hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ڡ / page 5 (11)

inflection - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2018-06-06 Wed

#3327. ѲˤüԤ϶ŪǤ [language_change][teleology][invisible_hand][glottochronology][drift][indo-european][inflection]

#3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1]) ǡѲˤüԤŪǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ѲʤƤüͤθŪ϶ޤθ̤ƤʤϤʱƶηŪʾ׷ʤɤˤϵڤӤĤʤĤޤꡤѲȤüԤιưϡܴۤŪŪǤȤȤ
Joseph (128) ϤüԤζ򷫤֤ĥĤġդ˱ŪʸѲȽƤ롥㤨СĹ֤ʣˤ錄Ѳ٤ƤƤǯ (cf. #1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1])) Τ褦ˡϡʤȤ롥ȤΤϡǯؤǤϡºݤüԤ褷Ƽ뤳ȤΤʤƻŪʴȤƤ뤫Ǥ롥㤨С2018ǯλƤ뤢ѸüԤǯδ֤ˡɤαñ̤ñ֤ʤиǯؤεꤹִΨãʤʤɤȤȤϡͤƤߤʤϤǤ롥ǯؤִΨϷиŪƳФ줿ͤǤϤ뤬򥴡˿ǡŪŪʸѲؤȲƤޤ
Ѹޤ˿ǯˤ錄äƤȤޤοʿȤή (drift) ˤĤƤƱͤǤ롥ˤ錄ꡤ˸줬ѲƤ褦ˤߤ뤫ȤäơġüԤŪʴѲƤȹͤΤϴְ㤤Ǥ롥ǤϤʤġüԤ϶ŪʴưʤƤˤ줬ޤǽŪ˺Ѥ̤ȤơѲؤȲʤ򤹤٤
ϡKeller ξ롤Ѳ˺Ѥָ (invisible_hand) ˤۤʤʤ#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ׻ȡ

Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
Keller, Rudi. "Invisible-Hand Theory and Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 113--27.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-06-07-1]

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2018-05-16 Wed

#3306. we two, you three ʤɤνͭ [genitive][inflection][numeral][syntax][personal_pronoun]

;̾˿줬³ we two ֻ䤿2͡סyou three֤ʤ3͡פʤɤ̾礬뤬̾ͭʤȤˤϤɤʤΤJespersen (17.15) 򻲾ȤƤߤ褦
ޤѸǤϡ;̾ͭʤ˶ޤ̵ޤΤޤޤȤ㤬롥㤨СShakespeare Ǥ your three motiues, your two helpes, their two estates, our two histories ʤɤߤ롥ξˤϡϰ̣Ū˸̾ˤäƤȤǤ
ˡ줬ͭʥޡȼäƸ⤢롥㤨С Bullokar ʤɤˡour twooz chanc' Ȥɽߤ롥
ơ󱪸ˡѤ of us two, of you three ȤˡϾ˻ĤƤ롥
ǤϤʤall, both ʤɤѤ we all you both Τ褦ɽξˤ⡤ŪˤϾ嵭3郎ǽäθϡ;̾θǤϤʤ֤ all our . . . both your . . . ʤɤѤΤξȤϰۤʤǤ롥ޤall ˤĤƤϡűѸθǤŪ٤ޤ aller alder ʤɤ°ʷ¸ƤᡤѸ Chaucer Ǥ hir aller cappe, our alder dede ʤɤɽǽäȤյƤ
ѸǤϡŪƨ롤뤤Ϥ¾ɽפƲ򤹤ʤɤǤ⥹ޡȤ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2018-05-11 Fri

#3301. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (4) [sobokunagimon][genitive][plural][consonant][phonetics][fricative_voicing][analogy][number][inflection][paradigm][clitic]

3֤ˤ錄ɸȯŸƤ ([2018-05-08-1], [2018-05-09-1], [2018-05-10-1]) 4ơʺǽˤȤơˤ⤦Ҥͤä
wolves ʤӴŪ wivesˤطʤˤϡűѸѲ̾ζޥѥˤơʣʡʡгʡ˷Ȥ -as ղäȤ𤬤äˤűѸ wulf wulfas Ȥʤꡤf ͭ˶ޤ뤿ͭΤƤwīf ˤĤƤ⡤ѲȤ̤Υ롼פ°Ƥꡤˤ wives ؤȯãʤ wulf/wulfas פ˱ƶ졤 (analogy) ˤ wives ؤȵ夷СʤǼ
Τ褦ˡ-ves ʣˤĤƤϤΤŪǽϻѤñ°ʷܤƤߤǽŪˤϸѸνͭʤ -'s ϢʤޤǤ롥ʲñ°ʷĴʤ顤űѸ wulf wīf ζɽ򤢤餿ƷǤ褦

Ѳ̾ñʣ
wulfwulfas
гwulfwulfas
°wulfeswulfa
Ϳwulfewulfum
Ѳ̾ñʣ
wīfwīf
гwīfwīf
°wīfeswīfa
Ϳwīfewīfum


ξޥѥϡʣʡгʤǤۤʤȤäƤñ°ʤǤ϶̤ -es ȤäƤ롥ơñ° -es ղäȡ촴 f ξɤͭ˶ޤ뤿ᡤȯ /v/ ȤʤäϤȤʤСѸǤñͭʤϡ줾 *wolve's, *wive's ȤʤäƤƤ褫äϤǤϤʤȤºݤˤ wolf's, wife's ʤΤǤ롥ʣñ°ʷϡűѸ衤ۤƱŪΤȤȯŸƤϤȹͤˤ⤫餺ʤ̤Ȥ wolves Ф wolf'swives Ф wife's Ȥ̤ƤޤäΤʤʤѸǤϽͭʷ ' (apostrophe) դ϶ˤʤäƤδǤꡤܾβѤˤʤΤǡεˤϤޤäͿʤȹͤƤ褤ʡ#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
1Ĥˤϡ°ɸʣɸ٤ƴΤȤδط¤ȤʤäƤäȤ롥Ѹ줫Ѹˤơ°ɸ -es ϶޸Ȥܸ (clitic) ȤƲᤵ褦ˤʤäƤcf. #1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])ˡС-es ϷŪñ̤ȤŪñ̤ȤʤꡤΤڤΥƤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥ˤꡤҲ̵ͭؤưŤ夯ʤäƤäΤ°ɽˤƴҲϸꤵ뤳ȤȤʤä
ǤѸ줫Ѹˤơޤ -ves η֤ⴰ˼ƤϤ餺Фˤ̵Ѱ۷ȤȤ¸ƤJespersen (16.51, pp. 264--65) ˤСChaucer Ϥ Shakespeare ˻äƤ wiues ʤɤ§Ūä18ޤ¸³Τcalues Shakespeare ̤ˤߤ줿äʣ1Ǥ°ʤѤƤˤ -ves ŪĤ䤹wive's-jointure, staves-end, knives-point, calves-head ʤɤ϶ǤѤ줿
ȤƸѸޤǤϻĤʤä°ʤ -ves ϡɸǤϤĤƤޤäΤǤ롥ޤʣ wolves ʤɾθΤߤűѸβ§ǸĤȤƻƤ롥

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2018-05-10 Thu

#3300. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (3) [sobokunagimon][plural][consonant][phonetics][fricative_voicing][analogy][number][inflection]

2֤ε ([2018-05-08-1], [2018-05-09-1]) ǡɸѤʵˡѸˤαäƤ3ơ
űѸ wulf (nom.acc.sg.)/wulfas (nom.acc.pl) 򸶷Ȥ wolf (sg.)/wolves (pl.) ȤñʣڥΥǥ뤬 (analogy) ˤäơŪˤ wulf Ȱۤʤޥ饹°롤 -f ¾̾ˤȤäȤ򸫤leaf/leaves life/lives Ϥˤ롥
Ѹθ¤įȡ -f ̾Τ٤Ƥʣˤ -ves 򼨤櫓ǤϤʤ㤨Сroof/roofs, belief/beliefs ʤɤפ⤫֤ϴˡֵ§ŪפʣäƤ롥Ȥ櫓 roof ʤɤϡűѸǤ hrōf Ȥ֤ǡޤ wulf ƱѲ롼פ°ƤΤǤꡤˤϸűѸǼºݤѤƤ hrōfas Ѿ졤ߤ *rooves ȤʤäƤ٤ʤΤǤ롥ȤʤäƤʤʤrooves ˤĤƤϰʲɽ⻲ȡˡ
ǵäȤϡ˵󤲤ΤȤ̼ѤǤ롥wife ʤɤξˤϡΥǥȤʤäΤ wolf/wolves ΥפäΤ roof 򴬤ΥǥϡäȰŪʡ㤨 stone/stones, king/kings ȤäפǤꡤ -s ĤкѤȤȤñʥפäΤǤ롥Ʊͤ˥ե󥹼Ѹ grief, proof ʤɤ⡤ȤȤΥե󥹸Ǥʣηˡñ -s ղääȤ⤢ꡤԤΥǥ岡ĸ岡줿Ȥˤꡤߤʣ griefs, proofs ȤʤäƤǤ롥
-f ̾췲ǥȤ wolf/wolves פѤ뤤 stone/stones פѤŪʴϤʤġ̾ˤäơ񤤤ϤޤޤǤ롥Ūξפδ֤ɤ򼨤Ƥ̾⾯ʤʤߤǤ -fs -ves ξʣꤦȤ⤢롥ѤȤϡ줯餤˸ġ̡˺ѤΤǤꡤΰ̣ǤȤ館ɤΤʤΤǤ롥
ε ([2018-05-08-1]) Ǥϡwolf ʣ wolves Ȥʤͳʹƥåꤷ⤷ʤˤơۤñǤϤʤȤФƤΤǤϤʤѸθݤѸŪ˹ͤƤȡˤ꤬Τ褦˿ޤäƤ
ʲȤ Jespersen (Modern, 16.21--16.25 (pp. 258--621)) ˴Ť -f 򼨤ĤθΡḽˤʣ󤲡ɬפ˱ƥȤ褦ʤ¿㡤ƤܤϡJespersen (Linguistic, 374--75) 򻲾ȡˡϡĨꤺ4ơ

ñʣ
beefbeefs/beeves 
beliefbeliefsŤ believe (sg.)/believes (pl.) ̾ϡOE ġelēafa ȴϢ뤬첻æơf ̵16ˤ believe (v.) belief (n.) ־̤褦ˤʤꡤ̾ -f Ω grieve (v.)/grief (n.), prove (v.)/proof (n.) ʤɤ⤢ä⤷ʤ
bluffbluffs 
briefbriefs 
calfcalves 
chiefchiefs 
cliffcliffsŤ cleves (pl.) ⡥
cuffcuffs 
delfdelvesȤ delfs (pl.) ⡥ޤɸѸ delve (sg.) ⡥
elfelvesޤ elfs (pl.) elve (sg.) ⡥
fieffiefs 
fifefifes 
gulfgulfs 
halfhalvesȾʳشˡפΰ̣Ǥ halfs (pl.) ⡥
hoofhoofsŤ hooves (pl.)
knifeknives 
leafleavesash-leafs (pl.) "ash-leaf potatoes"
lifelivesŤ lyffes (pl.) ʤɡ
loafloaves 
looflooves/loofsloove (sg.) ⡥
mastiffmastiffsŤ mastives (pl.) ⡥
mischiefmischiefsŤ mischieves (pl.) ⡥
oafoaves/oafs 
rebuffrebuffs 
reefreefs 
roofroofs󥰥ɤ䥢ꥫ rooves (pl.) ⡥
safesafes 
scarfscarfs18Ϥᤫ scarves (pl.) ⡥
selfselvesůѸּʡפΰ̣Ǥ selfs (pl.) ⡥
sheafsheaves 
shelfshelves 
sheriffsheriffs Ť sherives (pl.) ⡥
staffstaves/staffsפΰ̣Ǥ staves (pl.) ֿ͡פΰ̣Ǥ staffs (pl.) stave (sg.) ⡥
strifestrifes 
thiefthieves 
turfturfsŤ turves (pl.) ⡥
waifwaifsŤ waives (pl.) ⡥
wharfwarfsŤ wharves (pl.)
wifewivesŤ wyffes (pl.) ʤɡhousewife "hussy" Ǥ housewifes (pl.) Austen ǤϤΰ̣ huswifes
wolfwolves 


Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
Jespersen, Otto. Linguistica: Selected Papers in English, French and German. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1933.

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2018-05-09 Wed

#3299. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (2) [sobokunagimon][plural][consonant][oe][phonetics][fricative_voicing][analogy][number][conjugation][inflection][paradigm]

ε ([2018-05-08-1]) ǡwolf (sg.) Ф wolves (pl.) ȤʤͳűѸβ§˾Ȥ餷ˤꡤϢ¾ -f (sg.)/ -ves (pl.) 㡤ʤ calf/calves, elf/elves, half/halves, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves, knife/knives, self/selves, sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives ʤɤ⤭줤ǤȻפ⤷ʤѸˤϤۤɥȥ졼ȤΤǤϤʤȤʣʥƥबɤˤϡʤʤ⤢ΤǤ롥
㤨Сwife (sg.)/wives (pl.) λ夲褦̾ϡűѸǤ wīf ȤñʡʸФ˷äƤθϡֺʡפȤֽפäˡf ϡ¦ͭ첻챦¦ˤϲʤΤǡͭ˶ޤƤפ櫓ǤϤʤǥեȤ /f/ ȯ롥ơȤͽۤΤϡ֤Ȥʣʡʡгʡ˷Ǥ wīf -as ζ޸դϤǤꡤf ͭ˶ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫顤/v/ ͭΤפȤȤ
ϴñˤʤȤΤϡwulf ξϤޤѲȤ롼פ°ƤꡤεǷǤɽ˽ȤˤʤäƤΤwīf ѲȤ롼פ°̾ǤꡤűѸǤϰۤʤޥѥ򼨤ƤʲˡζɽǤ褦

Ѳ̾ñʣ
wīfwīf
гwīfwīf
°wīfeswīfa
Ϳwīfewīfum


ѲζޥѥϾ嵭̤ǤꡤΥפ̾Ǥʣʡʡгʡ˷ñʡʡгʡ˷ƱˤʤΤǤ롥Ѹ˻ĤñʣƱ̾ΰ (ex. sheep) ϡűѸǤΥפ̾äȤˤǤʡ#12. How many carp! ([2009-05-11-1]) 򻲾ȡˡȤȡwīf ˤơñ /f/ ʣ /v/ Ѳڹ礤ϡʤʤȤˤʤ롥/f/ /v/ Ȥˡ⤽ʣ s ʤդʤäΤ顤Ѹ wives Ȥ֤ϡ嵭θűѸΡľܤΡȯãȤ򤹤櫓ˤϤʤʤ롥¤ϡƱȤ leaf/leaves life/lives ˤƤϤޤ롥줾θűѸ lēaf līf ϡwīf Ʊ͡Ѳ̾Ǥꡤʣʡʡгʡ˷Ϥ̵ѲʣפäΤ
Ǥϡʤ̾ʣߤǤ wolves leaves, lives ȤʤäƤΤϡwīf, lēaf, līf Ȥ wulf ƱѲ̾ζޥѥˡ־괹פȤˤ롥wulf ΥѥϳΤ˸űѸˤƺǤͥʥѥǤꡤ¾¿̾ϤӤäŪޥʡʸबƶϤΤǥˤäѲѤ򡤸ؤǤ (analogy) ȸƤǤ뤬ŵǤʡ#946. ̾ʣˤγס ([2011-11-29-1]) 򻲾ȡˡѤˤꡤŪʣʸ̩ˤʣʡгʷˤǤ wīf, lēaf, līf ϡwīfas, lēafas, līfas Υפؤȡ־괹פΤäθȯŸϡwulfas ƱǤ롥
ݥȤϡѸʣ wives, leaves, lives Ū褦Ȥ硤wolves ξۤñǤϤʤȤȤ⤦󡦥åɲäɬפʤΤǤ롥ǤϡűѸΡ໤ͭפȤ§ϡޤä̵طȤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡޤطŪȤ٥ؤԤ롥ܲ򤤤СȺεɸˤϡȤΤʤ wolf (sg.)/wolves wife (sg.)/wives (pl.) ȤȤǤϤ롥wife/wives Τۤ٤⤤ξɤͭ첻Ȥʬ䤹ʤΤǡΤζȤƤϱǤ뤫嵭ͳǡ໤ͭŵȤ̤˽ФƻȤ櫓ˤϤʤΤǤ롥Ѹ˾塤äȡֻǰʻפȤȤˤʤ롥
ȤϤwives ϡѤȤ⤦1ĤΤƶ̣Ūݤդ򴭵Ƥ줿DZѸˤα1ʿޤäϤϡϢǤʤ뿼ߤء

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2018-05-08 Tue

#3298. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (1) [sobokunagimon][plural][consonant][oe][phonetics][fricative_voicing][number][v][conjugation][inflection][paradigm]

ɸϡ#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵໤ͭ ([2013-01-21-1]) Ǽ夲#1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1]) #2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ءס ([2017-05-23-1]) ǤŪ󤲤Ρ⤦1ĤαǤ롥wolf ʣ wolves Ȥʤʤɡñ /-f/ ʣ /-vz/ ؤȰ츫Ե§Ѳ㤬Ĥ̾˸롥㤨Сcalf/calves, elf/elves, half/halves, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves, knife/knives, self/selves, sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives ʤɤǤ롥Ϥɤäͳ
űѸǤϡ̵໤ /f, θ, s/ ϡξ¦ͭ˶ޤȼͭ [v, ð, z] Ȥʤ벻§ΩƤε§ϡŬѤ벻Ķξ郎Ѳ뤳Ȥ⤢СˤäƤޤޤѸʹߤǤ⤷ФФܤˤ롼Ǥ롥ɬݤäŬѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ̣DZѸˤ̤Ƹư³Ƥ§Ȥ롥໤ͭ (fricative_voicing) ʤɤȤ̾ͿƤ롥
ɸ˾Ȥ餷ʲǤ /f/ ξʤwolf ϵˤϸűѸǤ wulf Ȥ֤ä̾ѲȤ롼פ°̾ǡʤȿ˱ưʲΤ褦˶ޤ

Ѳ̾ñʣ
wulfwulfas
гwulfwulfas
°wulfeswulfa
Ϳwulfewulfum


ñʡʡгʡˤη֡븫ФǤ wulf ˤ϶޸Ĥf Ω줫ߤȡΤ˺¦ͭ l ϤΤα¦ˤϲʤΤǡͭ˶ޤƤ״ĶǤϤʤäơ f ϤΤޤޥǥեȤ /f/ ȯ롥ɽΤ¾6ޥǤϡ첻ǻϤޤ벿餫ζ޸ղäƤꡤ f ͭ˶ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥໤ͭ§ȯưf ȯ /f/ /v/ ؤѲ롥űѸǤֻ <f> <v> Ȥʬ봷ϤʤʤȤ <v> ʸ¸ߤʤˤΤǡʸ̵ǤͭǤ <f> ΤޤޤǤʸ <v> ȯãˤĤƤϡ#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1]) 򻲾ȡˡζɽʣʡʡгʡˤ wulfas θĤäƸѸˤʣפȤä櫓ʣǤϡֻ wolves Ƚ񤭲줿ȯϸűѸ /f/ ʤ /v/ äĤäƤ롥
Τ褦ˡűѸβ§ǰƬˤС wolf/wolves δطϤ줤Ǥ롥ѸȤƤߤȳΤˡԵ§פȸƤӤʤطѸˤ򻲾ȤСषֵ§ŪפʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ʵŤѸˤؤ̥ϤǤꡤѸˤαȤ롥
ѸˤαϤǻߤޤʤǼƽꡤǤϤʤȯŸƤäȤ⤷ԲĻ׵ĤŸƤΤѸˤǤ롥ŸˤĤƤʹߤεǡ

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2018-04-24 Tue

#3284. be ưü [be][inflection][inflection][clitic][verb][auxiliary_verb][sobokunagimon]

be ư줬üưǤ뤳ȤϡƸޤǤʤ褦˻פ롥¾ưˤʤ褦ʣʶޤ򼨤Ūˤϼ¤ˤؤƤưºݤˡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) 3ܤˤ󤲤褦ˡbe ư¿αѸؽԤ˷㤷֤ʤפ
be ư˼ٹˤä Crystal The Story of Be ν (p. xi--xii) Ǥϡbe ưü󤵤Ƥ롥

(1) be ưϡѸ¾Τư¿ͤѲġwalk ʤ walk, walks, walked, walked 4ΰۤʤ򼨤go ʤ go, goes, going, gone, went 5ΰۤʤ򼨤be Ǥ be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been 8ब̤롥ŪˤСbe ¿ܤΤۤɤǤ롥
(2) ٤Ƥ¾ưǤϡ߷ˤͭɸη֤ĤΤ3;ñ -s Τߤbe ưǤϾ嵭Τ褦123;ΤΤ줾ˤưۤʤ֤򼨤
(3) be ǤϡΤȯ (be, been) ȶΤʤȯ (bi, bin, bn) ̤롥
(4) ܸŪ̾³ơtwas (< it was), wast (< was it) Τ褦ͻ礹롥ޤyou're, I'm, aren't, weren't ʤɤν򼨤Ʊͤν򼨤Τϡۤ have do ΤߤǤ (ex. hasn't, don't)
(5) be ư3Ĥ˰ۤʤʸˡǽġ1ܤˡ¸ߤפ̣ưȤơ2ܤ˿ʹԷư֤ưȤơ3ܤϢ (copula) ȤƤǤ롥¾ưǤޤ¿̤ʵǽͭΤϤʤ

Crystal ᤯ϡǡ

It is thus hardly surprising to find that, over the past 1,500 years, be has developed a wide range of meanings and uses, and a wider range of variant forms than any other English verb. It is the second most frequent word in English, after the. If any verb deserves its own story, it is this one.


Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

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2018-04-24 Tue

#3284. be ưü [be][inflection][inflection][clitic][verb][auxiliary_verb][sobokunagimon]

be ư줬üưǤ뤳ȤϡƸޤǤʤ褦˻פ롥¾ưˤʤ褦ʣʶޤ򼨤Ūˤϼ¤ˤؤƤưºݤˡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) 3ܤˤ󤲤褦ˡbe ư¿αѸؽԤ˷㤷֤ʤפ
be ư˼ٹˤä Crystal The Story of Be ν (p. xi--xii) Ǥϡbe ưü󤵤Ƥ롥

(1) be ưϡѸ¾Τư¿ͤѲġwalk ʤ walk, walks, walked, walked 4ΰۤʤ򼨤go ʤ go, goes, going, gone, went 5ΰۤʤ򼨤be Ǥ be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been 8ब̤롥ŪˤСbe ¿ܤΤۤɤǤ롥
(2) ٤Ƥ¾ưǤϡ߷ˤͭɸη֤ĤΤ3;ñ -s Τߤbe ưǤϾ嵭Τ褦123;ΤΤ줾ˤưۤʤ֤򼨤
(3) be ǤϡΤȯ (be, been) ȶΤʤȯ (bi, bin, bn) ̤롥
(4) ܸŪ̾³ơtwas (< it was), wast (< was it) Τ褦ͻ礹롥ޤyou're, I'm, aren't, weren't ʤɤν򼨤Ʊͤν򼨤Τϡۤ have do ΤߤǤ (ex. hasn't, don't)
(5) be ư3Ĥ˰ۤʤʸˡǽġ1ܤˡ¸ߤפ̣ưȤơ2ܤ˿ʹԷư֤ưȤơ3ܤϢ (copula) ȤƤǤ롥¾ưǤޤ¿̤ʵǽͭΤϤʤ

Crystal ᤯ϡǡ

It is thus hardly surprising to find that, over the past 1,500 years, be has developed a wide range of meanings and uses, and a wider range of variant forms than any other English verb. It is the second most frequent word in English, after the. If any verb deserves its own story, it is this one.


Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

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2018-04-10 Tue

#3270. mother tongue ʣǤϤʤ̾ä [compound][genitive][inflection][oe][relationship_noun]

#2654. a six-foot man a ten-mile drive ˻ĤʻĤäƤʤ˸űѸʣ°ʷ ([2016-08-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸǤ̵޷ˤߤΤΡϤĤƤζ޷μ岽üФ̤η֤ǤȤ褦㤬Ȥ˳ǧ롥a six-foot man foot whilom, seldom Lady Chapel, ladybird ʤɤˤ1 lady츫ȶޤʤɤƤʤη֤Ȥߤ뤬줾줫ĤƤʣ°ʷʣͿʷñ°ʷͳ褹롥˸ޤä꼺줿ꤷơŪ̵޷Ǥ뤫Τ褦ˤȤ館褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
Ƕᡤmother tongue ˤ⤽Τ褦1Ĥ餷ΤäѸǤʣȤǧ츻Ūˤ1 mother ϤΤޤޤñ°ʷȤĤޤꡤѸȯ֤ۤСޤ "mother's tongue" ȸäƤ褦ʤΤäΤ#703. űѸο²̾ζɽ ([2011-03-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡmother üʶޤ򤹤̾1Ĥǡñʷ mōdor Ʊñ°ʷȤʤꤦ롥mother tongue ȤɽνϡѸ Wyclif moder tonge ȤƽиۤƱ modir langage ⸽Ƥ롥η֤󤯸űѸ̵޷ȿǡƧƤȤ櫓ޤḽŪΤ°ʸȼä modiris langage ƱʸڤƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
ȤϤΤΡˤʤ롥 "mother" űѸ̵Ѳ°ʷ̤ȸѶŪʺϲѸǽФ餫顤ѸƱФǡʣȤƤȤ館줿ȤǽϤʤΤ嵭Τ褦 modiris langage ʻ¸ƤȤȤϡ1ĤΥݥȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤθǤۤɶϤʤ褦ˤפ롥OED Ǥ⡤°ʷͳ褹Ȥˤ "Probably" źƤ롥դϡѸʣΥѥˤĤƤ褯ؤФʤȡȽǤǤʤ

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2018-03-27 Tue

#3256. ήʸˡΰ [grammaticalisation][drift][unidirectionality][language_change][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][teleology]

ˤˤή (drift) ȡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ĥѲΰ (unidirectionality) ϸߤ˴طοǰΤ褦˻פ롥ξԤδطˤĤơ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1])#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) Ǥ⿨Ƥ Hopper and Traugott ε̤ƤͤƤߤ
Sapir ǽήȸƤȤǰƬˤäΤϡѸˤޤξüӱŪɽȯãΤȤä礫ʬϤءפȤήΤȤǤ (cf. synthesis_to_analysis) θԤϡ෿Ūʰ̣絬ϤʸѲȤƤȤ館ĤޤꡤʸˡΤȤƤɤƻڤȤƤǤ롥
ʸˡʸ̮ǤФѤȤϡˤŪѲˤĤƸ뤳ȤϤʤʸˡ¤ɤȤƻڤˤĤƤγǰѸǤꡤפˤäȶɽŪʰ̣礤ǻȤȤȤ

Drift has to do with regularization of construction types within a language . . ., unidirectionality with changes affecting particular types of construction. (Hopper and Traugott 100)


ήȰϡŪɽŪ絬ϤϤʸפε§˴ؤΤġιʸפѲ˴ؤΤȤ顤ߤ˰ۤʤΤȤƤȤ館Τ褵ְפȤѸ줬ѤȤˤϡѸȤƤǤϤʤƤʸˡȤѲνѸȤѤȤȤռƤʤȡ㤤ǽΤդǤ롥

Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

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2018-02-27 Tue

#3228. enough enow [inflection][spelling][pronunciation][adjective][johnson][ilame]

enough θ촴ϰĸ̤ꡤޥƱ줬ǧ롥ޥĸ *ȝanōȝaz Ƹθϡ genoeg, ɥĸ genug, ťΥɸ gnógrȸ ganōhsƸűѸ ġenōh, ġenōg ʤɤǤ롥
űѸˤϡ g Ĺ첻θ̵뤳Ȥ¿/x/ ȯ褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥θ塤16ޤǤ˿ /f/ ȤʤäΤߤ enough ɸȯϢʤȯǤ롥
ʸǤϤʤ˸ g Ͼ嵭ηϩ򤿤ɤʤäϽפǤ롥ȤΤϡƻȤƤθ줬ѤȤűѸѸˤƤϡʤ˱޸ղäɬפꡤ g ϤƤǤϤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫㤨СűѸˤơʣʡгʤǤ -e ղäơġenōge Ȥ֤äη֤ˤäƤϡλҲϸλȾ첻˾夲첻ܤʤɤβѲФơѸޤǤ˸ߤ /ɪˈnaʊ/ ˶ᤤȯˤʤäƤenow ֻϡȯȿǤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡenough enow ζ̤Ūˤñʣΰ㤤ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ñ enowʣ enough Ѥ褦ξԤκϤǤѸ餢ä褦Ǥ롥enow ऱƤ enough ΰ̲ϡŪʶ̤ΤˤĤƤ Milton Τ褦ʽ񤭼⤤ΤΡ17ˤϳΩƤȤߤ (Jespersen 2.75)
Ȥ⤷Ȥ1755ǯ˽Ǥ줿 Johnson μǤϡenow enough ̤θФǵ󤲤Ƥꡤ"The plural of enough. In a sufficient number." Ȥ롥ʸȤͿƤΤ Sydney, Milton, Dryden, Addison ʤɤΤŤʸǤꡤ enow enought Ū˶̤ƤڵȤ櫓ˤϤʤ
ߤμǤϡenow ϡԸդȤ졼٥Ž enough ѤȤƤ뤬嵭Τ褦ˡŪˤ enough ʣ˵ĤȤ¤ϲƤʤѸǤϤСenow Τ̲ۤŪ˻ѤƤ륱¿ȤոƤ
ʤߤˡenough/enow ʿŪȤơplough/plow 󤲤뤳ȤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) 򻲾ȡϢơblond/blonde ˸ˤֶޡפꤢ#504. Ѹ¸ߤͣζޤƻ ([2010-09-13-1]) ɤ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.

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2018-01-22 Mon

#3192. ̡쥲ޥ췲δ֤ˤߤ벻֡μפʺ [germanic][comparative_linguistics][verners_law][inflection][article][rhotacism][i-mutation][oe][gothic][old_norse]

ޥĸ줬3̡Υ롼פʬƤݤˡ줾ȼθѲ̤ȤơƱδ֤ˡбط뤳ȤˤʤäAlgeo and Pyles (82--83) ˤäơפѲбط6󤲤褦

(1) ޥĸǤϤĤ̾μñ *-az ǽäƤ (ex. *wulfaz ϵ) θޥ췲Ǥϼ (Old English wulf)̥ޥ췲Ǥ -r Ȥʤ (Old Icelandic ulfr)쥲ޥ췲Ǥ -s Ȥʤä (Gothic wolfs)
(2) ޥĸǤư23ñ줾̤Ƥ쥲ޥ췲Ǥ϶̤³OE Ǥ bindest (you bind), bindeþ (he/she/it binds) ȤʤꡤGo Ǥ bindis, bindiþ Τɤḁ̈ޥ췲Ǥ2ñ -r 3ñݤ߹ߡȤ bindr Ȥʤä
(3) ̥ޥ췲Ǥ괧줬̾˸³褦ˤʤä (ex. ulfrinn (the wolf)) 쥲ޥǤϤΤ褦Ѳϵʤä
(4) Verner's Law νϤȤƤ *z ϡ̥ޥ췲Ǥ r Ȥʤä (= rhotacism) 쥲ޥ췲Ǥ s ȤʤäȤơOE ēare (ear), OIc eyra, Go auso
(5) ̥ޥ췲Ǥ i-mutation ơ㤨 OE mann (man) ФƤʣ menn (men) ȤʤäGo Ǥñ mannan Фʣ mannans Ȥʤ첻ѲȿǤƤʤ
(6) ޥ췲Ǥ Verner's Law νϤȤƤ *ð d Ȥʤä̡쥲ޥ췲Ǥ໤ˤȤɤޤäȤơOE fæder (father) ФơOIc faðir, Go faðar ʤֻ fadarˡ

Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-16-1]

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2017-12-21 Thu

#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡ [link][notice][word_order][syntax][inflection][rensai][sobokunagimon][old_norse][contact][gsr][causation][language_change]

1220դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ12ε֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡޤ
κǸǤϡɸε֤ʤѸ϶޽Ż뷿Ż뷿θؤڤؤꡤκݤˤʤܸSVOȤ줿ΤפȤؤȥѥե졼ޤȾǤϤ褤褳䤤ܳŪޤڤɤ褦5W1HΥߥƥ꡼ΩƤäŸޤ

Ѳˤ餺˸ݤεˤ䤤 Why Ǥεˤ˶Ťˤϡˤʳ4W1H򤷤ä겡ڵѤ߾夲ƤɬפޤξǡŪ Why ؤβƤȤǤϡαʸˡ˾ǤŪѲ1ĤλȸΩơ5W1H˥ߥƥ꡼ΩƤꤿȻפޤ


ϢܵŸϲǤͭϤʲǤϤޤ˾λǤŪ󼨤뤳ȤϤۤԲǽȸ虜ޤ󡥤Ϻε˸¤ޤ󡥤Ѳݤˡ¤褯Ĵ١λ¤ȿʤǰ̴طΥȡ꡼ȤΩƤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ⡤λߤ1ĤȤ򤷤ƤФȻפޤʲϢܵΰѤǤ

ѲϷ褷ƶ櫓ǤϤʤȤ狼äȻפޤѲظˤϸŪŪʽװʣŪ˺ѤƤꡤΤˤΰĤҤȤĤͤߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ΤǤWhat, When, Where, Who, How ¤ɤƤСǸˤϵˤ䤤 Why ˤ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǤΤǤ


ϢܵȤƤϺǽȤʤޤ줫ܥ֥䤽¾ΤǡѸѤʵˤäƤȻפޤΤǡȤꤤ夲ޤ

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2017-11-26 Sun

#3135. -ed ε [suffix][preterite][participle][germanic][indo-european][verb][inflection][etymology][reduplication][gothic][grammaticalisation][preterite-present_verb][degemination][sobokunagimon][-st][dental_suffix]

Ѹˤưβʬ˷ -ed "dental suffix" ȤƤФ졤ղäϥޥͭηֲǤʡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 򻲾ȡˡˤäƥޥϡ촴첻ѲƲ췿ζѲưԵ§Ѳưˤȡ dental suffix ղäѲưʵ§ѲưˤȤ2ʬ뤳ȤˤʤäԤϡֵ§Ūפʤ˸¿ưعäƤѸưˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
Ѹ -ed Υޥˤ뵯ˤĤƤϽ⤢ꡤ夬ĤƤʤͭϤˤȡư do ƱǤϤʤȤdo ΤưṲ̄ȤȤǧˤ衤ʬˤΰ̣ɤФƤΤϼǤϤʤƱˤȡޥˤ do 촴Τʣ (reduplication) ȤŤֲäƤˡƱҲ2ٸ *dēd- ʤɤη֤Ȥʤä䤬첻üλҲ蘆äƽŻҲȤʤäæŻҲơɤΤȤ *d- ˼ޤäĤޤꡤ-ed λҲϡdo θ촴ҲбƱˡ줬Τ˽ʣƱҲˤб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥϡϲ餫ʸˤٻΤȸ˾嵭ηֲ򤦤碌㤬ĤȤLass (164)

The origin of the weak preterite is a perennial source of controversy. The main problem is that it is a uniquely Germanic invention, which is difficult to connect firmly with any single IE antecedent. Observing the old dictum ex nihilo nihil fit (nothing is made out of nothing), scholars have proposed numerous sources, none of which is without its difficulties. The main problem is that there are at least three consonantisms: /d/ (Go nasida 'I saved', inf. nasjan), /t/ (Go baúhta 'I bought', inf. bugjan), and /s/ (Go wissa 'I knew', inf *witan).
   But even given this complexity, the most likely primary source seems to be compounding of an original verbal noun of some sort with the verb */dhe:-/ 'put, place, do' (OHG tuon, OE dōn, OCS dějati 'do', Skr dádhati 'he places', L fēci 'I made, did').
   This leads to a useful analysis of a Gothic pret 3 ppl like nasidēdun 'they saved':
   
(7.18) nas - i -dē - d - un
       SAVE-theme-reduplication-DO-3 pl

I.e. a verbal root followed by a thematic connective followed by the reduplicated perfect plural of 'do'. This gives a periphrastic construction with a sense like 'did V-ing'; with, significantly, Object-Verb order . . ., i.e. (7.18) has the form of an OV clause 'NP-pl sav(ing) did'. An extended form also existed, in which a nominalizing suffix */-ti/ or */-tu/ was intercalated between the root and the 'do' form, e.g. in Go faúrhtidēdun 'they feared', which can be analysed as {faúrh-ti-dē-d-un}. This suffix was in many cases later weakened; first the vowel dropped, so that */-ti-d-/ > */-td-/; this led to assimilation */-tt-/, and then eventual reinterpretation of the /t/-initial portion as a suffix itself, and loss of the 'do' part from verbs of this type . . . . The problematic /s(s)/ forms may go back to a different (earlier) development also involving */-ti/, in which the sequence */tt/ > /s(s)/ . . . but this is not clear.


פˡ-ed ղäθϼ̤ޤư촴̾첽ܤư̾Τ褦ʤΤ롥ľˡdo β did Τ褦ʤΤ֤ơΤȤơ֡ưˤưԤʤäפȤ롥Τ褦ˤȤȤOVαŪ칽¤ȤƻϤޤä䤬ΤĤŤޤäʣΤ褦ʤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤꡤŪʲؤȰܹԤʳ˻äơ-ed ʬϡŪǤȤʤ«ǤȲᤵ줿ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤߤƤ褤
ΰѤ Lass Go wissa ˸ڤȤȤˡǸ /s(s)/ ˸ڤǤ뤬бűѸˤư wāt βȤ wiste/wisse ꡤŪ񤷤ꤲƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2231. ưβ˸ -st- ([2015-06-06-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2017-11-22 Wed

#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡ [link][notice][word_order][syntax][typology][world_languages][inflection][japanese][rensai][sobokunagimon]

1120դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ11ε֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡޤѸθ˴ؤ礭ʤΤǡ2ˤ錄äϢܤͽǤϤԤȤʤޤ
Ԥγפϰʲ̤ǤܸȱѸˤ S, V, O 3Ǥθΰ㤤óݤȤơˤִܸפܤޤ෿θˤСνˤܸĴ٤ȡ¤ܸ췿 SOV Ǥ¿ǸѸ췿 SVO ¿Ȥʬۤ餫ȤʤޤȤѸűѸޤ̤ȡSVO ΤۤSOV, VSO ʤ͡ʸ礬ǽǤĤޤꡤŪʸǤǤϤʤŪͳʸ礬ƤΤǤϡ̾졤ƻ졤졤ưʤɤθѲֶޡ ƯˤꡤʸΤɤǤǤ뤫ŪǤ뤫Τ˼Ǥ餺Ȥ⡤̤μʤѰդƤȤȤˤʤޤǴ֤طɸΤ˸äƤ뤫ޤäƤ뤫ϳΤ礭ʰ㤤ǤϤޤ줬ͥƤ롤äƤ뤫ȤˤϤʤޤ󡥸˱ѸˤβǸŪͳʸ줫 SVO ǤθؤȥեȤƤ櫓ǤΥեȼΤͥδɾ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤ
ԤκǸǤϡ֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤפȤѤʵ̻Ūʻ֤ʤѸ϶޽Ż뷿Ż뷿θؤڤؤꡤκݤˤʤܸSVOȤ줿Τפȥѥե졼ޤεˤĤƤϡθԤˤԤ
SOV, SVO ʤɤθ˴ؤƤϡ#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])#3124. ܸ෿ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])#3125. ܸ෿ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])#3128. ܸ෿ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])#3129. ܸ෿ (4) ([2017-11-20-1]) εɤ

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2017-10-30 Mon

#3108. Υޥʤä顤Ѹϡ [hel_education][history][loan_word][spelling][stress][rsr][gsr][rhyme][alliteration][gender][inflection][norman_conquest]

#119. ѸˤΤϥޥͥߤ!? ([2009-08-24-1]) #3097. ĥᥦʥʤäѸ٤ʤäƤ᤯ʤäƤ ([2017-10-19-1]) ³ˤ if ۥ꡼Υޥʤä顤ѸϤɤʤäƤ
ޤäˤĤƤСե󥹼ѸʶˤϤäȾʤ͸ߤΥɥĸΤ褦˥ޥϤθ俸ƤϢơ⥲ޥŪǤȤˤʣήǤ³˰㤤ʤե󥹸ǤϤʤȤ줫θüѤϤʤˤʤ줿⤷ʤѸθäۤɤ¿¿ͤʸʬۤˤϤʤäƤʤäǽ⤤
ֻˤĤƤСűѸФ hus (house) ʤɤ¸³Ƥǽ뤷¾ cild (child), cwic (quick), lufu (love) ʤɤֻݤƤ⤷ʤ񤭸դˤ븫ɤϡߤΤΤ礭ۤʤäƤ롥<þ, ð, ƿ> ʤɤθűѸʸ⡤ḽޤѤ줺˻ĤäƤΤǤϤʤ (cf. #1329. Ѹˤˤ eth, thorn, <th> ([2012-12-16-1]) #1330. Ѹˤ eth, thorn, <th> ([2012-12-17-1]))
ȯˤĤƤϡηϤΤΤѤꤷɤϵ路ѥϸߤ˰ۤʤäƤΤˤʤäƤŪˤСޥŪʶѥ (Germanic Stress Rule; gsr) ݤ졤ФޥŪʶѥ (Romance Stress Rule; rsr) ϤۤŸʤä롥ˤӱ (rhyme) ̲űѸ줫Ƭ (alliteration) ʤƤ
ʸˡ˴ؤƤϡΥޥȤȼե󥹸αƶʤä顤Ѹ϶ޤ˰͵򤹤Ūʸʤ򺣤ۤɼäƤϤʤäűѸΤ褦ʣʶޤݤ³ƤȤϹͤʤʤȤޤοϡ¤ˤ䤫ʤΤȤʤäƤǽ⤤űѸˤäʸˡϡˤǤƤǽϹ⤤οʹԶϤϤ긽¤ˤ䤫ä˰㤤ʤޤѲưޤ᤿űѸŪʡԵ§ʸѲפ⡤äȹϤĤäƤϡΥޥΥ󥰥ɼҲˤƥե󥹸줬̤θȤʤꡤѸ줬̤θȤʤäȤǡѸ˱ϤƯѲ¿ͲۤȤ˳뤳ȤʤʹԤȤ¤΢Ȥ館ݤǤ롥Υޥʤä顤ѸϤۤɼͳ˴θѲϩ򤿤ɤ뤳ȤǤʤäΤǤϤʤ
ʾ塤֥Υޥʤä顤ѸϡפۤƤߤ¤ϡ轵ؤα齬ˤƼߤʤǹԤʤäۤǤ롥ͷӿϤƤߤΤˤΰ̴طǧΤ˰ճͭˡȤ狼äˤ if ϡष׹ͤ¥Ƥ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2019-12-25-1]

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2017-06-19 Mon

#2975. ޤοȸθ경ζϴط [synthesis_to_analysis][eme][french][contact][syntax][inflection][case][dative][genitive][syncretism][word_order]

ε#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸء ([2017-06-18-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡޤοȸθ경ϡʸˡˤɽ᥸㡼Ǥ롥˶ޤοबˤäƼ줿ʸˡǽŶ뤿˸夫礬경뤳ȤˤʤäΤ뤤˸礬경η̡פȤʤäޤ夫षϤ᤿Τ⤷ϡ3θˤȡξݤΰ̴طϰŪʤΤǤϤʤ줾줬ƶ礤ʤ饹ѥ˿ʹԤƤäΤȤ⤤롥ޤ˥˥ȥǤ롥
ϲ3θ򤬿¤ȻפäƤ뤬ϢȤƤ Allen ⤳ιͤǤ롥Allen ϡ2Ū칽ʸˤ2ĤŪθǤʤ°̾Ȥ˽Ȥΰִط˴ؤѸѲˤĤƤĴƤꡤޤοबθ경򾷤ͣװǤϤʤȤƳǧƤ롥Allen (220) ۩

The two case studies [= the fixing of the order of two nominal NP/DP objects and the genitives] examined here do not support the view that the fixing of word order in English was driven solely by the loss of case inflections or the assumption that at every stage of English, there was a simple correlation between less inflection and more fixed word order. This is not to say that deflexion did not play an important role in the disappearance of some previously possible word orders. It is reasonable to suggest that although it may have been pragmatic considerations which gave the initial impetus to making certain word orders more dominant than others, deflexion played a role in making these orders increasingly dominant. It seems likely that the two developments worked hand in hand; more fixed word order allowed for less overt case marking, which in turn increased the reliance on word order.


ΰ̴طֶޤοࢪθ경פäȤǽꤳƤʤդΡָθ경ޤοפΰ̴ط椫ƤɤΤȤξݤ˼äƿʹԤȹͤΤǤȷƤ롥ޤξԤδطפƤۤñʴطǤϤʤȤϡѸˤƤʤ˶ޤλĤäƤʤɤǤ⡤űѸθ礬Τޤ¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդ˶ޤषƤƤűѸŪʸ礬¸Ƥ㤬뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ

Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.

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2017-06-18 Sun

#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸ [synthesis_to_analysis][eme][french][contact][syntax][inflection][case][dative][syncretism][word_order][terminology][ditransitive_verb]

ε#2973. ʤ٤κ ([2017-06-17-1]) ˰³Allen ͤ󶡤
2Ū칽ʸֻ to Ѥ빽ʸ֤äƤΤϡѸǤ롥űѸԤ⸫줿ǽưμब¤ʤɤħäѸˤʤȡ٤ƤФ꤫ư¤ʧ褦ˤʤ롥ߥ󥰤ȤƤϳʶޤολȽŤʤꡤ̴ط򵿤ʤ뤬Allen ϡطȤϤʤ⿵ŤʵŸƤ롥ΥƥȤˤƤϡǤʬŪʹʸ夷Ƥե󥹸αƶ餢뤳Ȥ⼨ƤꡤñʡʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤФԤä򤫤Ƥ롥Allen (214) Ѥ롥

It can be noted . . . that we do not require deflexion as an explanation for the rapid increase in to-datives in ME. The influence of French, in which the marking of the IO by a preposition was already well advanced, appears to be the best way to explain such text-specific facts as the surprisingly high incidence of to-datives in the Aȝenbite of Inwit. . . . [T]he dative/accusative distinction was well preserved in the Aȝenbite, which might lead us to expect that the to-dative would be infrequent because it was not needed to mark Case, but in fact we find that this work has a significantly higher frequency of this construction than do many texts in which the dative/accusative distinction has disappeared in overt morphology. The puzzle is explained, however, when we realize that the Aȝenbite was a rather slavish translation from French and shows some unmistakable signs of the influence of its French exemplar in its syntax. It is, of course, uncertain how important French influence was in the spoken language, but contact with French would surely have encouraged the use of the to-dative. It should also be remembered that an innovation such as the to-dative typically follows an S-curve, starting slowly and then rapidly increasing, so that no sudden change in another part of the grammar is required to explain the sudden increase of the to-dative.


Allen ϶ޤοȤݤ deflexion ɽƤ뤬ϤդȤƤʤ⡤νѸȤäȤʤäѸ1ĵȤͯΤϡѤκǸΤȤǡto-dative ؤΰܹԤˤĤƸóȻSȤȤڤƤ뤬δŪ˵Ҥ줿ϤΤȤȤޤοȸθ경ȤѸʸˡ˾礭⡤ޤޤ겼褦ꤽ

Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-06-19-1]

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2017-06-17 Sat

#2973. ʤ٤κ [case][syncretism][eme][literature][inflection]

Allen (205) ˡʼȤƽѸΥƥȤ򡤷ŪʳɸŪĤäƤ (case-rich texts) ȡŪ̸ (deflexion) ˤꡤۤɻĤäƤʤ (case-impoverished texts) ˤޤʬषƤ롥ƥƥȤˤߤʤΡ١פκϡˤȤ礭¾ƥȤܤ˵Τ⤢Ѹγʤ븦ΩʤΤǡΥƥȤʬƸƤŪʥꥹȤǤϤʤAllen ǥѤƥȤΤߤǺܤƤˤʤΤǡդƤ

Case-rich textsDateCase-impoverished textsDate
PC I (not very rich)c.1131PC IIc.1155
Kentish Homiliesa.1150, c.1125Ormulum (Vol. II)c.1180
Lambeth Homiliesc.1200, mostly OEAncrene Wisse (Parts 1--5)c.1230, somewhat earlier
Poema Morale (Lambeth version)c.1200, c.1170--90Katherine Groupc.1225, 1200--20
Trinity Homiliesa.1225, ?OEWohungec.1220, post 1200
Brut (C MS) (1st 3,000 lines)s.xiii2, post 1189Cursor Mundi (Vesp. MS, Vol. I)c.1350
Vices and Virtuesc.1200, a.1225Havelok the Danec.1300, c.1295--1310
Owl and Nightingale (C MS)s.xiii2, 1189--1216Robert of Gloucester's Chronicle (A MS, Vol. I)c.1325, c.1300
Kentish Sermonsc.1275, pre-1250Genesis and Exodusa.1325, c.1250
Aȝenbite of Inwit1340Sir Orfeo and Amis and Amiloun (Auchinleck MS)c.1330
  Early Prose Psalterc.1350


ĤǤˡʤ٤κΤ⤦1ĤλɸȤʤ롤Hotta (40--43) ˤ "syncretism rate" Ȥǥ⻲Ȥ줿

Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-06-18-1]

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2017-03-17 Fri

#2881. Ѹʣ2;̿ξü [imperative][verb][inflection][number][agreement]

ɸθѲˤĤơ#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1]) ȡ#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 ([2016-02-06-1]) Ǿ줿޸μ岽üϡȤ櫓űѸѸˤƵäѸ˾Ѳư̿ζ޸ˤĤƤϡŪDZƤᤫޤܳŪʵҤʤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ưˤֿΰספɸʤ˴ؤȤ־νĤѸˤ2;ΤΡֿפϤ t/v_distinction Ȥݥ饤ȥͥľ뤹Ǥ⤢뤫顤ʾɵ椹ͤΤơޤʤΤǤϤʤ
ηˤĤơ (162) äƤߤȡΤ褦ˤä

̿ˡñʣ
ñ {-ø} (sing/her (=hear))첻<h> Ǥ -e ⵯ롥ʣܼľˡʣΤȤۤƱʬۤ򼨤 ({-es, -eth})ɽľ³Ȥ {-e} (helpe ye)15ȾФ {-ø} ʣƤˤʽФ褦ˤʤAncrR ˤǤˤ㤬ˡ


p. 277 ˤϢ뵭Ҥä

̿ˡ϶ܼ (helpes, helpeth) ޤϸ (helpe ye) ˤꤢ蘆롥Ԥϼ줬ʣ뤤ϡŤʸƤӳݤפñξѤ롥ɽȼȤϤƤޤǤ롥ԤñʣξѤ롥


顤Ѹ̿ˡʣϡ(1) ޸ˤĤľˡʣƱʬۤ򼨤Ȥȡ(2) Ťñפ2;ΤˤѤ줿ȡ(3) 15Ⱦк饼ޤִ褦ˤʤäƤȤʬ롥ʾξܺ٤ʵҤϤʤ
Ѹ͡ۼܥƥȤʤɤʬۤĴꡤ˻̤äƽѸդʬۤ򸫤Ƥߤ뤳ɬפ⤷ʤ

סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-01-1]

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