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inflection - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2015-12-14 Mon

#2422. Ѹˤư̾졤ʬ졤θβŪƱ [gerund][participle][infinitive][verb][inflection][suffix]

űѸ줫Ѹˤơ̾ʸư̾-ing ȸʬ -inde (or -ende or -ande) ŪͻŪʺФȤϡε#2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1]) Dz⤷ȤǤ롥ŪˡѸʹߡ-ing Ȥͣη֤ư̾줪Ӹʬξǽ̤ƤȤˤʤä
Ѹˤơ嵭 -ing -inde ˲ä -en(ne) ⲻŪʺ˻ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤ롥θϤ夤첻ȼ夤ɡħŤ졤ʬ -inde d æ뷹äꤹ (cf. #2121. Ѹˤˤ /t/ æ ([2015-02-16-1])) Τˤ٤Ƥ /-ən/ ۤɤ˼̤Ƥޤäǽ롥Mustanoja (569--70) ϡθκˤޤؤˤĤơ󤲤ʤҤ٤Ƥ롥

One has to take into consideration . . . certain phonological and morphological processes which seem to have brought about a confusion between the verbal noun, the present participle, and the infinitive. . . . [T]he present participle occasionally ends in -en instead of -end, as in he saȝ þe roke And þe brinfires stinken smoke (Gen. & Ex. 1164), probably also in þat heo heora wil-daȝes wælden weoren (Lawman A 1799), and the inflected infinitive may end in -ende, as in to flende (Lawman B, to fleonne, A) and suffraunce may aswagend hem (Patience 3; cf. also Purity 1291). In the North and N Midlands, in the 15th century even in the South, -ng may occur as -n (e.g., drynkyn for drynkyng, Norfolk Gilds). Cf. also unknowen for unknowyng (Deonise 5, MS Kk) and, conversely, I am moche beholdyng [for beholden] unto hym (Malory MD 86).
   While admitting that the examples here given are uneven with regard to their chronology and dialectal distribution, it is difficult to believe that this confusion of forms did not bring the noun in -ing into close connection with the present participle and the infinitive and thus promote its use as the gerund.


ϤޤϲŪʼ岽Ȥʾ׷äΤ⤷ʤ줬Ūͻ߽Ф쵡ǽξͶȯȤʥꥪΤǤСޤ˸첻μ岽ޤοƤӡSVOؤθȤѸ˾ΥʥߥåѲ⤦1ĤλȤʤ롥ѲˤƤϡΤ褦ˡְưפȤ롥
Mustanoja ε󤲤ƤǤϿʤ嵭ɾˤϡƱͻäȽɬפ

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2015-10-09 Fri

#2356. ե󥹸줬ʣ -s γ̵طȹͤ뺬 [french][contact][plural][inflection][me_dialectology]

ε#2355. ե󥹸θðʳؤαƶ --- 硤ֻ ([2015-10-08-1]) ǰ Denison and Hogg (17) ʸϤǤϡѸ̾ʣ -s Ѹ˳礷װȤơե󥹸αƶͤ뤫⤷ʤȤΤȤäϡʸǤ⤷ФоƤƤꡤǶǤϰ°桦 (p.43 fn) Ǥʣ -s Ťˤϥե󥹸ʣηαƶ⡤١äƤ⤷ʤפȿƤ롥
ˤĤĴ٤ Hotta (268) ΤʤǡϤФƶŪΩäƤ롥Jespersen ˵ʤ顤Τ褦˵

For the reasons why Old French could not be relevant, refer to Jespersen (Chapters 33). To summarise the main grounds against the hypothesis of Old French influence on the English s-plural:

   1. Considering that the genitive singular -s spread earlier and faster than the nominative plural -s, French should first have influenced genitive singular forms, which is however impossible because Old French had no s-ending for the genitive singular.
   2. The extension of the s-plural started before the Norman Conquest, making it unnecessary to propose French influence.
   3. The fact that -s prevailed earlier in the northern dialects than in the southern is against the expectation if French influence was assumed. Such French influence would have been felt first and foremost in the South.
   4. The s-ending was just one of the various plural endings available in Old French, and it was usually an accusative plural ending instead of a nominative plural.
   5. In English, adjectives rarely took the s-plural after the Old French model. If French influence had been at work, not only nouns but also adjectives might have been affected.
   6. The English s-ending was usually preceded by a vowel typically spelled e, while in Old French such a vowel spelling never occurred. We might note that the forms -es and -s were kept distinct well into Late Middle English.


ʤפԸǤ Roedler ⡤Ѹˤ -s ʣγ˴Ϣơʥե󥹸ǰƬ֤ʤ˸쳰Ūʱƶβǽ "überflüssig" ڤäƼΤƤƤ롥ե󥹸ƶˤϤۤȤʤ
Ϣơ#946. ̾ʣˤγס ([2011-11-29-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Jespersen, Otto. Chapters on English. London: George Allen, 1918. Rpt. of Progress in Language.
Roedler, Eduard. "Die Ausbreitung des 's'-Plurals im Englischen." Vol. 1. PhD thesis, Christian-Albrechts University, 1911; Vol. 2. Anglia 40 (1916): 420--502.

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2015-08-24 Mon

#2310. 3ñΥ [3sp][3pp][verb][paradigm][conjugation][inflection][contact][do-periphrasis][lmode]

Ѹ˾3ñ -s 3ʣ -s ˤĤơ3sp 3pp ¿εǤ줾ƤǡޤΩʤ3ñΥȤ꤬롥褯ΤƤΤϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1])#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦 AAVE Ǥ -s æȤݤ뤷󥰥ɤǤ East Anglia ߻Υѥˤƿ;Ρˤ餺¤ߥȤȤ㤬롥
Wright (119) ˤ3ñΥ˴ؤˤγάˤСEast Anglia ˤ3ñΥε15ˤΤܤꡤŪʲˤС¾ο;θΥ3ñŪ˳ĥΤȤ뤬ܿαƶǤϤʤȤ⤢롥16ȾޤǤˤϡNorfolk β²41--77%ȤΨ -th ˥ѤƤȤ𤬤ꡤEast Midland Ϥθ3ñΥ򼨤濴ϤǤ³Ƥ롥Helsinki Corpus ĴˤСŪˤߤ3ñΥ2%Ȥ㤤Ψʤ East Anglia ˸¤餺ʬۤƤΤ¤ǤꡤŤѸʸˤƤޤ˽в񤦤ȤϤ롥
Wright κǿʸϡ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire пȤΤ뽾ͤˤ򥳡ѥȤĴ21%Ȥͽ۰ʾι⤤Ψ3ñΥѤƤ뤳Ȥͤߤ᤿Wright ϡEast Anglia ȤŪˤΥ줿ϰǡ餯λ˸ꤷơ3ñΥʬۤƤΤǤϤʤȿ¬ޤΰŪʬۤϡľ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) षľɸŪ -s 礷Ƥäޤ˰ܹԴκˤߤ줿ĤʤŪʬۤȷŤ
Wright εϹäƤ뤬ʤȤѸΤϤ¤ꡤ˱͡ʥѥबƤϾäƤäȤϳΤǤꡤ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire ˸Ū˾嵭Τ褦ʾäȤƤ⡤äˤϤʤ

Wright, Laura. "Some More on the History of Present-Tense -s, do and Zero: West Oxfordshire, 1837." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 1.1 (2015): 111--30.

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2015-08-23 Sun

#2309. ưο;θε [category][person][verb][inflection][personal_pronoun][agreement][linguistic_relativism]

ܥ֥Ǥ3ñ -s (3sp) 3ʣ -s (3pp) ۤѸˤˤưο;θ˴ؤ¿夲Ƥ; (person) Ȥʸˡ (category) ¿θ²˳ǧ졤ѸޤˤƤ⸲ƤȤʤäƤ롥⤽ˤƿ;Τưζ޸ˤɸȤεϲäΤο;Τư줬פʤФʤʤȤϤɤ褿Τ
ˤĤơӸؤǤ͡ʵ깭Ƥ褦ʬŪȤ1 Szemerényi (329) ˤС12;θˤĤƤϡб;̾η֤ޤƤȹͤƺ٤ʤȤ

The question of the origin of the personal endings has always aroused much greater interest. Since Bopp's earliest writings, indeed since the eighteenth century, it has been usual to find in the personal endings the personal pronouns. In spite of frequent dissent this theory is universally accepted; it is, however, also valid for the 1st pl., where the original form of the pronoun was *mes . . ., and for the 1st dual, whose ending -we(s) similarly contains the pronoun. And the principle must be expected to operate in the 2nd person also. This is suggest by many other language families. . . .


3;ΤˤĤƤϡ12;ΤƱͤͿ뤳ȤϤǤñˤäƤϻؼ *so/*to ͳ褷ʣˤäƤư̾ȴطʣʻ褹Ȥ (Szemerényi 330) 줬¤ȤȡŤΰĸüԤϡ12;Τʡֿ;ΡפȤߤơ3;Τ;ΡפȤߤƤΤ⤷ʤȿǤƤѡʤȶ޸ʬۡˤϸΰ¿˺פĤƤꡤ޸षѸˤ顤3ñ -s ȤƤäƤ롥
Ǥϡ⤽ˤƿ;ΤȤʸˡƤΤϰ̤ۤƤΤϤʤȤΤϡ¾¿θǤϡ;ΤȤʸˡƤϤ̣⤿ʤ㤨СܸǤϷƻˡˤ;¤ʤɤȤʤ٤ǤꡤƤȤƤο;Τ¸ߴפ;ΤȤѸλؤΤäܶ򤹤СäΤȤƤΡֻפȡäʹƤ֤ʤפȡȤʤꤦ֤ʳפΰڤǺȤ̤븶ˤۤʤʤ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ѸǤСäʡ1;Ρˡʹʡ2;Ρˡʪݡʡ3;ΡˤȤʬǤ롥餬ŪʹǤΤ3ĤǤȤȤǤСʤ⡤ζʬɤٳΤʸˡƤȤɸ뤫̤ȤơδŪѤ񤷤ƤϤǤ롥ĸϡŪϤäɸ륿פθäΤ
ʤεϡθ (linguistic universal) ȤǤ롥ܸüԤȤƤϡ;ΤȤʸˡƤľŪˤ褯ʬʤΤ¤Ǥ뤫顤 (linguistic_relativism) Ȥ򤷤⤹롥

Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-11-05-1] [2018-10-20-1]

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2015-08-04 Tue

#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û [final_e][ilame][inflection][vowel][phonetics][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][adjective][afrikaans][syntagma_marking]

<look>, <blood>, <dead>, <heaven>, ʤɤ첻ʬϡ2Ĥ첻֤뤬ȯȤƤϤ줾û첻Ǥ롥ϡѸˤͽ̤ۤ2äΤθ塤û1ȤʤäǤ롥<oo> ֻȯδطӤطʤˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǿ줿<ea> ˤĤƤϡ#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]) Ǵñ˿줿ˤʤΤǡȤƼ夲
Ҥ̤ꡤ<ea> Ĺ첻ɽ路ǤѸˤƤλ3Ҳ֤ûäƤꡤdream / dreamt, leap / leapt, read / read, speed / sped Τ褦첻̤Ω (cf. #1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])) ޤñҲ֤ˤƤ⡤ѸޤǤˤĤñˤûƤ (ex. breath, dead, dread, heaven, blood, good, cloth) ΰۤʤûβˤĤƤϡ#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) #2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ǸȤǤꡤ˲Ūʴ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˽Ѹˤûϰθä˸¤ƤȤ𤬤ꡤޤǤ롥
Görlach (71) ϡεˡŪǤϤ뤬˷ŪʴǤ롥

Such short vowels reflecting ME long vowel quantities are most frequent where ME has /ɛː, oː/ before /d, t, θ, v, f/ in monosyllabic words, but even here they occur only in a minority of possible words. It is likely that the short vowel was introduced on the pattern of words in which the occurrence of a short or a long vowel was determined by the type of syllable the vowel appeared in (glad vs. glade). When these words became monosyllabic in all their forms, the conditioning factor was lost and the apparently free variation of short/long spread to cases like (dead). That such processes must have continued for some time is shown by words ending in -ood: early shortened forms (flood) are found side by side with later short forms (good) and those with the long vowel preserved (mood).


Ҳǽñ촴ηƻϡѸޤǡŪʾ˱ơƶ޸ e ݤĤȤä (cf. #532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])) ޸ e ̵ͭϲṽ¤Ѳ촴첻Ĺûꤷ1Ĥηƻˤ뤳ĹûѰۤǥȤʤäơṽ¤¾δĶˤƤĹûѰۡʤƸûˤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ Görlach glad vs. glade 󤲤ʤҤ٤ƤΤϡϡ˷ŪʵǽͭƤ޸ -e Ū˾üƤǡεǽ򼺤촴첻Ĺûΰ㤤ˤκפĤΤߤȤʤäƤäȤаޤǤ (cf. #295. black Blake ([2010-02-16-1])) Ϣơ#977. ƻζ޸ο syntagma marking ([2011-12-30-1]) ǿ줿եꥫ󥹸ˤƻ޸Ρʸˡפλ㤬פФ롥

Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-11-16-1] [2015-08-07-1]

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2015-06-07 Sun

#2232. High Vowel Deletion [high_vowel_deletion][phonetics][vowel][syllable][inflection][morphology][sound_change]

ɸβˤĤơ#1674. Ѳȶ޸οʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1])#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1]) ǿƤϤ⤦ܤβϡi-mutation ˡ餯űѸ (pre-OE) θȤ벻ѲǤꡤűѸβ礭ʱƶڤܤLass (98) üŪˤСHVD (High Vowel Deletion) ϰʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥

The fates of short high */i, u/ in weak positions are largely determined by the weight of the preceding strong syllable. In outline, they deleted after a heavy syllable, but remained after a light one, in the case of */i/ usually lowering to /e/ at a later stage.


촴᤬Ťrhyme 3⡼ʾ夫ʤ˾ˡ³夤ι첻 (/i/, /u/) üȤǤ롥Ԥ촴᤬ŤˤϡǤΤȤƽŤΤ顤˹첻³;פ˽Ť櫓ˤϤʤȲᤷƤ褤ơ촴ηڽŤˤꡤ³첻̵ͭڤؤ륱뤳ȤȤʤäLass (99--100) 򻲹ͤˡűѸ줫󤲤褦HVD Ѥ֤ǼƤ롥

Syllable weightpre-OEOE
heavy*ðα:ð-idǣd 'deed'
heavy*wurm-iwyrm 'worm'
light*win-iwin-e 'friend'
heavy*flo:ð-uflōd 'flood'
heavy*xαnð-uhand 'hand'
light*sun-usun-u 'son'
heavy*xæur-i-ðæhīer-de 'heard'
light*nær-i-ðæner-e-de 'saved'


űѸηǤϡʲζޤˤ HVD θ̤ѻ (Lass 100)

(i) a-stem neuter nom/acc sg: light scip-u 'ships' vs. heavy word 'word(s)', bān 'bone(s)'.
(ii) ō-stem feminine nom sg: light gief-u 'gift' vs. heavy lār 'learning'.
(iii) i-stem nom sg: light win-e 'friend' vs. heavy cwēn 'queen'
(iv) u-stem nom sg: light sun-u 'son' vs. heavy hand 'hand'.
(v) Neuter/feminine strong adjective declension: light sum 'a certain', fem nom sg, neut nom/acc sg sum-u vs. heavy gōd 'good', fem nom sg gōd.
(vi) Thematic weak verb preterites . . . .


ΤѸˤޤ HVD θ̤³¸ƤϤ鷺Ǥ롥ʬ heard ʣ sheep ˲餫Ե§򴶤ȤǤϤĤƤ HVD αƶŪˤΤäƤΤǤ롥

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2015-06-06 Sat

#2231. ưβ˸ -st- [preterite-present_verb][phonetics][conjugation][inflection][-st][dental_suffix]

ư (preterite-present_verb) ˤĤƤϡ#58. ưθ߷Ȳ ([2009-06-25-1]) ȡ#66. ư ([2009-07-03-1]) ǤߤƤθűѸˤǤ wāt (to know) mōt ΥѥįƤȡˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥ưβϡѲưǤ뤫Τ褦˻ (dental suffix) դΤǡ줾 *witte, *mōtte ʤɤȤʤꤽʤΤºݤ˸űѸʸڤ֤ wiste/wisse, mōste ʤɤǤʰʲɽǤϡϢβս֤ǼƤˡ-st- Τ褦 s ΤϤɤ櫓

Present Indicative
Sg. 1wātmōt
2wāstmōst
3wātmōt
Pl.witonmōton
Present Subjunctive
Sg.witemōte
Imperative
Sg.wite 
Pl.witað 
Preterite Indicative
Sg. 3wiste, wissemōste
Pl.wiston, wissonmōston
Preterite Subjunctive
Sg.wiste, wissemōste
Infinitivewitan 
Infl.inf.to witanne 
Pres.part.witende 
Pa.part.witen 


wiste ΰ۷Ȥơwisse Ȥ֤ߤΤǤ롥Hogg and Fulk (301) ˤȡ

In the pret. of wāt, forms with -st- are more frequent than those with -ss- already in EWS, except in Bo, although -ss- is the older form, reflecting PGmc *-tt- . . . . Wiste was created analogically by the re-addition of a dental preterite suffix at a later date; such forms are found in the (sic) all the WGmc languages. Pa.part. witen is formed by analogy to strong verbs . . . .


ޥĸǤϡꤷ褦 *witte, *mōtte ƷƤ뤬 -tt- -ss- ؤѲ褦ԤűѸʸڤ wisse ϢʤäȤȤƤθ˻ t դƲǤ뤳ȤΤűѸǰŪ˸ wiste Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥ơmōste ϲư֤ȤƤ wiste äΤȤ (Hogg and Fulk 306)
̤˲ưβϡ츻ŪˤϡŲפȾΤ뤳ȤǤ뤬wiste, mōste ˴ؤƤϡηаޤ˴դߤơֻŲפȸƤ٤ΤǤϤʤ

Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-11-26-1]

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2015-05-31 Sun

#2225. hear -- heard -- heard [verb][conjugation][inflection][high_vowel_deletion][i-mutation][analogy][sobokunagimon][dental_suffix]

ɸγѤϸѸǤԵ§Ȥ뤬ʬǻ (dental suffix) 뤳Ȥ顤Ե§٤㤤ȤߤƤ褵Ǥ롥ưϸűѸǤϼѲ1°ޤ˵§ŪưǤꡤ hīeranñ˷ hīerdeʬ (ge)hīered ȳѤ
űѸưζηϤȤդ٤ϡѲ1ưΤʤ hīeran פΤΤϲλľ첻礱Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥Ʊ1° fremman (to perform) fremede 첻ȼnerian (to save) nerede 첻ȼϡűѸΩĻ hīeran פ fremman פ nerian פȤϰۤʤ벻ФƤǤ롥Ѹ *heared ʤ heard βʬθˤϡűѸ̤ǤϽʬǤʤ˸ŤޤʤФʤʤ
Ѳ1ư˶̤Ūطʤϡ⤫ĤƲʬΤ *-ida Τ褦 i ղäȤǤ롥 i Ȥʤäơ촴첻 i-mutation 뤳ȤȤʤä i ϡܺ٤Ͼά뤬 fremman ФƲ fremede Τ褦 m ñҲȤʤäƤ뤳ȡ nerian ФƲ nerede Τ褦 i üƤ뤳ȤȤط롥
ˤȤäƽפʤΤϡhīeran פ fremman nerian פȰۤʤꡤĹ첻˻Ҳ³촴äƤȤΤĹ̵ι첻 (/i/ /u/) ³ˤϡι첻æȤ "High Vowel Deletion" (high_vowel_deletion) űѸλƤʤ*hauzida > *hīridæ > hīerde ȤȯãꤵƤ (Hogg, Vol. 1 222--23) High Vowel Deletion θ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1674. Ѳȶ޸οʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1]) Ǥ̤󤲤ʤ鿨ƤΤǡȤ줿
ƸűѸβ hīerde Ϥ줿衤Ʊϩ򤿤ɤϤäʬϡͽۤ *(ge)hīerd ǤϤʤʸڤΤ첻줿 (ge)hīered Ǥ롥ϡfremman nerian פη̤ȹͤ (Hogg, Vol. 2 263)
ơűѸѸˤơʤƲʬˤˤƤϡĹ첻2ҲפȤŤäƤȤ顤#1751. ʣ1Ǥβû̡ ([2014-02-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡĹ첻û礿븽߶޷Ǥϡ d 礱Ƥ뤿˲ϽŤʤ餺ûƤʤˤꡤߤ hear heard 첻㤬롥
ʤƱṽ¤ hīeran פ¾ư줬űѸʹߡhīeran Ʊ褦˿äƤȤȡǤϤʤdēman ƱפǤϤ뤬ˤʬ deemed ǤꡤŪ˴˵§ŪǤ롥ϡѤƯ̤Ǥ롥
Ѳ1γѤˤĤƤϡ#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1]) ⻲ȡ

Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2015-05-24 Sun

#2218. concrete vs abstract word [word][morphology][inflection][terminology][generative_grammar]

Ullmann (43--44) ˡ (word) ߤȤơɸΩ󤲤Ƥ롥츫ȡΩϸΰ̣ŪŪ̾Ǥж̾줫̾줫ȤΩΤȤ뤬ºݤˤ Ullmann ϷŪʴ concrete abstract ȤƻѤƤ롥Ullmann (43--44) "the contrast between 'concrete' and 'abstract' word-structure" ˴ؤߤƤߤ褦

In Latin and other highly inflected languages it often happens that a word does not exist in an abstract state, as a pure designation of the thing it stands for: there is annus, nominative singular, annum, accusative singular, annorum, genitive plural, etc., but no single form denoting the idea of 'year' as such, without specifying its function in the sentence. In this sense, the Latin word is concrete, i.e. grammatically determined, whereas the French an or the English year are abstract, grammatically neutral until they are embedded in a specific utterance.


δ餹ȡƥӤͭűѸθϤƤ concrete ǤꡤФ븽ѸθϤƤ abstract ȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ stone ϷŪŪˡСסܸθ⤿ƤŪʤΤǤΤޤޥѥƤ뤳ȤǤˤɽ魯ȤǤ뤬űѸ stān ϡСפɽ魯Τߤʤ餺Ūʾ󡤤ʤʡʤ뤤гʡˤǤ뤳ȤƱ˼Ƥ롥षŪʾ򼨤ȤʤñŪˡСפɽ魯ˡʤȸäƤ褤ˤŪ¿ξޤޤʤȤǡűѸ stān ʤꡤζ޷Ǥ stānes, stāne, stānas, stāna, stānum ʤϡŪʸǤȤ롥
Τ褦ʶŪʸϡŪ˻ȤȤ㤨м䥰å꡼ԻȤˤϡǺޤ󼨤롥ɤη򸫽ФȤ٤Ф褤ʤФʤʤ¿οͤˤȤäƼʤη֤֤Τ̾δФ⤷ʤϸسؽ̤Ƽʷ֤ɽǤȴ餵Ƥ⤷ʤΤŪˤʤ¾γʤ椷ۤƤ롤äɽȤФ٤Ǥ롤ȤȤϵǤΤ⤷ʤǤŬڤǤ뤫ɤϤɤΤ褦˷Ф褤Τ㤨СŪˤϺ뤫⤷ʤʸˡˤŪʴĤޤºݤȯäˤΤȤΤʤ֤򡤼θФΩƤȤȤϤꤦ롥ޤűѸưϡΥե󥹸ɥĸʤɤƱͤˡ򸫽ФΩƤΤ㤨ľˡ1;ñߤη֤ǷǤưͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
ͤƤߤСѸθűѸӤŪǤȤǡ̾ˤʣޤ⤢뤷ưˤϳƼζ޷롥äơФηˤϡϤꤢٶŪʸ줬ФƤȤͤ롥㤨Сstone ϡñͭʤ򼨤Ƥ¤ˤơŪǤ롥ǤϡŪʸȤΤΤ⤷ʤʸˡȤǤСˤ餺 concrete word Ȥ surface form ΤȤǤꡤabstract word Ȥ underlying form ΤȤǤȰŪ򤹤Τ

Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.

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2015-05-23 Sat

#2217. űѸ춯Ѳư෿ΤޤȤ [oe][verb][inflection][paradigm]

űѸζѲưŪ7˶ʬ롥Mitchell and Robinson (37, 40) ɽ䡤򻲾ȤơޤȤɽ2äƤߤޤ绨ĤʶʬɽǡɽŪư夲ƳѼ׷ (principal parts) 򼨤Ρ

ClassInf.1st Pret.2nd Pret.Past Ptc.
Iscīnan 'shine'scānscinonscinen
IIcrēopan 'creep'crēapcruponcropen
brūcan 'enjoy'brēacbruconbrocen
IIIbreġdan 'pull'bræġdbrugdonbrogden
IVberan 'bear'bærbǣronboren
Vtredan 'tread'trædtrǣdontreden
VIfaran 'go'fōrfōronfaren
VII(a) healdan 'hold'hēoldhēoldonhealden
(b) hātanhēthētonhāten


ˡ촴첻ȻҲȤ߹碌˱Ʒޤ gradation (Ablaut) Υѥ򼨤ŪǤϤ뤬ʬϹ⤤

ClassExampleConsonant StructureInf.1st Pret.2nd Pret.Past Ptc.
Iscīnanī + one cons.īāii
IIcrēopanēo + one cons.ēoēauo
brūcanū + one cons.ūēauo
IIIbreġdane + two cons.eæuo
weorpaneo + r + cons.eoeauo
feohtaneo + h + cons.eoeauo
helpane + l + cons.eeauo
ġieldanpalatal + ie + 2 cons.ieeauo
drincani + nasal + cons.iauu
IVberane + one cons. (usu. a liquid)eæǣo
Vtredane + one cons. (usu. an obstruent)eæǣe
VIfarana + one cons.aōōa
VIIhealdan V1ēoēoV1
hātan V2ēēV2


⤤ȤäƤ⡤ѲưˤϤ˵󤲤ܥѥ󤫤æԵ§פΤΤ⾯ʤʤűѸ˻ޤǤʳˤ¿βѲäФзŪƯƤ

Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 8th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-03-22-1] [2018-06-14-1]

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2015-05-16 Sat

#2210. think -- thought -- thought γ [verb][inflection][i-mutation][oe][morphology][phonetics][compensatory_lengthening][sobokunagimon]

ɸ think γѤΤߤʤ餺bring, buy, seek, teach ʤɤγѤǤϡʬ˷˸Ȥϰۤʤ첻롥ۤʤ첻˲äơֻξ ght ʤҲϢ³졤Ե§פȤΰݤϷŪǤ롥Ūˤϵ§ŪưǤꡤ-ed դƲʬ˷¿ư֤Ǥ롥¿ΤΤ¿βѲŪ˷иƤˡ̤ȤơԵ§ޤʤɤΤѤ򼨤ȤˤʤäƤ롥
Mitchell and Robinson (48--49) ˽äơŪаޤ⤷褦ޤthink ưθűѸǤηɽ˼ߤޤǤѸȤʤäΡʵ§ѲؤȰܹԤΤޤޤƤ롥

Inf.Pret. Sg.Past Ptc.
brenġan 'bring'brōhtebrōht
bycgan 'buy'bohteboht
cwellan 'kill'cwealdecweald
reċċan 'tell'rōhterōht
sēċan 'seek'sōhtesōht
sellan 'give'sealdeseald
streċċan 'stretch'strōhtestrōht
tǣċan 'teach'tǣhte, tāhtetǣt, tāht
þenċan 'think'þōhteþōht
þynċan 'seem'þūhteþūht
wyrċan 'work'worhteworht


ưϡűѸʬˤмѲ1°롥Υ饹ưħϡΩĥޥĸλˡ֤Ⱦ첻 j äƤȤǤ롥ˤ촴첻 i-mutation κѤꡤꤢ뤤Ϲ⤤첻ؤѲi-mutation j ϡθ塤üꡤ첻 i ȤưѤ줿ꤷ
Ѳ1ʬưˤƤϡ嵭 i-mutation κѤߡʬޤޥѥΤ˸줿촴 l 뤤ŪҲġ˰ưˤƤϸ߷ζޤˤΤߺѤΰưǤϡʬˤ i-mutation Ⱦ첻 j 礱ƤΤǤ롥̤ȤơűѸˤ븽ߴȲʬ˴ӤȡԤԤʸꤢ뤤㤤첻ʤȤ⤽κפ򼨤Ȥˤʤäɽ e vs o y vs u Ωǧ줿
cwellann, sellan ˤĤơߤȲʬˤǤ e vs ea Ω򼨤Ūˤ e vs æ ε§ŪΩȤߤƤ褤æ ʬ˷ˤΤҲ ld dz (breaking) 򵯤ea Ѳˤʤ
ޤþenċċan, þynċan, brenġan ˴ؤơʬ˷ ht λҲ򼨤 *nċt η礬§ŪȯãΤǤ롥˻Ū ċ th ؤѲn ϾüȤȤĹ (compensatory_lengthening) ˤԤ첻Ĺ
bycgan, wyrċan ˤĤƤϡͽۤ y vs u Ω򼨤y vs o ȤʤäƤ롥ʬ˷ o Τϡ u βĶˤƲФ i-mutation äˡ߷Ǥͽۤ y Ƥ뤬ʬ˷ˤƤϲη̤Ǥ u ߤȤ櫓
Τ褦ΩĻ͡ʲѲˡűѸζ֤ȤƤϡ⶯ѲưΤȤ첻 gradation (Ablaut) 򼨤褦ˤߤ뤬̤ȤƤΤ褦ˤߤƤˤ򤿤ɤл (dental suffix) դƲʬ˷̾μѲưˤʤȤ롥
ưξܤˤˤĤƤϡHogg and Fulk (273--75) ⻲ȡseek ˤĤƤϡ#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) Ǥ⿨줿

Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 8th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2015-05-06 Wed

#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ [phonetics][consonant][assimilation][conjugation][inflection][3sp][verb][paradigm][oe][suffix][sobokunagimon][have][v]

ɸΤ褦ˡѸ have Ե§ѲưǤ롥has -s 뤷, had -d ⤢뤫顤Ե§Ȥϼ㴳Ե§Ȥ٤ʤ *haves *haved ǤϤʤΤ
ŪˤߤСߤǤϵƤʤ haves haved ¸ߤűѸ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤȡưϽ˵§Ūʶޤ򤹤ưǤϤʤä٤˵§ŪǤꡤ̤ϻ¾ε§ѲưȹͤƤƺ٤ʤűѸ䡤Ȥ櫓ѸǤϡhaves haved ֵ§Ūפʽ֤Τ˹ԤƤΤǤ롥
űѸ habban (have) ζɽϡ#74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1]) ǷǤʲ˰۷֤ޤ᤿ɽƷǤ褦

habban (have)Present IndicativePresent SubjunctivePreterite IndicativePreterite SubjunctiveImperative
1st sg.hæbbehæbbehæfdehæfde 
2nd sg.hæfst, hafasthafa
3rd sg.hæfþ, hafaþ 
pl.habbaþhæbbenhæfdonhæfdenhabbaþ


Pres. Ind. 3rd Sg. βսߤȡűѸ has ֤Ȥơhæfþ, hafaþ 2󤬤äȤ狼롥 Τ褦2ҲܤԤηǤϡѸ˺ǽλҲ f æhath ʤɤη֤ hath ϶Ѹޤ³
3ñθ -(e)th -(e)s ѲаޤˤĤơ#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) Ϥᡤ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ ([2015-03-23-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤܲδؿǤ븽Ѹ has Ȥ֤ľܤεϡhath ζ޸ִ˵ϡűѸ Northumbria ˳ǧ hæfis, haefes ʤɤ˵٤ -s ĸűѸν֤ϡѸˤϤ¿η֤ȯãf 첻˶ޤ줿Ķæꡤfs Τ褦2ҲܤĶæʤɤơŪ has Τ褦ʷ֤Ϥ줿hath has 鿰æϡΤ褦ˤۤʿŪǤ롥Ϣơhave of ˤĤơ³줬ҲǻϤޤȤ˿æ뤳ȤѸˤƤߤ줿ye ha seyn (you have seen) o þat light (of that light) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿 (p. 411ˡ
ʤ had ˤĤƤϡ#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ¿θ v νϤȤǤ롥#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]) 碌ƻȤ줿
MED hāven (v.) ԴѤʰֻꥹȤǡhas had ֤ΤƤ餤

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

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2015-03-23 Mon

#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ [verb][conjugation][emode][language_change][suffix][inflection][3sp][lexical_diffusion][schedule_of_language_change][speed_of_change][bible]

Ѹˤư츽߿;θ -th -s ѲˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ󡤤˴Ϣ Bambas ʸɤߤκǿθ̤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤ褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
ѸˤǤϡ1600ǯդξȤ The Authorised Version Լˤ3ñ -s ̵Ǥ뤳ȤФˤ롥Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȤΤƤ롥顤ʸŪʸǤ -s ϸŪˤȤ򤱤Τ̤äΤǤϤʤȤ¬Ωġ Jespersen (19) ϤΤ褦ʰոǤ롥

Contemporary prose, at any rate in its higher forms, has generally -th'; the s-ending is not at all found in the A[uthorized] V[ersion], nor in Bacon A[tlantis] (though in Bacon E[ssays] there are some s'es). The conclusion with regard to Elizabethan usage as a whole seems to be that the form in s was a colloquialism and as such was allowed in poetry and especially in the drama. This s must, however, be considered a licence wherever it occurs in the higher literature of that period. (qtd in Bambas, p. 183)


Bambas (183) ˤСꥶ٥īλʸȤΥƥȤ򹭤ĴƤߤȡºݤˤ1590ǯޤǤˤʸŪʸˤƤ -s ǧƤꡤ򤵤ƤͻҤϤʤθ⡤Ŀͤˤä٤ΰ㤤礭ΤΡ-s 򤱤줿ȹͤͳϤʤȤJespersen θϡ-s βᾮɾǤȡ

The fact seems to be that by the 1590's the -s-form was fully acceptable in literary prose usage, and the varying frequency of the occurrence of the new form was thereafter a matter of the individual writer's whim or habit rather than of deliberate selection.


ơ17 -th -s ˼äƵˤʤäƤäȸ롥Wyld (333--34) ۩

From the beginning of the seventeenth century the 3rd Singular Present nearly always ends in -s in all kinds of prose writing except in the stateliest and most lofty. Evidently the translators of the Authorized Version of the Bible regarded -s as belonging only to familiar speech, but the exclusive use of -eth here, and in every edition of the Prayer Book, may be partly due to the tradition set by the earlier biblical translations and the early editions of the Prayer Book respectively. Except in liturgical prose, then, -eth becomes more and more uncommon after the beginning of the seventeenth century; it is the survival of this and not the recurrence of -s which is henceforth noteworthy. (qtd in Bambas, p. 185)


Bambas Ϥˤ۵Ĥ򾧤롥Wyld θϡ-eth βᾮɾǤȡĤޤȤ Bambas ϡ1600ǯ򶴤ǯδ֡-s -th ŪˤԤԤִȤήǤϤ뤬ξ¸λȤߤΤŬڤǤȤոΰո٤ΤϡBambas ȤԤä16ȾФ17ȾФˤƤλʸˤĴ̤Ǥ롥Bambas (186) ɽƸ褦

AuthorTitleDateIncidence of -s
Ascham, RogerToxophilus15456%
Robynson, RalphMore's Utopia15510%
Knox, JohnThe First Blast of the Trumpet15580%
Ascham, RogerThe Scholmaster15700.7%
Underdowne, ThomasHeriodorus's Anaethiopean Historie15872%
Greene, RobertGroats-Worth of Witte; Repentance of Robert Greene; Blacke Bookes Messenger159250%
Nashe, ThomasPierce Penilesse159250%
Spenser, EdmundA Veue of the Present State of Ireland159618%
Meres, FrancisPoetric159813%
Dekker, ThomasThe Wonderfull Yeare 1603160384%
Dekker, ThomasThe Seuen Deadlie Sinns of London160678%
Daniel, SamuelThe Defence of Ryme160762%
Daniel, SamuelThe Collection of the History of England1612--1894%
Drummond of Hawlhornden, W.A Cypress Grove16237%
Donne, JohnDevotions162474%
Donne, JohnIvvenilia163364%
Fuller, ThomasA Historie of the Holy Warre16380.4%
Jonson, BenThe English Grammar164020%
Milton, JohnAreopagitica164485%


ץåȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥

Incidence of -s in Prose between C16b and C17a by Bambas

δ֤Ǥǯ0.5789%ΨǾ徺Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ط0.49Ǥ롥ΤȤƤϱ夬˰㤤ʤġΤФĤˤ롥ΤȤᾮɾɾ⤹٤ǤϤʤȤΤ Bambas η

Bambas, Rudolph C. "Verb Forms in -s and -th in Early Modern English Prose". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 46 (1947): 183--87.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
Wyld, Henry Cecil. A History of Modern Colloquial English. 2nd ed. London: Fisher Unwin, 1921.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-21-1] [2015-05-06-1]

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2015-03-20 Fri

#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ [exaptation][tense][aspect][category][language_change][verb][conjugation][inflection]

ε#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ĸ줫饲ޥĸˤȤؤˤĤơܤ롥ĸΥƥ꡼Ƥ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޥĸˤƻȿΥƥ꡼ιװȤƤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ζ̤ؤȰܹԤŪʶ̤ݻޤޤˡŬäȤˤʤ롥ޤбγά޼Ū˼ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

(Indo-European)            (Germanic)

   PRESENT  PRESENT

   PERFECT  PRETERITE 1

   AORIST   PRETERITE 2

ޥμѲưˤĤƤϡĸ PERFECT AORIST ϷŪ˴ͻ礷Τǡޤμ褦 PRETERITE 1 2 ζ̤ϤĤƤʤѲưϤäݼŪǤꡤĤƤ PERFECT AORIST ηŪפĤʤ顤2 PRETERITE ؤȵǽ򥷥եȤʤĤޤ곰Ŭˡ2 PRETERITE ˤĤƤϡ#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ȤǡĸǤưΥƥ꡼첻 (ablaut) ˤäɸ줿e-grade PRESENT o-grade PERFECT zero-grade 뤤 ē-grade AORIST ɽűѸΤĤζѲư PRESENT, PRETERITE 1, PRETERITE 2 η֤ߤȡbīt-an -- bāt -- bit-on, bēod-an -- bēad -- budon, help-an -- healp -- hulpon ʤɤȤʤäƤ롥ĸʹߤ첻ѲˤľܤϸˤʤäƤ뤬űѸ3ζѲ˸뤽줾첻ΰ㤤ϡĸ e-grade, o-grade, zero-grade κб롥Ĥޤꡤ3ζѲϲŪˤ³Ǥ롥äơޥĸˤܼŪѲƤäΤϷ֤ǤϤʤǽȤȤˤʤ롥餯ϰĸζ̤Ƥˤʤ˵ڤӡݻ줿ŪΩ̤Υƥ꡼ʤȿζ̤˿˱Ѥ줿ȤȤ
Lass (87) ˤȡγŬϰʲΰϢβФꤵƤ롥

(i) loss of the (semantic) opposition perfect/aorist; (ii) retention of the diluted semantic content 'past' shared by both (in other words, loss of aspect but retention of distal time-deixis); (iii) retention of the morpho(phono)logical exponents of the old categories perfect and aorist, but divested of their oppositional meaning; (iv) redeployment of the now semantically evacuated exponents as markers of a secondary (concordial) category; in effect re-use of the now 'meaningless' old material to bolster an already existing concordial system, but in quite a new way.


ĸˤ¸ߤʤäƥ꡼ޥĸˤƿȯ줿Ȥ̣ǡγŬϤޤ "conceptual novelty" λȤ롥

Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.

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2015-03-08 Sun

#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγ [verb][conjugation][emode][language_change][suffix][inflection][3sp][bible][shakespeare][schedule_of_language_change]

#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ173ñζ޸ -th -s ؤ֤äƤäϡλ夫ʹԤƤִηаޤ򾯤Ҳ𤷤褦
űѸǹԤʤƤ3ñ -s ̤ˤСѸ -s Ƹ줿Τ14ΥɥΥƥȤˤƤǤ롥Ϥޤä15˽٤ȯŪΤ16--17ˤƤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ȿǤƤ褦ʥƥȤˤơ٤ޤäƤä褦-s ϡ褽1600ǯޤǤɸȤʤäƤȻפ뤬16ΥƥȤˤɤ줬ߤΤ¤Ǥ롥Ť -th 첻ȼä -eth ȤƲ-s ϲʤäᡤξԤϱΧŪǻȤʬ줿פ (ex. that hateth thee and hates us all) 㤨СShakespeare ǤϻʸǤϤۤȤ -s ѤƤ뤬ʸǤ -th 롥ȤϤξ٤ϡΧŪװʸŪװʾ˸ĿͤޤϺʤʤ˰¸뤳Ȥ¿쳵뤳ȤϤǤʤdoth hath ʤ٤˹⤤ˤĤơŷФ餯ͥǤ³-s ٤줿ȤȤϡŪħ1ĤȤõ
Lass (162--65) ϡִΥ塼ˤĤƼΤ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

In the earlier sixteenth century {-s} was probably informal, and {-th} neutral and/or elevated; by the 1580s {-s} was most likely the spoken norm, with {-eth} a metrical variant.


켣 (217--18) ˤȤ̤˸ƤߤȡThe Authorised Version (1611) Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȿФ Milton (1608--74) Ǥ doth hath ̤ˤ -th ʤShakespeare ǤϡJulius Caesar (1599) ʬۤ˸¤äƤߤȡ-s Ψ do have ǤϤ줾 11.76%, 8.11% ʳΰ̤ưǤ 95.65% ȰݤƤ롥
Ȥ櫓16--17ξڵ˴Ťˤդ٤ϡ#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) Ǹ褦ˡɽ -th ȤäȤƤ⡤줬Ǥ [s] ȯƤǽȤȤǤ롥
ִΥ塼ˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2015-03-03 Tue

#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬ [generative_grammar][syntax][agreement][3sp][verb][inflection][agreement][conjugation]

#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) ǡʸˡˤʬϤȽŪ˼夲ϤʤȤ䤤ˤƤʤȤȽǤꡤŪʬϤȤȽƤ櫓ǤϤʤषϼưΰ (agreement) ưζޤˤäɸ˰ŪŬѤǤ롤Ūˤ줿ʬϤTime flies. ȤñʸʸˡʬϤäȡʲιʸڤʤʸˡǤΩˤäƵǽƤΥ٥νۤʤǽϤˡ

Syntactic Analysis for 3sp

ǾʸΤ IP (=Inflectional Phrase) Ǥꡤ I (=Inflection)˼Ȥʤ NP (=Noun Phrase)˽ҸưȤʤ VP (=Verb Phrase) ġNP time I s Ψ (government) 礦طˤȤ졤ΨطҤΰפȿϢƤ롥NP time ˤϡ[+ 3RD PERSON] [+ SINGULAR] ȤͿƤꡤI 񤵤 [+ PRESENT] ȶĤơs Ȥ޼Ф롥
οޤǤϤޤǤƤʤΤܼư (affix-hopping) Ȥ§ŬѤơs VP fly ˰ưǸ˲DzĴ time flies Ȥ¸Ȥ롥פˡΨطˤ NP I ΤȤǡ;Ργͤȹ礵졤٤ưפȶ޼ s 򤵤Ȥ롼ʼºݤˤϡ3ñΤۤľˡǤ뤳ȤɬܾǤϾάˡΥ롼1ķƤȡ¸¾쵬§ѤơϢŪʸǤʸ "Time doesn't fly." 䵿ʸ "Does time fly?" ʤɤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥
ʬϤɸ฽Ѹ3ñ -s ˤޤĤȷ֤Ӥ꤫ǤȤϤ뤬ʤΤ褦ʸݤΤȤȤʤʸˡϡֲפ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפ䤤Τդ֤ʤפ䤤ˤϡϤŪʻѤۤʤ

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2015-02-07 Sat

#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ [verb][inflection][agreement][conjugation][paradigm][morphology][3sp][3pp][sobokunagimon]

ɸϡѸؽԤ٤ϤѤʵɽʤǤ롥ѸǤư3;ñ߷ȤƸ촴 -(e)s դΤ§ȤʤäƤ롥(1) 줬3;ΤǤꡤ(2) 줬ñǤꡤ(3) ߤǤȤ3Ĥξ郎٤·äȤˤΤղäȤ§ʤΤǡѸؽԤˤȤäƽˤʸ̩ˤ (4) ľˡǤȤɬסˡ伫Ȥ⡤Ѹä񤤤ꤹݤˤϡȤ櫓ư줬Υ줿ʤɤˡ§׵ᤵפ򤦤ä˺Ƥޤ3ñ -s ȤϲʤΤΤ¸ߤΤȳؽԤԻ׵Ĥ˻פΤ϶ˤƼǤ롥
Ѹˤ3ñ -s ϱοȻפäƤ롥ŪʴϡưΰפȤϤʸݤΰȤơεʬϤʤ줦롥Ω줫ϡ㤨ʸˡǤ InflP ȤǽƤΤȤǼ̾ȶ޼Ȥδط򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤǡɤΤ褦ʾư -s ղä뤫Ǥ롥Ͼˤʤ3ñΤȤ -s դΤͳ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǽΩ줫ϡ-s ̵ͭˤꡤ(1) 줬3;Τ12;Τζ̡(2) 줬ñʣζ̡(3) ߤ󸽺ߤζ̤Ū뤳ȤǤ롤롥㤨С줬 Johnhe ǻؤ뤤 John and Marythey ǻؤΤ줫Ǥͽۤʸ̮ˤơ̾ʬʹʤäȤƤ⡤ʸ߻Ȥǡưθտʹ뤳ȤǤСפǤ롥Τ褦ǽ¤ˤơ-s ̵ͭϵǽŪȤȤǤä3ñ -s Ȥ§ⵡǽŪǤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ǥ3ñ -s Ρ֤ʤפˤƤʤǽȤǽݤΤǤСä3ñ -s ĤȤˡǤϤʤ¾ˤ͡ˡͤϤʤ3ñ -p Ȥ -g ǤϤʤΤʤ3ʣ -s ǤϤʤΤʤ3ñ -s ǤϤʤΤ뤤ϡβǽ򤹤٤Ȥ߹碌ŬưΥѥǤ⡤Ʊ褦Ѥ­Ĥޤꡤ嵭εǽŪϡ3ñ -s ĸѸΥѥ˸¤餺Ʊ褦Ѥ­¾ΥѥˤѤƤޤȤȤǤ롥ɡǽŪϡʤѸ줬ˤä3ñ -s ĥѥͭƤΤʤ
ŪǤ쵡ǽŪǤ졤Ūʴεϡ3ñ -s ˴ؤͿ褦ȤϤƤ뤬ΰʤƤˤܼŪ䤤ˤƤʤ̻ŪʴߤС֤ʤפؤϤäƤǤ롥
̻Ūʲˡɸȯ⤦褦֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפȤˤϡ֤ʤ3ñȤݥΤ;פʸĤʤФʤʤΤפȤռ롥¾ΥݥǤΤޤޤǤ褤Τˡʤ3ñ˸¤äݤʤȤ򤷤ʤФʤʤΤȡȤ̻ŪʻռȿФǤ롥̻Ūˤϡ3ñ -s ĤȤϡۤȤפʤȤ٤Ȥ¿ʤΤǤ롥ष䤦٤ϡ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥
Ǥϡ򤭤ΤȤäȤơűѸư lufian (to love) ľˡߤζɽǤ褦

lufian (to love)SingularPlural
1st personlufielufiaþ
2nd personlufastlufiaþ
3rd personlufaþlufiaþ


ζɽʬ褦ˡűѸǤ3ñ˸¤餺1ñ2ñ1ʣ2ʣ3ʣǤⲿ餫θդƤѸδϡ3ñΤߤ˸դ3ñȤ̻뤷ƤޤűѸǤϡʤλ⤽ѸˤѸˤʬŪˤ뤬ˤ줾ο;ΡȤ߹碌Ʊ٤ˡ̡פǤꡤˤ줿դʤФʤʤäС3ñߤΤ褦⤤ݥä櫓ǤϤʤ
űѸΡ֤٤ƤΥݥ̡פȤ⤤뤳ΥѥϡѸ줫Ѹˤ礭Ƥ롥űѸʹߡ޸֤褦̵ˤơ岽ĤˤϾüȤ礭ʲѲĬήʹԤ嵭 lufian ǤС1ñ lufie θϼ岽α¿ȤʤꡤѸǤΤʸ첻⤿ʤ love Ȥʤä lufian Τ⡤ƱλҲ첻岽üɡָ love ؤȯŸο;ΤǤⶦ̤θűѸʣ lufiaþ ϡ޸ˤ첻μ岽üη̡3ñ lufaþ ȷŪͻ礷ƤޤäȤطƤȤ櫓Ѹǡ³ˡߤΥѥͳ褹 n Ȥ loven Ȥ֤ѤȤ n Τ岽ü䤹äᡤѸޤǤˤϤ褽Ǥ love ؤ夤2ñ lufast ˤĤƤϡ޸ȤƾüϤΤҲ2ĤäƤꡤǤФۤܤΤޤޤηǸѸޤĤϤäȤ2ñб̾ thou 餯ҲŪװ¸߰յ򼺤Ω you ؤϤƤ˵ڤǡ-ast ζ޸Τ뵡򼺤ѤȤʤä2ñζ޸ϡ2ʣб you Ʊ񤤤򤹤뤳ȤˤʤäᡤΥݥؤ love
Ĥ3ñ lufaþ Ǥ롥˾üˤҲäƤˡѸޤǤϤۤܤΤޤޤݤ줿Ѹͳ褹 -s ϤȤ -þ ֤ȤѲäΤΡ̤ȤƤ -s üˤꤷҲäᡤ줬ѸޤĤä¾Υݥζ޸Ūʼ岽üα¿Ȥʤäꡤ¾μפʸִƤʤɤơĤˤϾääΤФ3ñ -s ϲŪ˶ǤǰꤷƤȤͳǡɤʡˤޤ޺ޤĤäΤǤ롥3ñ -s ľˡߤζޥѥˤǸĤȤ롥
ƽҤ٤뤬̻Ūʻռϡ֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפǤϤʤ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥Ρ֤ʤפγάϾǽҤ٤ƤºݤˤϸġΥݥˤĤƤäʣʷаޤ롥ѸˤǤϡ޸οʿ (levelling of inflection) ȤΤ絬ϤʲΰüȤơפʣǤ롥
3ñ -s ϢνˤĤƤ 3sp γƵ򡤴Ϣ3ʣ -s ȤѸ˾ˤĤƤ 3pp γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

ʸ嵭2017/03/15(Wed)ϢơҤΥ֥ȾεȤ֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤ񤤤ƤޤΤǡȤ

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2015-01-10 Sat

#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won [verb][conjugation][inflection][vowel][oe][homorganic_lengthening][sobokunagimon]

ѸԵ§Ѥ򼨤ư졤ä˸촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤʬư¿ϡŪʶѲưͳ褹롥űѸǤϸѸ¿ư줬Ѳư°ƤꡤȾޤǤ˼Ѳʵ§ѡˤذܹԤ뤫뤤ѸȤʤäưΤ붯ܹԤˤˤĤƤϡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1]) #527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1]) #528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1]) ʤɤε򻲾Ȥ줿
ơѸˤޤʤ館ѲưϡѤλˤäɸ drink--drank--drunk Τ褦ABC win--won--won Τ褦ABBʤɡĤμ˶ʬ뤬϶ѸʸɸѸˤƳΩΤȹͤƤ褤#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤϤޤʬ첻ɤ򼨤ΤʤʤäߤǤޤɸѼǤϰۤʤ첻Ѥ줿ꤹ롥
drink win γѥפΰ㤤Ѹ˸ɤεϡűѸζѲưˤ1ʡñפȤˤ2ʡʣפȤˤ2ब̤Ƥ¤ˤ롥#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡưϼοȿ;Τ˱2ĤΰۤʤäƤdrink ǤС -- 1 -- 2 -- ʬνˡdrincan -- dranc -- druncon -- druncen Τ褦˳Ѥwin ˤĤƤ winnan -- wann -- wunnon -- wunnen ȳѤʤѼ׷ (principal parts) ȸƤ֡ˡȤѸʸ塤ηΤδάĬήȼưβ2η֤̤뵡򸺤餷ƤäĤƤ12Τ줫ͥȤʤͣβȤƵǽƤȤˤʤäβʾʣǤꡤѸޤǤ˷֤夻㤷ɤ򼨤Ŀͺư¿ädrink Ϥޤ1 dranc ͳ褹֤ɸѸβȤ夹뤳Ȥˤʤꡤwin ˤĤƤϤޤ2 wunnan η֡ʸ won ֤ /wʌn/ ȯˤͳ褹֤Ѥ줿ȤȤǤ롥
12Τ줬Ѥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ŤװǤʤdrincan winnan °붯Ѳ3¾ưˤĤĴ٤Ƥߤȡdrinkcan Τ褦˸1Ѥ줿Τˤ hringan, scrincan, sincan, singan, springan, swimmanwinnan Τ褦2Τ줿Τˤ clingan, spinnan, stingan, wringan 롥ɸѼǤϲ̤첻ķ֤Ѥ륱⾯ʤʤ㤨Сsing βɸѼǤ sang ɸѼ sung Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤspin βɸѼǤ spun ʳѼǤ span ⤢ꤦ롤ʴꡤp. 76ˡ
ʤbindan, findan, grindan, windan ⶯Ѳ3ưǡ2Ѥ줿פǤ (ex. bound, found, ground, wound) 첻ϡѸƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˤĹʤꡤ˸첻 (gvs) ˤ2첻 /aʊ/ Ĥ˻äƤǡwinnan ΥפȤϾۤʤ벻Ūаޤéä

ͺرѸˡ3ǡ̿2013ǯ

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2014-12-11 Thu

#2054. seek beseech θҲ (2) [consonant][phonetics][inflection][palatalisation][old_norse][contact][analogy][me_dialect]

#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) 񤤤ǡKrygier ˤϢʸɤεκǸǡseek /k/ ǹԤ줿ťΥɸƱ /k/ αƶˤΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤Krygier Ϥ򶯤ٻƤ롥ǫϤʤΤǡפ򵭤Ƥ
εǤȤꡤűѸб sēċan ǤꡤλҲ [k] ǤϤʤŸ˻ [ʧ] äθβϡGmc *sōkjan ˤƸ [j] ³ƤȤˤ줿ΤǤ롥űѸθ߷ޤǤϸ줿 [ʧ] 뤬2;ñ3;ñζ޷Τߤ sēcst, sēcþ Τ褦 [k] 򼨤ʤΥѥǤθؤˤĤƤϲŪʵ뤬ǤϾάˡŪʸˤȡ23;ñ [k] ѥ˹ꡤ1;ñʤɤ٤Ƥζ޷ [k] 򼨤˻äȤ롥 (analogy) ΤʤǤѥǤοʿ (levelling) ȸƤФतβȤ (cf. #555. 2 analogy ([2010-11-03-1])) Hogg (7.42) ⤳ٻƤ롥

Following general principles of analogy . . . we would expect the nom.sg. to predominate over plural forms in nouns, and in strong verbs the present forms similarly to predominate over past forms. . . . In the present tense of weak verbs the alternation type sēcan ? sēcþ is, as would be predicted, the source of later seek, cf. beseech, where the affricate has been extended, perhaps on pragmatic grounds, and so for other similar verbs, such as think, work.


Krygier ϡ˵롥̾Ѥͭɸʷ̵ɸʷݤ߹ޤƤǤ롥ǤСsēċan ξ硤ष1;ñʤɤ [ʧ] ķ̵֤ɸȤߤʤϤ顤[ʧ] ؿʿƤ椯ΤڤȤ¤ȿФǤ롥ΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤष [ʧ] ؿʿ beseech ˴ؤƤϤĤΤǤꡤseek ˤĤƱФȤ񤷤ΤǤϤʤ
Krygier ϡseek Ʊ֥饹°ưʸ촴 [k] ļѲIưˤΥꥹȤä (catch (OFr cachier), dretch (OE dreccan), letch (OE læccan), quetch (OE cweccan), reach (OE rǣcan), reach (2) (OE reccan), rech (OE reccan), seek (OE sēcan), stretch (OE streccan), teach (OE tǣcan), think (OE þencan ? þyncan), watch (OE w(r)eccan), work (OE wyrcan)) ơ13ĤưˤĤơ5Ĥ˶ʬѸ򽦤Ф[k] 򼨤 [ʧ] 򼨤夲η̡ưΤȤƤΤȤƤ [ʧ] ͥǤϤĤưˤĤƤष [k] ͥǤ뤳ȤƾʤȤ¾٤٤Ȥ狼äŪˤϡHogg ΰѤͽۤ褦ˡseek, think, work 3줬Τ褦ʬۤ򼨤 (Krygier 465)
Ǹˤä [k] ͥǤȤȤϡťΥɸδͿ򵿤碌롥ºݡ˵󤲤ưбťΥɸˤ [k] 롥3ˤĤƤСťΥɸ sœkja, þekkja/þykkja, yrkja Ǥ롥ξΤߤǤޤǤ뤬ξˤϸťΥɸλͿͤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤϡϤ [k] ɸȤƺѤ줿ȤʥꥪꤹΤߤseek beseech ʿŪȯãʤäΤϡťΥɸ sœkja ʸڤ뤬 *besœkja ʸڤʤȤȤطƤΤǤϤʤ (Krygier 468)
Krygier (468) ηʤΤǡѤƤ

By way of a summary, the following interpretation of the developments in the "seek"-group regarding velar restoration can be proposed. The Present-day English situation is a result of an interplay of two factors. One of them is analogical levelling of the alternations resulting from Primitive Old English syncope of medial unstressed [i]. Contrary to earlier scholarship, however, a path of development parallel to that in strong verbs is postulated, thus removing the minority velar forms from second and third person singular present tense. This would give palatal consonants throughout the present paradigm in all dialects of Late Old English/Early Middle English. On this pattern the influence of Old Norse equivalents of the "seek"-verbs should be superimposed. For obvious reasons, initially it was limited mainly to the north-east, later spreading southwards, with West Midlands as a possible relic area. The absence of an Old Norse equivalent would favour the preservation of the palatal type, while its existence would further velar restoration, as best exemplified by the seek ? beseech contrast. In individual cases other factors, such as the existence of etymologically related Old English words with a velar, e.g., wyrcan : weorc, could have played a secondary role, which can probably be seen primarily in isolated velar forms in the south.


Krygier, Marcin. "Old English (Non)-Palatalised */k/: Competing Forces of Change at Work in the "seek"-Verbs." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 461--73.
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-22-1] [2016-10-17-1]

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2014-11-02 Sun

#2015. seek beseech θҲ [consonant][phonetics][inflection][palatalisation]

#49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡspeak / speech, wake / watch, match / make ʤɤΥڥˤ /k/ /ʧ/ θؤߤ롥ԤԤθ (palatalisation) ǤꡤűѸǤξϸùܴ֤Τߤʤ餺޷ִ֤ˤƤ⵬§Ūб򼨤
㤨СѸư seek θűѸˤľˡߤζޤ򼨤ȡic sēċe, þū sēcst, hē/hēo/hit sēcþ, wē/ġē/hīe sēcaþ Ȥʤꡤ sēċan ä޷ˤäơ<ċ> /ʧ/ <c> /k/ ؤƤ뤳Ȥդ줿ȡѸ seek θҲ /k/ ϡ2;ñ3;ñʣζޤˤҲѤ褦ˤߤ롥ƬդϢ beseech (< OE besēċan) Ǥϡ1;ñζޤˤҲѤ褦ˤߤ롥
ǡseek beseech ˴ؤơˤưۤʤҲФɸಽΤȤ꤬롥űѸǻ褦ʲȶޤ򼨤 teach (< OE tǣċan; cf. token for OE tācn) ˤƤϡ /ʧ/ Ф줿ȤͤȡȤ櫓 seek /k/ פ褦˻פ롥ºݡβȯãȤ *seech ȤʤϤäʸ Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire ʤɤǤη֤ߤˡѸǤϡMED sēchen (v.) ˤСsechen seken ξʻ¸Ƥꡤޤ֤ɤƤѸˤʤä seek ̲褦طʤˤϡ/k/ ĸťΥɸη sœkja ¸ߤäΤǤϤʤȵ뤬ΤʤȤϤ狼ʤ
ʤѤ˴ؤƤ seek beseech ⶦ̤첻ؤȼѲγѤ򼨤ʬȤ (be)sought Ȥʤ롥

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