ롥
ѸξΤˤФа礤˽ФΤϡ1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]ˤǤŪ -th ݤƤ뤬Ʊ Shakespeare Ǥ -th -s ߤƤȤȤΤȤϡ17ޤǤ˸ǤϤǤ -th -s ؤѲٿʤǤݼŪνդˤϤ줬ȿǤʤäΤȲᤵƤ롥
ơ礦Ʊ˱Ѹ줬ΦذܿϤƤǤϡλǤ˻ϤޤäƤ -th -s ѲΤθΥ塼ϡꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǰۤʤäϤäΤKytö ϡ16--17ΥꥹѸ쥳ѥȡ17ΥꥫѸ쥳ѥѤơ䤤ؤ͡ʸŪҲŪʥѥꤷӤƤ뤬Ūˤ1Ĥηǧ줿17ξߤ¤ꡤ-s ؤѲϥꥫѸΤۤꥹѸ®˿ʤǤΤǤ롥Kytö (120) ˤɽ
| British English | American English | ||||||
| -S | -TH | Total | -S | -TH | Total | ||
| 1500--1570 | 15 (3%) | 446 | 461 | - | |||
| 1570--1640 | 101 (18%) | 459 | 560 | 1620--1670 | 339 (51%) | 322 | 661 |
| 1640--1710 | 445 (76%) | 140 | 585 | 1670--1720 | 642 (82%) | 138 | 780 |
Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of colonial lag, the subsequent rate of change was more rapid in the colonies. By and large, the colonists' writings seem to reflect the spoken language of the period more faithfully than do the writings of their contemporaries in Britain. In this respect, speaker innovation, rather than conservative tendencies, guided the development.
˽ colonial_lag γƵǤ褦ˡܤˤäƥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸʤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѽ⤢̣ǤݼŪǤꡤ̣ǤϳŪǤ롥 Kytö η϶ä٤ΤǤϤʤꥹܹˤƸ夹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤѲꥫϤäˤɤΤ褦˿ʹԤ1ĤλȤưյ롥
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Ѹˤϡset -- set -- set, put -- put -- put, let -- let -- let ʤ̵ѲѤư줬Ĥ¸ߤ롥ޤ Quirk et al. (3.17) ˵Ƥ̵ѲѤưΰߤƤߤ褦ɽ "R" "regular" ɽ魯
| V/V-ed | COMMENTS |
|---|---|
| bet | BrE also R: betted |
| bid | 'make an offer (to by)' etc. (But in the sense of 'say a greeting' or 'give an order', the forms bid ? bad(e) ? bidden may also be used in rather archaic style: 'Do as you are bid(den).') Also OUTBID, UNDERBID. |
| burst | Also nonstandard BUST, with alternative R V-ed form busted |
| cast | Also BROADCAST, FORECAST, MISCAST, OVERCAST, RECAST, TELECAST (sometimes also R) |
| cost | COST = 'estimate the cost of' is R |
| cut | |
| fit | R <in BrE> |
| hit | |
| hurt | |
| knit | Usually R: knitted |
| let | |
| put /ʊ/ | But PUT(T) /pʌt/ in golf is R: putted |
| quit | Also R: quitted |
| rid | Also R: ridded |
| set | Also BESET, RESET, UPSET, OFFSET, INSET |
| shed | Also R <rare> = 'put in a shed' |
| shit | <Not in polite use>; V-ed1 sometimes shat |
| shred | Usually R: shreaded |
| shut | |
| slit | |
| split | |
| spread /e/ | |
| sweat /e/ | Also R: sweated |
| thrust | |
| wed | Also R: wedded |
| wet | Also R: wetted |
ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥
Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.
McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3ΥѥȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)
i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb
| North: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -es | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| North: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -e, -ø (-en) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| Midland | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en, -e (-ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| South | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en (-e, -ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
AAVE (African American Vernacular English) Ǥϡľˡư3ñʤ餺Ȥ -s դȤ롥츫ȡɤο;ΤǤǤ -s դդʤäʤΤǡ˸ۤɤҸϤȤ櫓ҲŪʴ¿ʤƤ褦-s νиͽۤ뤳ȤȤAAVE ȤѼKΤǤϤʤϰԻԤˤäƤۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭ȤȤ롥
AAVE θ߷ -s ϡɸѸȰۤʤʬۤȤǡѼħŤܤ1ĤȤܤƤŪʴϡ -s ʬۤεδؿȤʤ뤬ϤȤʤ AAVE εɤˤ뤫ȤŪľ뤹롥AAVE ε creolist Anglicist ϤĤȤΤƤ뤬߷ -s ⡤ݱʤˤΤʤذޤ뤳Ȥˤʤäcreolist ϡAAVE ľˡߤưδϥ쥪벽ͳ褹̵ɸѸεϤΰϤˤ -s Фɬװʾ˸Ȥ꽤 (hypercorrection) 롥Anglicist ϡ-s 餫ʬۤǤĥꥹͳѼ郎ʣΤͤȹͤ롥Anglicist ϡɬ⸽β꽤βǽꤹ櫓ǤϤʤʳ˥쥪벽ꤷʤ
Ϥ˾ܤʤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1]) Ǽ夲ƤĴƤ椯ʤǡAAVE -s ˴ؤ1Ĥʸˤɤ夤 Schneider Τ Anglicist Ǥ롥γ˿ϼʬ (104)
Apparently, the early American settlers brought to the New World linguistic subsystems which, as far as subject-verb concord is concerned, were characterized by two opposing dialectal tendencies, the originally northern British one using -s freely with all verbs, and a southern one favoring the zero morph. In America, the mixing of settlers from different areas resulted in the blended linguistic concord (or rather nonconcord) system, which is characterized by the variable but frequent use of the -s suffix . . ., which was transmitted by the white masters, family members, and overseers to their black slaves in direct language contact . . . .
ˤϡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) #1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) Ǽ夲褦 dialect mixture Ȥͤ롥βǽϽʬˤȻפϤȽϤˤĤƾܺ٤˽Ҥ٤ƤʤΤϤȤʤѼ郎ʤΤǤäꤷҤ뤳ȤϡŪˤä˸ǤʣѼޤˤȤˤʤ롤ˤʤȤǤϡϤʤ褦˻פ롥
ޤ"the originally northern British one using -s freely with all verbs" ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬 "freely" ŬڤǤϤʤˤ -s ʬۤˤϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) Ǹ褦쵬§ѤƤꡤ褷ƼͳʬۤǤϤʤä
ˡSchneider 19ȾФλ AAVE ˤĤƤϤۤȤɵҤƤ餺õʸȤƤϡ夤Ȥ虜ʤ
嵭 Anglicist β⤬줿Ȥdialect mixture ιͤѤʤȤȤˤϤʤʤषƸŪʼҲؾǤ AAVE εȡѸ3ʣ -s εͿƤǽͤȤ̣ǡȯŪǤϤ롥
Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
ѸˡޥˡˤΤˤĤƤ٤κϤ뤳ȤѲˤοʿηϤȤ⤿餷ʬϤȤŪȯãƤѲ֤Ȥʸˡ˾ͿξľܤΤΤʤΤܤΤΤʤΤȤ櫓岻βѲȶοʿδϢȷδؤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤѸˤʤɤǤ⤳δϢϤ褽ΤȤȤƼƤŪ˹ͻ뵡ʤȤ⤽줬Ҳ𤵤뵡ϾʤδϢˤĤơBradley (16--19) ιͻ
ѲѲˤĤʤ硤βѲθ̤ȤƤ3बǧ롥(1) confluent development, (2) divergent development, (3) dropping of sounds Ǥ롥(1) ϡۤʤ2Ĥβ1Ĥͻ礹뤳ȤˤꡤĤƤηŪʶ̤Ǥ롥űѸǶ̤Ƥ ā o ϡĶˤͻ礷ѸǤ ō ȤƼ¸Ƥ (ex. hāl (whole) fola (foal))
(2) ϡդ1Ĥβ2Ĥʬ뤳ȤˤäơŪʶ̤ޤǤ롥㤨СűѸ ic lǣde (I lead) ic lǣdde (I led) ư֤ܤȡ촴ᤫIJᤫȤˤäơθ촴첻ȯŸޤäƱ ǣ Ķˤäưۤʤ2ؤʬΤǤ롥
(3) ȤƤϡűѸˤơȤ High Vowel Deletion ȸƤФ벻Ѳη̤ȤơŲ˸³ -u ʤȤΤ롥Ѳ̾Ǥϡñ scip Фʣ scipu hūs ñʣƱǤ롥̤ȤƤ (1) ƱǤꡤȤȶ̤Ƥ2Ĥη֤1Ĥͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
3βѲθ̤ޤȤȡ(1) (3) Ϸ֤ζ̤碌ˡʤ츫ñ㲽ƯΤФ(2) Ϸ֤ζ̤߽Фʤ츫ʣƯĤޤꡤѲˤȿ뤫Τ褦ʸ̤ƱƯƤȤȤˤʤ롥ʸˡεǽȤߤȡθ̤ϰӤǽƯƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥Bradley (18) ϡscip hūs ǰƬˡʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In this instance phonetic change produced two different effects: it made two declensions out of one, and it deprived a great many words of a useful inflexional distinction. / We thus see that the direct result of phonetic change on the grammar of a language is chiefly for evil: it makes it more complicated and less lucid.
ϡѲȶȤδط˴ؤ롤ԤŪƶǤ롥
ѲΥȥԡ礵뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) ȡ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ѸǤϡ̾ fish ʣƱ fish Ǥ (ex. I saw a school of fish in the river) ä˼बۤʤǤ뤳ȤĴˤ fishes Ȥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ξˤ three kinds of fish ʤɤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ޤꥹѸǤϼΰƱˤ餺 fishes Ȥ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ūˤ fish ñʣƱȹͤƤƤ褤뤤ϡʣȤƤ fish ϽŪѤƤΤȹͤƤ褤ǤϡʬŪ fruit hair ʤɤȤˡƤ롥
ñʣƱȤСۤ sheep deer ʤ§Ūʣ deers ⤢ˤפ⤫֤⤷ʤξȤűѸѲ̾ scēap, dēor ̤ꡤʣʡгʤƱˤʤ뤳ȤϸűѸηֵ§˱äƤ롥äơѸñʣƱϸűѸ줫ΰ仺Ȥ롥
Ȥfish θűѸ fisc ϡѲ̾ʤΤʣʡгʷ fiscas Ǥ롥줬 fishes ؤȯŸƤ椯ΤѸǤŪʣ fish Τۤ sheep, deer Τ褦˸űѸΰ仺ȤƤǤʤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤʣ fish ϸűѸλޤ줿ȹͤɬפ롥
ºݤˡʣ fish ϽѸǽФƤ롥OED ˤȡfish ñƱΤޤŪѤˡ (1b) ϡa1300 Cursor Mundi ˽Ф롥
9395 (Cott.): Foghul and fiche, grett thing and small.
ޤMED fish (n.) (2b) ˤСfish Ū뤤ϼŪ̾ȤƤˡƤꡤ?a1200κȤ Layamon's Brut
Lay. Brut (Clg A.9) 22000: Þer inne is feower kunnes fisc.
긵ˤѸʣǡ١Ǥϡ40ޤǤʣȼ֤ǡ5ΤߤñƱǤ롥ޤ -es ͥˤΤʳǷž뤳ȤˤʤäΤ7ĤΥС Poema Morale ǤϡDܤMܤΤߤʤη֤ѤƤ롥
T(83): He makeð þe fisses in þe sa þe fueles on þe lofte.
J(82): He makede fysses in þe sea. and fuweles in þe lufte.
E1(83): He makede fisses inne þe see. and fuȝeles inne þe lofte
E2(83): He makede fisces in ðe sé. {end} fuȝeles in ðe lufte.
D (159--60): he wrohte fis on þer sae / and foȝeles on þar lefte.
L (83): He makede fisses in þe se 7 fuȝeles in þe lifte.
M (77): He scuppeþ þe fish in þe seo, þe foȝel bi þe lefte.
ʾϡ#12. How many carp! ([2009-05-11-1]) Ǥ夲ѸˤԵ§ʡ֤¿űѸ줫ΰ仺ȤǤѸʹߤγȤƱ餤¿ȤȤդ
Ѹˤϡ̾ưΤοפȤ꤬롥#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1]) (3) Ǽ̤ꡤꥹѸǤ team, audience, board, committee, government, the public Τ褦ʽ̾ϡüԤΤȤñȤߤʤбưñǰפʣȤߤʤФʣǰפ롥ꥫѸǤ̾η֤Τߤ˰¸Ȥ졤ưñǰפ롥
Ѹοפˤϡۤˤ⡤someone everyone ʤɤ̾줬ʣư˰פ㡤ʬñ㡤ľθ˱ƶָפθݡThere's ʸʤɡ͡ʼΤ롥ΰˤĤƤϡƣ˵äơ#1144. Ѹˤפ ([2012-06-14-1]) dz⤷
ǤϡοפεϤɤˤΤˤ̤äƤߤϡѸˤ folk, people, host ʤɤν̾ο濴˸Ƥߤ褦Mustanoja (62--63) ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
űѸǤϡfolk Τ褦ʽ̾ϡ°ǤʣưȰפΤͥäΩǤñưȰפΤ§äԤʣǤΰפ褦ˤʤΤϡ11ʹߤǤ롥ѸȡξˡƤΤΡŪˤСΩǤϤޤñǤΰפ¿ѸˤƤμǤʣǤΰפ§ȤʤäƤ椯folk, people ʤɤŪ˻ؼоݤʣǤ뽸̾٤Сcountry, court ʤɤŪʣɽ魯̾ϡή˾Τ٤ä
Mustanoja γϰǤꡤġˤ㳰⤢롥㤨СǶḫĤǤϡChaucer, CT. Pri. l. 626 peple ñ was ȰפƤ롥
Unnethe myghte the peple that was theere
This newe Rachel brynge fro his beere.
ƬǽҤ٤褦ˡ̾ưοפˤ͡ʼबꡤ̾˸¤äƤ people פ country פȤ̤ɬפꤽμˤʬɬܤפŪȯŸɤȤäƤ⡤ǤϤʤ褦
ƣ ֱѸñʣˤĤơסإסرûظ浪ס331993ǯ69--88ǡ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
for the nonce ʤäơ¤ϡʬˤȤ礬롥The team is called "the Lions," at least for the nonce. Τ褦˻Ȥ롥ɽˤϡ괧 the ΤĤƤζ̾Ĥߤ졤츻Ū˶̣
ߤη֤ľܤˤĤʤϡ1200ǯ餤κȤ Ormulum ˤ forr þe naness ȤƸ롥3θƬ n ϡľ괧νѸǤñͿʶ þen θ n ʬ (metanalysis) 줿ΤǤꡤ촴ΰȺƲᤵƸߤ˻äƤ롥ĤƤñͿʶճʤȤDzŪĤäƤǤ롥
ζϡŪˤ̣Ūˤ⸽ѸǤ *for the once б뤫Τ褦˸뤬Ūˤ3 once 뤤 one's [2009-07-18-1]ε#81. once twice -ce ȤϲפȡˤѸ°ʤ˴Ťɽľͳ褹Ȳˤ롥OED ˤС°ʷϳΤ˴ŪˤϴͿζϡषűѸ˸ to þam anum νѸ to þan ane ʤɤӤ٤one ͿʤޤɽȤƻϤޤäΤǤϤʤȤ夷°ʷϡͿʷִ줿Τȹͤ롥ִͳȤƤϡְ١פ̣Τ°ʤͳ褹 anes, ones ¤ǡͿʤͳ褹 ane, ene Ѥ줿Ȥ顤ξԤθؤäΤǤϤʤ
ѸǤϡʬϤη֤η֤¸ƤꡤMED ˤ ōnes (adv.) θ5 nōnes (n.(1)) θ1ξˡζ礬ϿƤ롥ԤˤСߤˡפȡ¤ϡפθΤۤˡոȤ "indeed" ۤɤθ䡤ΧŪȤƤΰ̣δˡȵܤƤ롥դ뤤ȤƤBliss Sir Orfeo (Auchinleck MS, ll. 51--56)
Þe king hadde a quen of priis Þat was y-cleped Dame Heurodis, Þe fairest leuedi, for þe nones, Þat miȝt gon on bodi & bones, Ful of loue & of godenisse; Ac no man may telle hir fairnise.
Ȥưʳˤ⡤nonce ˤϡΡפȤƻȤƤˡ롥̾ȤȤ˰ʣơؤνѸȤ nonce-word ˡnonce-form ˤʤɤȻȤˡνϡOED Ի James Murray 1884ǯ OED ǤѤȤǤ롥
1884 N.E.D. Fasc. 1, p. x, Words apparently employed only for the nonce, are, when inserted in the Dictionary, marked nonce-wd.
OED ˤλݤܤܤƤΤ顤OED ˤ뼫ˡȤäƤ褤
Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.
̾ʣ -s ˤϻμפʥơޤ1ĤǤ[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספȡˡȤ櫓ʤۤʤ -s Ф줿ΤȤˤϤäƤHotta (148--49) ǤϡĤθŪװŦ1ĤȤơ-s ¾ʣɽ٤ƲŪ˶ǤǤꡤˤȤŦ
-s βŪۤȤˤĤơHickey (62) ˴ϢڤĤǤϡ̾ʣ -s Τߤʤ餺ư3ñ -th Ф -s ˤĤƤƤ롥
. . . acoustic prominence can be appealed to in the history of English as well, for instance the substitution of /-θ/ by /-s/ in the third person singular or the progressive productivity of /-s/ plurals from Old English onwards and their encroaching on already established plural types --- cf. ME nasal plurals, such as eyen eyes --- can be accounted for on the grounds of the phonetic salience of /s/ and hence its suitability as a grammatical suffix.
-s βŪۤϡ饤ХФľŪʾȤϡǽŪĤ˹ a conditioning factor 餤ˤȤ館ƤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬Ѳ˲ŪħؤäƤȤܤͤ롥ä [s] [θ] ĴŪʺۤˤĤƤϡŪͤùȤϤʤäΤǡHickey (71 [fn. 5]) μϤ꤬ʰλʸϰѼԤŸΡˡ
Ladefoged and Maddieson (pp. 145--72 of Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.) suggest a division of fricatives into sibilant and non-sibilant given that with the former (/s, ʃ/ articulations in English for instance) the constriction at the alveolar ridge produces a jet of air that hits the obstacle formed by the teeth. In non-obstacle fricatives, such as /θ, ð/, the turbulence is produced at the constriction itself. Laver (pp. 260--63 of Laver, John. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.) discusses the auditory characteristics of fricatives as does Fry (p. 122 of Fry, Dennis Butler. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.), who notes that the noise energy for [s] is prominent between 4000 and 8000 Hz. It is similar in frequency distribution to [θ] but has much greater energy which means it is more clearly audible (see diagrams, Fry 1979: 123). *
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hickey, Raymond. "Salience, Stigma and Standard." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 57--72.
ε#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط ([2012-09-24-1]) ǡѸɸಽ̵ռμʲǤȤ Hope θҲ𤷤Hope ϤƤθ̷⤹롤ѸɸಽˤޤĤԼƱ˻ŦƤ롥ɸಽβΤΤϿ͡ΡּפǡָŪפʱĤߤʤΤη̤ȤƤɸѸϸŪˤϺǤ⤢ꤽˤʤԼʡѼǤȤHope (52--53) ϡȤ4Ƥ롥
(1) 3ñ -s ݻŪˤϺǤݻˤåȤ˶ĤäƤ롥եɸʤɡ٤ŪʸǤ⤳ΥåȤǤ̵ɸѤ롥
(2) Զѹդʿ;̾ηϡʲɽȡˡѸ ([2009-10-25-1])Ѹ졤νǤϡ꤭줤ηϤߤ롥(cf. thou / you, you / youse, you / you-all; [2010-10-08-1]ε#529. ɸѼ2;ʣ̾פȡ)
| singular | I | she / he / it |
| singular / plural | you | |
| plural | we | they |
Thus, in each case, Standard English arrives at a typologically unusual structure, while non-standard English dialects follow the path of linguistic naturalness. One explanation for this might be that as speakers make the choices that will result in standardisation, they unconsciously tend towards more complex structures, because of their sense of the prestige and difference of formal written language. Standard English would then become a 'deliberately' difficult language, constructed, albeit unconsciously, from elements that go against linguistic naturalness, and which would not survive in a 'natural' linguistic environment.
͡ɸಽܻؤ̵ռβΤʤǡŪˤϤʤʡԼʸŪʤΤȤ̤Ȥơؤ֤Τ¦ˤȤäƤ϶ΤʶΤԹΤ褤˸ηϤǤꡤ顤ϤƳؤԤϰΤȤĬʤϼޤΤȤ
Τˡ˵줿ʸˡܤϡŪˤꤽˤʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ȿȤСɤθŪˤ䤹ʸˡܤФǹƤ櫓ǤϤʤġιܤߤʿѤΰæϤǤ⤢षΤ褦ʰæäƤϤȤͤޤϤȤƤ⡤Hope ΡֽŪ̵ռˤҤͤϴߤ롥ε[2012-09-24-1]Ǥɸಽȵϼν̤ĴºݤΤȤξԤδطȤǤ
Hope, Jonathan. "Rats, Bats, Sparrows and Dogs: Biology, Linguistics and the Nature of Standard English." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 49--56.
[2011-08-06-1]ε#831. Why "an apple"?פǡƱݤŪʻ̻ŪʻȤǤ180ٰۤʤäƸȤơѸˤʬ -ed ȯ夲褦ηǤˤϡľβĶ˱3Ĥȯ롥visited minded Τ褦 [t] [d] Ԥˤ [ɪd] ȤƼ¸졤looked watched Τ褦 [t] ʳ̵Ԥˤ [t] ȤʤꡤʳǤ played moved Τ褦 [d] Ȥʤ롥Ū˹ŪʴꤹΤǤСηǤ /d/ ȤƤԤ촴β˽ä [ɪ] (epenthesis) 줿ꡤ[t] ؤ̵ȹͤΤǤ롥Ԥ [td] [dd] ȤϢ³뤿ȹͤФ褤ԤνƱȹͤФ褤
ĤǤˡ3ñ -s ˤĤƤ⸫ƤηǤľβĶ˱3Ĥȯб롥[s, z, ʒ, ʃ, ʧ, ʤ] ԤˤϡϢ³뤿첻줿 [ɪz] ȤƼ¸ʤξ硤ֻ <es> Ȥʤˡ嵭˴ޤޤʳ̵Ԥˤ [s] ȤʤꡤʳǤ [z] Ȥʤ롥ˤ /z/ ꤷƤ첻뤤̵ˤä [ɪz] 뤤 [z] ¸ȹͤƤФ褤⡤αѸǤϹƤŪʵ§ (rule) Ǥ롥
̻ŪʴϡϤޤäդ˸롥ֻ <ed> <es> ̤ꡤηǤϡʤȤѸޤǤ첻ݤäƤꡤΩƤ첻μ줿ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡDobson Sections 310--11 ȡˡĤޤꡤľβĶˤ餺 [əd] [əz] Ǽ¸ƤΤǤ롥Ȥ첻üϤޤäĶˤƤϡ첻üΤߤƯθѤϤʤä̤ΤĶˤƤϡ촴ܿȤˤԤ̵ơޤ̤ΤĶˤƤϡ첻üΤΤ˻ߤ졤첻ݤ줿ŪȤȡȤƤǤδ /əd/ /əz/ ǤꡤĶ˱ [d], [t], [əd] 뤤 [z], [s], [əz] ¸줿ȹͤۤºݤβѲ¨§Τ褦˸롥ʬϤϰ̤˸αѸǤϺѤƤʤ
괧 a an ξƱͤˡɤʬϤƤ뤫ȤȤϡƽפǤϤʤƱݤۤʤ٤įƤǤꡤΤΤͥϤʤηк붦Ūʻ餹д /d/ ꤬ͭǤꡤʪ̻Ūʻ餹д /ɪd/ ꤬ͭԤȤȡѸȶѸʹߤȤǡȤ§180ѤäȤˤʤꡤ rule inversion ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʾ塤Kastovsky (132--33) εۤƼɮ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Morphological Restructuring: The Case of Old English and Middle English Verbs." Historical Linguistics 1995: Selected Papers from the 12th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Manchester, August 1995. Vol. 2. Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard M. Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000. 131--47.
[2011-11-10-1]ε#927. ޥζޤοءפǡO'Neil ȤĤġѸ줬ťΥɸܿƶޤñΤƱͤˡΦʥӥ줬ϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) ܿեꥫ (Afrikaans) (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ܿơޤñȤ˿줿
ƱݤθڤGörlach (340) ǡ¾θȤǤʤƤǥޡ (Danish) ϡ13--15˶ޤʬäλϡǡͤǥޡϥɥĸ2ѼԤȤʤäƤǤ롥ơ2ϡѸȸťΥɸδطäϳͶ̤ޤ礭ۤʤȤطˤä
եꥫˤĤƤϡ1700--1750ǯλˡѸǥޡƱͤʿCape Province ο̱Ԥ35%ϥϡ35%ϥɥķϤǡ͡͡ʶޤκۤʤ⡤ȤʬŪʤ˰¸ưջ̤ޤäƤȤߤ롥
ξˤ⡤Ʊ°2ܿؤäƤꡤξΤΤʼҲŪ岼طΤʤȤ̤Ƥ롥ɸΥޥ3ʿԴطˤ϶ʾΤΤȹͤƤ褵
ʤ쥪ϡѸΤߤʤ餺եꥫˤĤƤ⾧Ƥ褦ơޥˤ⡥Görlach References ȡ
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
ѸեϱѸθäƶڤܤޤֻˤƤαƶڤܤ֤ʤʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ礭ʤ
Ѹ˵äʸˡѲΤΤϡƿä̾졤ƻ졤̾졤ưζηϤϡξüʿѤˤάʤ줿ʸˡϤʤʤä礬SVOظ경ƤäΤ褦ʸˡѲ˥ե줬ľܤ˴ͿȤȤϤʤ
ˡɽ (idiom) ˡȤạ̈ǤǡեαƶʤβǽˤĤŦ뤳ȤϤǤ (Baugh and Cable, p. 167 15ȡˡե줬Ѹäʬ˵ڤܤƶȤ٤٤ʤΤȤơեαѸؤľŪʱƶ϶ϾǤ롥
ŪʱƶȤȤǤС[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפǼ夲եĴʤФʤʤեαʸˡؤαƶϡޤפȸθĤĬή߳˿ʹԤ뤿μҲŪˤ롥Baugh and Cable (167) ɾѤ롥
It is important to emphasize that . . . changes which affected the grammatical structure of English after the Norman Conquest were not the result of contact with the French language. Certain idioms and syntactic usages that appear in Middle English are clearly the result of such contact. But the decay of inflections and the confusion of forms that constitute the truly significant development in Middle English grammar are the result of the Norman Conquest only insofar as that event brought about conditions favorable to such changes. By removing the authority that a standard variety of English would have, the Norman Conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked. Beyond this it is not considered a factor in syntactic changes.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
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