hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ڡ / page 2 (11)

inflection - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2024-07-02 Tue

#5545. űѸ괧졦ζ [oe][article][determiner][interrogative_pronoun][case][instrumental][inflection][etymology][comparative_linguistics][germanic]

ε#5544. űѸζʤεǽ3 ([2024-07-01-1]) ˰³ (instrumental) ˤĤơűѸ괧ʤ뤤Ϸ (definite article or determiner) ζɽ#154. űѸη se ζޡ ([2009-09-28-1]) Ǽˤȡþȳ, þon Ȥäȼη֤ȤʷäȤ狼롥Ʊͤ˵̾˻ (interrogative_pronoun) ˤĤƤ⡤ζɽ#51. 5W1Hפʤ̡6Hס ([2009-06-18-1]) ˼ˤ hwȳ Ȥʷ롥
Lass (144) ˤȡζʷӸŪˤ⡤ľϤǤŤ̤Τ񤷤Ȥʸ츻ͤȤˤ褦դλľ Lass ˸äƤ餪

There are remains of what is usually called an 'instrumental' in the masculine and neuter sg; this term as Campbell remarks 'is traditional, but reflects neither their origin nor their prevailing use' (1959: §708n). The two forms are þon, þȳ, neither of which is historically transparent. In use they are most frequent in comparatives, e.g. þȳ mā 'the more' (cf. ModE the more, the merrier), and as alternatives to the dative in expressions like þȳ gēare '(in) this year'. There is probably some relation to the 'instrumental' interrogative hwȳ 'why?', which in sense is a real one (= 'through/by what?'), but the /y:/ is a problem; hwȳ has an alternative form hwī, which is 'legitimate' in that it can be traced back to the interrogative base */kw-/ + deictic */ei/.


Ӹؤμ˳ݤäƤ⡤٤Ƥθ츻ɤ餫ˤ뤳ȤϻζȤΤ褦

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-07-01 Mon

#5544. űѸζʤεǽ3 [oe][noun][pronoun][adjective][article][demonstrative][determiner][case][inflection][instrumental][dative][comparative_linguistics]

űѸˤ̾졤̾졤ƻʤɤμ» (substantive) γ (case) Ȥ (instrumental) ƻĤäƤѸޤǤˤܴۤ˾üƤޤűѸǤϤޤѤ롥
ʤδŪʵǽ3Ĥ롥(1) ʤˡɽ魯ˡ(2) ¾ȤƤˡ(3) ֤ɽ魯ˡǤ롥Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer (47) ꡤʰѤ褦

          Instrumental
   88. The instrumental denotes means or manner: Gāius se cāsere, ōþre naman Iūlius 'the emperor Gaius, (called) Julius by another name'. It is used to form adverbs, as micle 'much, by far', þȳ 'therefore'.
   It often expresses time when: ǣlċe ȝēare 'every year'; þȳ ilcan dæȝe 'on the same day'.


ʤϤǤ˸űѸޤǤ˿षƤƤˡűѸǤи٤Ϲ⤯ʤŪˤͿ (dative) ζ޷֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤäƤȤƤʤиòΤʤʤ褦˻פ롥ӸŪʴζʤο񤤤ˤĤƤϡ#3994. űѸͿʷε ([2020-04-03-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ۤ˶ʤȤƤϡ#811. the + ӵ + for/because ([2011-07-17-1]) ȡ#812. The sooner the better ([2011-07-18-1]) ⻲ȡ

Davis, Norman. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1953.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-07-02-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-06-16 Sun

#5529. ʤ once -ce űѸ°ʤ -es ͳǤʤ顤Ҳ /z/ ˤʤ餺 /s/ ʤΡ [sobokunagimon][numeral][reanalysis][inflection][genitive][adverbial_genitive][adverb][verners_law]

ϱѸ󤻤줿Ҳ𤷤ޤɸϤϤѤʵ (sobokunagimon) ΰĶƤꡤ٤ʱѸ˥ƥ饷äƤƽ뵿Ȼפޤ
ޤŪ¤Ȥơ١ٿ once twice -ce ϸűѸñ°ʸ -es ̤ޤŪˤŪ°ʤŵȤʤޤηˤĤƤϡ#84. once, twice, thrice ([2009-07-20-1]) ȡ#4081. once twice -ce Ȥϲ (2) ([2020-06-29-1]) ˤޤ
once θҲűѸ°ʤ -esʸѸνͭʤ 's ˤ˵ĤΤǤСonce ȯϸ one's /wʌnz/ ƱˤʤꤽʤΤǤºݤˤϸҲ̵ /wʌns/ ȤʤޤϤɤȤȤ٤ʵǤ
ѤʵˤĤƤϡ˵󤲤2Ĥ hellog #4081. once twice -ce Ȥϲ (2) ([2020-06-29-1]) θȾǤ⾯ƤޤʬѤȡΤñ

ѸǤ ones, twies, thrise ʤɤ s ֤Τ̤ǤꡤȯȤƤ2ä14ޤǤñᲽ s ȯͭ򼺤äȼäơ̵Τɽ綠Ȥᤫ16ʹߤ <s> ä <ce> ֻǵ뤳ȤŪˤʤä


ǸȤƤ뤳Ȥϡ once, twice, thrice ϡεδ°ʤȷӤĤΤΡ餯ѸˤϤǤˤȯۤ˺졤one + -es ȤƤϡʾʤȤΤˤϡʬϤʤ褦ˤʤꡤΤ1Ĥθ촴ǤȰռ˻äΤȤȤǤޤѸˤ -es 첻岽üñΤ1ȤʤäȤˤꡤ1Ĥθ촴ȤƤΰռޤޤʤäȻפޤ餳³ѸˤϡϤ޸۵ -<(e)s> ֤ΤϤդ路ʤƱʬޤǸ촴ΰǤȤ¥ -<ce> ȤֻؤȺؤ줿ΤǤϤʤǤ礦
Ǹ˸Ҳ̵ͭˤĤƿޤűѸ줫Ѹˤơ޸ȤƲᤵ줿 -(e)s /(ə)s/ Τ褦̵Ҳ򼨤ƤޤȤѸˤơζ޸ /s/ /z/ ؤͭޤʤˤĤƤϡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) 򻲾ȡˡˤꡤǤϡʸŪʻˤꡤͭԤ˸¤äƤȤʤޤ˽ͭʸ -'s /z/ ȯ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤ
once तϡΰŪʲѲή,ɤʤä褦ʤΤǤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡᤤʳ顤θ޸ǤϤʤ촴ΰȤǧ褦ˤʤäƤȡޤñ줬1˽̤ޤäƤȤطƤȻפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-05-20 Mon

#5502. դ٤űѸӵ顦Ǿ [superlative][comparison][adjective][adverb][suppletion][morphology][inflection][oe][i-mutation]

Ѹηƻ졦ӵ顦ǾˤԵ§ʤΤĤ롥good -- better -- best bad -- worse --worst ʤɤ佼ˡ (suppletion) 򼨤ΤΤƤ뤬ϸűѸˤ¸ߤषűѸǤϸ¿Ե§ӵ顦Ǿ餬äSweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer (19--20) ꡤդ٤Τ󤹤롥

Ρi-mutation ޤƻӵ顦Ǿ顡

MeaningPositiveComparativeSuperlative
"old"ealdieldraieldest
"young"ġeongġingraġingest
"long"langlengralengest
"strong"strangstrengrastrengest
"high"hēahhīerrahīehst


Ρsuppletion ޤƻӵ顦Ǿ顡

MeaningPositiveComparativeSuperlative
"good"gōdbetera, betrabetst
  sēlrasēlest
"bad"yfelwiersawier(re)st
"great"miċelmāramǣst
"little"lȳtellǣssalǣst


Ρ餬Ǥƻӵ顦Ǿ顡

MeaningPositiveComparativeSuperlative
"formerly"(ǣr)ǣrraǣrest
"far"(feorr)fierrafierrest
"before"(fore) forma, fyrmest, fyr(e)st
"near"(nēah)nēarranīehst
"outside"(ūte)ūterraūt(e)mest
  ȳterraȳt(e)mest


Ρsuppletion ޤӵ顦Ǿ顡

MeaningPositiveComparativeSuperlative
"well"welbetbet(e)st
  sēlsēlest
"badly"yflewierswier(re)st
"much"miclemǣst
"little"lȳtlǣslǣst


Davis, Norman. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1953.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-03-11 Mon

#5432. ʣ -(r)en ϤȤǶǤϤʤä [exaptation][language_change][plural][morphology][derivation][inflection][indo-european][suffix][rhotacism][sound_change][germanic][german][reanalysis]

Ĺ餯̾ʣˤ򸦵椷ƤȤűѸǸԵ§פʣ -ru -n 줾ĸʳǤäȤΤʤäԤ ċildru "children" ʤɤˤߤ뤬ư̾äȤԤ ēagan "eyes" ʤɤˤߤ뤬̲ΰ̣ôä褦
ˤĤơFertig (38) ޥʣܼάˤ򤨤ʤ鶽̣äƤ롥

There are a couple of cases in Germanic where an originally derivational suffix acquired a new inflectional function after regular phonetic attrition at the ends of words resulted in a situation where the suffix only remained in certain forms in the paradigm. The derivational suffix *-es-/-os- was used in proto-Indo-European to form action nouns . . . . In West Germanic languages, this suffix was regularly lost in some forms of the inflectional paradigm, and where it survived it eventually took on the form -er (s > r is a regular conditioned sound change known as rhotacism). The only relic of this suffix in Modern English can be seen in the doubly-marked plural form children. It played a more important role in noun inflection in Old English, as it still does in modern German, where it functions as the plural ending for a fairly large class of nouns, e.g. Kind--Kinder 'child(ren)'; Rind--Rinder 'cattle'; Mann--Männer 'man--men'; Lamm--Lämmer 'labm(s)', etc. The evolution of this morpheme from a derivational suffix to a plural marker involved a complex interaction of sound change, reanalysis (exaptation) and overt analogical changes (partial paradigm leveling and extension to new lexical items). A similar story can be told about the -en suffix, which survives in modern standard English only in oxen and children, but is one of the most important plural endings in modern German and Dutch and also marks a case distinction (nominative vs. non-nominative) in one class of German nouns. It was originally a derivational suffix with an individualizing function . . . .


child(ren), eye(s), ox(en) ˴ؤϡޤǤ͡˼夲ƤʲΥƥ򻲾ȡ

hellog #946. ̾ʣˤγס ([2011-11-29-1])
hellog #146. child ʣ children ʤ櫓 ([2009-09-20-1])
hellog #145. child children 첻Ĺ ([2009-09-19-1])
hellog #218. ʣ ([2009-12-01-1])
hellog #219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1])
hellog #2284. eye ȯˡ ([2015-07-29-1])

hellog-radio ʢ heldio ȡ #31. ʤ child ʣ children ʤΤǤ

heldio #202. child children 첻Ĺ
heldio #291. ͺ ox ʣ oxen
heldio #396. ʤ I eye ƱȯˤʤΡ

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-01-29 Mon

#5390. ˤ word, root, stem, theme, ending [morphology][indo-european][germanic][comparative_linguistics][reconstruction][terminology][inflection][oe]

ɤγʬǤ褯뤳ȤӸؤˤƤȤˤ̤ʤतνѸ¿ɸ˷ǤѸ줬ŵϢϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) Ǽ夲ǵ󤲤ΰʾòؽѸȤ롥
word ָ, root ָ캬, stem ָ촴, theme ָ촴ǡ, ending ָפ뤬Ϳ줿򤬿ޤ櫓ǤʤϰĸˤʲηŪʬϤȤʤäƤ롥

                  ROOT
        STEM 
                  THEME
WORD 
       
        ENDING



ROOT ϸỤ̄ôʬǤ롥THEME ϤȤϲ餫ʸˡŪǽôäƤǽ뤬Ǥ˰ĸʳˤợôʤʸ촴ǤȤƵǽƤľζ޸ ENDING ؤΡ֤ĤʤפȹͤƤФ褤ROOT + THEME STEM Ȥʤꡤ ENDING ղäơŪ WORD θȤʤ롥
㤨Сϡפ̣ƥñʷ equus equ (ROOT) + u (THEME) + s (ENDING) ʬϤ졤Ʊꥷ hippos hipp (ROOT) + o (THEME) + s (ENDING) ʬϤ롥
űѸʹߤŪʳˤäƤϡĸˤ嵭ηŪʬϤǤƩ礭ROOT, THEME, ENDING ߤͻ礷ƤޤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿äơ嵭ϸ̩ˤжŪʬϤˤԸ̻ŪŪˤ̣ͭǤ뤷Ӹؤʬˤ봷ŪȤʤäƤ뤿ˡűѸʸˡʸ̮ǤʤۤȤʤʤޤޤˡȤƤ뤳Ȥ¿
ʤTHEME ˤ첻ȻҲꡤޥĸűѸ̾ˤơԤϡֶѲ̾סԤϡּѲ̾פ̾Τ롥THEME 礯 "athematic" ʤ¸ߤΤդפ롥
ʾ塤Lass (123--26) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-01-25 Thu

#5386. Ѹ˾夭˳ʤ3ñ -s [3ps][impersonal_verb][verb][inflection][agreement][analogy][shakespeare][link][methinks]

ε#5385. methinks ˤޤĤ̯ʸ򤤤ĤҲ ([2024-01-24-1]) θȾǾޤѸȾФ methoughts ʤ̯ʷ֤뤳Ȥޤľˡ3;ΡñĤޤ3ñ -sפȤ˳ʤθǤ٤ϾܤĴ٤Ƥޤ󤬡OED ˤȡShakespeare ФȤ1718ȾФˤ㤬ʸڤ褦ǤѸ˾夭˳ʤǤꡤͤι⤤֤ȤޤʱѸ˸Ԥ϶ʳޤˡ
OED methinks, v. ΰ۷ˤ γ η֤ȤƷǤƤ5ĤʸѤޤ

a1616 Me thoughts that I had broken from the Tower. (W. Shakespeare, Richard III (1623) i. iv. 9)
1620 The draught of a Landskip on a piece of paper, me thoughts masterly done. (H. Wotton, Letter in Reliquiæ Wottonianæ (1651) 413)
1673 I had..coyned several new English Words, which were onely such French Words as methoughts had a fine Tone wieh them. (F. Kirkman, Unlucky Citizen 181)
1711 Methoughts I was transported into a Country that was filled with Prodigies. (J. Addison, Spectator No. 63. ¶3)
1751 The inward Satisfaction which I felt, had spread in my Eyes I know not what of melting and passionate, which methoughts I had never before observed. (translation of Female Foundling vol. I. 30)


methoughts ٤ܤĴ٤ƤɬפޤĤ㤬ʸڤƤʾ塤ñʤ륨顼ǺѤޤ櫓ˤϤޤ󡥤η֤طʤˤΤϡְ㤤ʤ3ñη֤٤ι⤤ methinks Ǥ礦methinks (analogy) ˤꡤˤ -s դ줿ȹͤޤդˤСΤ褦䤷üԤϡ߷ methinks -s 3ñ -s ȤǧƤʤäȤޤ¾ưǤ3ñ -s λ㤬Τݤ䤬鼡ؤͯФƤޤ
¤Ϥ methoughts Ȥ̯ʲ¸ߤˤĤƺǽ˶ƤΤϡƱνΥԥԤǤпʷʸʸ칶ˤǤηаޤϡ YouTube ְͥʼδѸظإͥפˤƴñˤäޤ#195. пإԥ줬 --- ԥڤ߿Ԥɴɴ١罤۽ŹˤΤҲ



ϢơȤˤĤơʲ hellog heldio Ǥ⤴Ҳ𤷤ƤޤΤǡҤˬ䤯

hellog #5357. пȤ --- إԥ줬١罤ۡ2023ǯˤᤰäơ ([2023-12-27-1])
heldio #934. إԥ줬١罤ۡ2023ǯ --- ԤΰпȤ̡

ѸˤˤϤ⤷꤬žäƤޤ

Wischer, Ilse. "Grammaticalization versus Lexicalization: 'Methinks' there is some confusion." Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English. Ed. Olga Fischer, Anette Rosenbach, and Dieter Stein. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000. 355--70.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2024-01-24 Wed

#5385. methinks ˤޤĤ̯ʸ򤤤ĤҲ [3ps][impersonal_verb][verb][syntax][inflection][hc][agreement][analogy][shakespeare][methinks]

;ư (impersonal_verb) methinks ˤĤƤϡ#4308. ˻Ĥ;ư methinks ([2021-02-11-1])#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ʤɤǿƤ;ιʸ (impersonal construction) ǤϿ;μ줬ʤʸˡ夽ʸѤƤ;ưϤ3;ñ¸ߤȤƤ뤫Τ褦ʶ޸Ȥ롥Ĥޤꡤ¿ˤߤ褦ˡľˡñǤС-s ʸŤ -eth) ȤȤȤˤʤ롥
ȤįƤȡ-s ʤɤλҲʤΤ롥Wischer (362) Helsinki Corpus 齦äѸζ̣ʸ򤤤ĤƤΤǡ򾯡Ѥ󼨤褦

(10) þe þincheð þat he ne mihte his sinne forlete.
       'It seems to you that he might not relinquish his sin.'
       (MX/1 Ir Hom Trin 12, 73)

(11) Thy wombe is waxen grete, thynke me.
       'Your womb has grown big. You seem to be pregnant.'
       (M4 XX Myst York 119)
     
(12) My lord me thynketh / my lady here hath saide to you trouthe and gyuen yow good counseyl [...]
       (M4 Ni Fict Reynard 54)
     
(13) I se on the firmament, Me thynk, the seven starnes.
       (M4 XX Myst Town 25)


ҲȼäƤ̤㤬 (10) (12)ȼäƤʤ㳰ŪʤΤ (11) (13) Ǥ롥(11) ǤμͿ̾ me ֤ƤꡤȸηǡطƤ뤫Ȥ⵿줿(13) Ǥ Me ֤ƤΤǡȤǤʤOED methinks, v. Ҳȼʤ㤬ʤ餺ǧ졤ñʥ顼ǤϤʤ餷
ǤϸǡˤϤɤΤ褦طʤΤ1Ĥˤϡ;ιʸ I think ʤʸˡŪ -s ʤɤϤĤʤˤȤδ֤ǺƱäǽ롥⤦1ĥҥȤȤʤΤϡư줬ưޤγˤ̾˰פƤȲǤ㤬뤳ȤOED ǰѤƤ뼡ʸǤϡmethink'st thou art . . . . Ȥƶ̣㤬ǧ롥

a1616 Meethink'st thou art a generall offence, and euery man shold beate thee. (W. Shakespeare, All's Well that ends Well (1623) ii. iii. 251)


ˡưβ3ñָ׸ȤϤʤΤǡưη֤ϻ¾ methought ˸ꤵ줽ºݤˤϸ߷ (analogy) ˴Ť֤Ȥܤ methoughtsOED ˤȤϤ Shakespeare ʤɤ˸Ƥ롥
ɤ methinks ϡưȤƤϤƼŪʤȤ˰֤ŤѤԤΤ褦ȾüʸòȤ٤षԤ᤮òȤ٤ʬहΤ񤷤

Wischer, Ilse. "Grammaticalization versus Lexicalization: 'Methinks' there is some confusion." Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English. Ed. Olga Fischer, Anette Rosenbach, and Dieter Stein. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000. 355--70.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2023-12-03 Sun

#5333. űѸ̾Ǥκ --- -ham, -hamm, -holm; -bearu, -beorg, -burg, -byrig, -borough [old_norse][name_project][etymology][onomastics][toponymy][inflection][oe][polysemy][homonymy][synonym]

űѸ̾2Ǥʤ (dithematic) ¿ä2Ǥˤϡ¼סĮפʤɤΰ̾ (generic) 뤳Ȥ¿⤽ͭ̾ϲ䤹Ȥ櫓2ǤϸбΤǼ岽䤹ȡ-ham ¼פʤΤ -hem ֱפʤΤ -holm ֲߡפʤΤŪ˶̤ˤʤäƤ롥-bearu Ωס-beorg ͡ס-burg/-byrig/-borough ֻԡפˤĤƤƱȤʥåǶڤ줿3Ĥΰ۷֤ˤĤƤϡ#5308. ̾ǤֻդͿʷĤ뤳Ȥ ([2023-11-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
űѸ̾ؤᤰ롤ʲֻΥޡȤϡClark ǤҲ𤵤Ƥ롥嵭2ĤˤĤƤβѤ롥

(2) OE -hām 'village', OE -hamm 'site hemmed in by water or wilderness' and also the latter's Scandinavian synonym -holm all fall together as [m̩]. Not even pre-Conquest spellings always allow of distinguishing -hām from -hamm: if dat. forms in -hamme/-homme survive, they tell in favour of the latter, but often etymology has to depend upon topography . . . . Distinction between -hamm and -holm is complicated by their synonymity, and their likely interchange in the medieval forms of many Danelaw names. . . . PDE spellings are again often unhistorical, as in Kingsholm < OE cyninges hamm 'the king's water-meadow' . . . . Confusion is further confounded by occasional unhistorical spellings of [m̩] < OE or Scand. dat. pl. -um, as in Airyholme and Howsham . . . . (Clark 486--87)


(4) Reflexes of OE -bearu 'grove' and -beorg 'mound' are partly merged not only with each other but also with those of -burg/-byrig, so that PDE forms in -barrow can represent -bearu or -beorg, ones in -bury can represent -bearu or byrig and ones in -borough can represent -beorg or burg . . . . (Clark 487)


Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 452--89.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2023-12-01 Fri

#5331. ťΥɸͳ̾2ñ°ʷ [old_norse][name_project][etymology][onomastics][toponymy][inflection][genitive][oe]

󥰥̾˸ťΥɸͳ褹ǤޤޤƤˤĤƤϡ#818. 󥰥ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1938. Ϣ -by ˤ̾ϸťΥɸΤΤ ([2014-08-17-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
̾ǤˤϿ̾ʤɤ°ʷ륱¿֡ĮפȤä̾դťΥɸǤ̾ñ°ʷˤθ롥o 촴̾Ǥ -ss ā 촴ν̾Ǥ -aR Τ§θʤѷΡˤºݤ Danelaw θűѸ̾˳ǧ롥
Clark (483) 򤤤Ĥ󤲤ƤΤdzǧ

In the districts most densely settled by Vikings --- mainly, that is, in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire --- survival in some specifics of Scand. gen. sing. inflexions bears witness to prolonged currency of Scandinavian speech in the milieux concerned . . . . Both with personal names and with topographical terms, genitives in -ar occur chiefly in the North-West: e.g. Lancs. Amounderness < Agmundar nes 'A.'s headland' and Litherland < hliðar (hlið 'hill-side') + -land . . . . Non-syllabic Scandinavian-style genitives in [s] are more widespread: e.g. Yorks. Haxby < DB Haxebi 'Hákr's estate' and Lincs. Brauncewell < ME Branzwell 'Brandr's spring'.


ܿζ޸Ū˻¸ƤΤϸͭ̾餳̸ǤϤΤ褦ʻϤۤȤɤߤʤȻפ롥Τ褦¦̤̾ (onomastics) ̥ϤǤ롥

Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 452--89.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2023-11-12 Sun

#5312. ֤إ饸׺ǿϡԵ§ưϤʤ¸ߤΤ [yurugengogakuradio][verb][inflection][conjugation][sobokunagimon][frequency][voicy][heldio][youtube][link][notice][numeral][suppletion][analogy]

͵ YouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸κǿۿޤϱѸˤȤ⤪˴طԵ§ưϤʤ¸ߤΤڥ륷ʸˡ_Ե§ư#280Ǥ



إ饸οˤϡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) YouTube ְͥʼδѸظإͥΤĤδϢƥĤ˸ڤƤޤȴȯϤĤإ饸ˡαѸ˾夲ƤȤƤ򤷤ǤΥȥԥḁ̊Ϥޤ褦ˡ
˷ǺܤƤƥؤΥ󥯤򡤤ˤƷǤƤޤ

رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ١ʸҡ2016ǯ
رѸˤDz򤭤ۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
heldio #58. ʤٸˤԵ§ʤȤ¿ΤǤ
YouTube ֿ⡪ go β went ͳ (cf. #4774. go/went ϼҲŪȥޥǤ ([2022-05-23-1])
YouTube ֱѸԵ§ưΤҤ⤴ --- 󥰤о졪 (cf. hellog #4810. sing β sang Ǥ⤢ sung Ǥ⤢롪 ([2022-06-28-1])
YouTube ΤαѸԵ§ư餱 (cf. #4807. -ed ˤ뵬§ưνиϳ̿Ūä ([2022-06-25-1])
heldio #9. first -st ϺǾä
heldio #10. third three + th ѷʤΤǽ൬§Ū
heldio #11. ʤ second 2ܤΡפϼѸ졪

Ե§ưϤʤ¸ߤΤפȤѸ˴ؤѤʵ䤫⤭佼ˡ (suppletion) ʡ֥СסˤƳˡԵ§μҲŪյͳĤġΤȤƸˤֵ§פ뤤ϡԵ§פȤϲʤΤȤ礭ʵ󼨤Ƥޤٸ󡤤꤬Ȥޤ#5130. ֤إ饸׼ȥ󥯽 ([2023-05-14-1]) ⤼ҤȤ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2023-06-01 Thu

#5148. ޥĸζѲư̿ˡζ [germanic][imperative][inflection][paradigm][verb][person][number][subjunctive][mood][reconstruction][comparative_linguistics]

Ѹư̿ˡη֤ϡ˰פ롥űѸ̤ȡ̿ˡǤϸˤȤϰۤʤ֤ꡤ2;ñʣȤǸ§Ȥưۤʤ޸ä
ˤ򴬤ᤷƥޥĸˤޤ̤ȡƷǤϤˤ衤;Τ˱ơ¿ΰۤʤ޸äƤȤ롥ʲˡޥĸ¿ζѲưˤĤƺƷƤ޸򼨤 (Ringe 237)

 indicativesubjunctiveimperative 
active   infinitive -a-ną
sg.1 -ō-a-ų---participle -a-nd-
 2 -i-zi-ai-zø 
 3 -i-di-ai-ø-a-dau 
du.1 -ōz(?)-ai-w--- 
 2 -a-diz(?)-a-diz(?)-a-diz(?) 
pl.1 -a-maz-ai-m--- 
 2 -i-d-ai-d-i-d 
 3 a-ndi-ai-n-a-ndau 


Ȥ櫓 imperative ̿ˡˤܤƤñξʣ3Ĥοƥ꡼ˤĤơ23;Τ˶Ūʶ޸ߤ롥;Τ˱ưۤʤޤԤʤƤȤŪ˺ƷƤΤ
ѸˤޤᡤθΥޥˤϡ̿ˡη֤ζ̤˼ޤꡤƤˤȤäƤ褤ѸǤ̿ˡη֤䡤ȴϢˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ ([2015-08-03-1])
#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1])
#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 ([2016-02-06-1])
#2480. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ (2) ([2016-02-10-1])
#2881. Ѹʣ2;̿ξü ([2017-03-17-1])
#3620. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (1) ([2019-03-26-1])
#3621. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (2) ([2019-03-27-1])
#4935. ³ˡ̿ˡζ ([2022-10-31-1])

Ringe, Don. From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Oxford: Clarendon, 2006.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-11-01 Tue

#4936. ʤŪֻŪ줬ȤʤưʸǽʤΤ [passive][syntax][inflection][verb][me][sobokunagimon][word_order]

Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǡꥹʡ󤫤󤻤줿˲#517. Ū줬ˤʤư֤Ѹȯ --- He was given a book.ۿޤҤİ



§ȤƸűѸǤưľŪ줬Ȥʤưʸ¸ߤޤǤȤ³ѸˤʤꡤưδŪֻŪޤǤ⤬ȤʤưʸǽȤʤäƤޤʳפ (125--31) ˡϤۿؤ­Ȥʤޤ
Fischer ˤСѸǤϼΤ٤ƤμưʸǽǤ

1 The book was selected by the committee
2 Nicaragua was given the opportunity to protest
3 His plans were laughed at
4 The library was set fire to by accident


Ѹ˸Ǥϡμưʸγ˴ؤ¿ʤƤޤĤιͤΤΡͼư (passivisation) ˴ؤ쵬§ŬϰϤѲƤȤȤ館¿褦Ǥפˡưоݤ֤ȤȤưľŪ줫ŪءֻŪس礷ƤȤǤ
1ĤβǤ⤷ȤƤ⡤ʤʤΤȤŪɬפޤưȤϰۤʤ뤱ɤⲿ餫Ǵط츽ݤˤƤѲ礬äƤȤСȹ碌ƹͻɬפޤդλ Fischer (384) ˸äƤ餤ޤ礦

There are two general paths along which one could look for an explanation of these developments. One can hypothesise that there was a change in the nature of the rule that generates passive constructions . . . Another possibility is that there was a change in the application of the rule due to changes having taken place elsewhere in the system of the language . . . The latter course seems to be the one now more generally followed. Additional factors that may have influenced the spread of passive construction are the gradual loss of the Old English active construction with indefinite man . . . (this construction could most easily be replaced by a passive) and the change in word order . . . .


ѲβȸڤϡʤʤưפǤϤޤ󡥤Τ˱ѸˤȤʬꡤ椬³ƤΤǤ

ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-10-31 Mon

#4935. ³ˡ̿ˡζ [subjunctive][imperative][hortative][morphology][inflection][mood][typology]

Bybee ˤܤɤǤơ̸Ūˤߤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ̿ˡ (imperative) ȤδطݤεҤäѸˤδϡ#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 ([2016-02-06-1]) Ǽ夲²ʳθޤ᤿ǡƵǤBybee (186) Ѥ롥

Since the subjunctive is usually a marker of certain types of subordination, it is very difficult to say what the subjunctive "means" in any given language. There is a long literature on this problem in European languages, and no satisfactory solution. At most, it might be said that the subjunctive has a very general meaning such as "non-asserted" and then it takes more specific meanings from the context in which it occurs.
   Considered cross-linguistically, there is evidence of a relation between the subjunctive and imperative or related moods. When subjunctive forms are used in main clauses, they have an imperative function in Maasai, Basque and Yupik, and/or a hortative function in Tarascan, Pawnee and Maasai, in keeping with their non-asserted subordinate clause functions. The marking of subjunctive parallels that of indicative or imperative in most languages. In Maasai and Pawnee, the subjunctive is a prefix, just as the imperative is, and in Tarascan, Ojibwa and Georgian the subordinating mood is expressed in the same way as the imperative or optative


³ˡ̿ˡʤӴϢ¾ΤĤˡˤϤФеǽŪˤŪˤƤǤȤȤ̸Ūˤ⼨줿櫓ξDzƱѸˤäƤߤΤ⤪⤷ѸˤǤϡŪˤ³ˡ̿ˡϤȤȰۤʤäƤͻ礷ƤȤ̣ݤäƤ뤫
Ϣưʲε⻲ȡ

#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1])
#3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1])
#3540. ˾ʸȴʸ̯ʴط ([2019-01-05-1])

Bybee, Joan. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-10-25 Tue

#4929. mood modality [mood][modality][category][terminology][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][inflection]

ɸνѸ mood modality Ϥ褯Ʊ롥ؿ缭ŵ٤ˤ mood ϡ֡ưΡˡˡԤɽư֤ФüԤοŪ٤򼨤ưθѲաסmodality ϡˡˡơԴ˾̿Ꭵ½ʤɼοŪ٤칽¤ˤäɽ뤳ȡפȤ롥ξԤζ̤ˤĤơBybee (165--66) "Mood and modality" ꤹǫ˲⤷ƤΤǡѤ褦

   The working definition of mood used in the survey is that mood is a marker on the verb that signals how the speaker chooses to put the proposition into the discourse context. The main function of this definition is to distinguish mood from tense and aspect, and to group together the well-known moods, indicative, imperative, subjunctive and so on. It was intentionally formulated to be general enough to cover both markers of illocutionary force, such as imperative, and markers of the degree of commitment of the speaker to the truth of the proposition, such as dubitative. What all these markers of the mood category have in common is that they signal what the speaker is doing with the proposition, and they have the whole proposition in their scope. Included under this definition are epistemic modalities, i.e. those that signal the degree of commitment the speaker has to the truth of the proposition. These are usually said to range from certainty to probability to possibility.
   Excluded, however, are the other "modalities", such as the deontic modalities of permission and obligation, because they describe certain conditions on the agent with regard to the main predication. Some of the English modal auxiliaries have both an epistemic and a deontic reading. The following two examples illustrate the deontic functions of obligation and permission respectively:
      Sally must be more polite to her mother.
      The students may use the library at any time.
   The epistemic functions of these same auxiliaries can be seen by putting them in a sentence without an agentive subject:
      It must be raining.
      It may be raining.
   Now the auxiliaries signal the speaker's degree of commitment to the proposition "it is raining". Along with deontic modalities, markers of ability, desire and intention are excluded from the definition of mood since they express conditions pertaining to the agent that are in effect with respect to the main predication. I will refer to obligation, permission, ability, desire and intention as "agent-oriented" modalities.
   The hypothesis implicit in the working definition of mood as an inflectional category is that markers of modalities that designate conditions on the agent of the sentence will not often occur as inflections on verbs, while markers that designate the role the speaker wants the proposition to play in the discourse will often occur as inflections. This hypothesis was overwhelmingly supported by the languages in the sample. Hundreds of inflectional markers that fit the definition of mood were found to occur in the languages of the sample. In fact, such markers are the most common type of inflection on verbs. However, inflectional markers of obligation, permission, ability or intention are extremely rare in the sample, and occur only under specific conditions.


mood ϼȤƷʤտ路ựŪƥ꡼ָ̿modality ϼȤựŪƥ꡼ָ̿ΤȤ⤢й԰ټԻָΤȤ⤢롤ȤȤ館Ƥ褵̣δ餤СԤϸԤݤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Bybee (169) ˤϼ̤ꡥ

The cross-linguistic data suggest, then, the following uses of the terms modality and mood. Modality designates a conceptual domain which may take various types of linguistic expression, while mood designates the inflectional expression of a subdivision of this semantic domain. Since there is much cross-linguistic consistency concerning which modalities are expressed inflectionally, mood can refer both to the form of expression, and to a conceptual domain.


Bybee, Joan. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-10-06 Thu

#4910. ѸȸűѸΰ㤤3 --- ѸáɸԺߡ޸οʿ [oe][me][loan_word][standardisation][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis]

Ť Wardale ѸǤ˼äƤ롥Ѹ (Middle English) ϸűѸ (Old English or Anglo-Saxon) ȲɤۤʤΤWardale (2--3) 3󤲤Ƥ롥

   (a) One of these marked differences is that whereas the latter contained very little foreign element, only a limited number of Latin words and a very few from Celtic and other sources being found, the vocabulary of Middle English has been enormously enriched, especially from Old Norse and French.
   (b) Another point of distinction is that whereas in the O.E. period the West Saxon dialect under Ælfred's encouragement of learning had come to be the standard literary dialect, the others being relegated chiefly to colloquial use, in M.E. times no such state of affairs existed. In them all dialects were used for literary purposes and only towards the end of the period do we find that of Chaucer beginning to assume its position as the leading literary language.
   (c) But more important than these external points of difference, if perhaps less obvious, and more essential because inherent in the language itself, is the modification which gradually made itself seen in that language. English, like all Germanic tongues, has at all times been governed by what is known as the Germanic accent law, that is by the system of stem accentuation. By this law, except in a few cases, the chief emphasis of the word was thrown on the stem syllable, all others remaining less stressed or entirely unaccented. . . . But by [the M.E. period] all vowels in unaccented syllables have been levelled under one uniform sound e . . .


ĤޤꡤűѸ٤ȤѸκΩ3롥˭٤ʼѸ졤ɸѼԺߡ̵첻οʿȤ櫓3ܤŪܼŪħǤꡤ2Ĥνʷ̤⤿餷ȡWardale (3--4) ϵ롥

   The consequences of this levelling of all unaccented vowels under one are twofold.
   (a) Since many inflectional endings had by this means lost their distinctive value, as when a nominative singular caru, care, an a nominative plural cara both gave a M.E. care, or a nominative plural limu, limbs, and a genitive plural lima both gave a M.E. lime, those few endings which did remain distinctive, such as the -es, of the nominative plural of most masculine nouns, were for convenience' sake gradually taken for general use and the regularly developed plurals care and lime were replaced by cares and limes. In the same way and for the same reason the -es of genitive singular ending of most masculine and neuter nouns came gradually to be used in other declensions as when for an O.E. lāre, lore's we find a M.E. lǫres
   (b) The second consequence follows as naturally. The older method of indicating the relationship between words in a sentence having thus become inadequate, it was necessary to fin another, and pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions came more and more into use. Thus an O.E. bōca full, which would have normally given a M.E. bōke full was replaced by the phrase full of bōkes, and an O.E. subjunctive hie 'riden, which in M.E. would have been indistinguishable from the indicative riden from an O.E. ridon, by the phrase if hi riden. In short, English from having been a synthetic language, became one which was analytic.


1Ĥη̤ϡΤ˶̤ -es Τ褦ͥʶ޸̲ȤȤ2ĤϡȸδطɸΤ˶ޤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäˡ̾졤ֻ졤³Ȥä˰¸ٹ礬Ūʸ줫ʬŪʸذܹԤȤ
ʾ塤ѸȸűѸΰ㤤ˤĤפäΤǾҲ𤷤

Wardale, E. E. An Introduction to Middle English. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1937. 2016. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-08-09 Tue

#4852. ;Τˤ餺ư -s դ [3sp][3pp][conjugation][verb][inflection][historic_present]

ư -s ˤĤơhellog ǤŪʴ͡˼夲Ƥ
ɸѸǤ3ñ (3sp) ˤΤ -s դȤȤˤʤäƤ뤬ŪʱѸѼ䡤Ǥϰ衦ҲѼˤơ3ñʳΥåȤ -s դȤϷ褷ʤդˡ3ñǤäƤ -s դʤѼȤΤ⡤ŪˤⶦŪˤäʤư -s ȤΤϡ¤ϻפƤ⡤ʤʤʤΤǤ롥
Ϣ뵭䲻ۿ󤲤Ƥ

#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
#3557. Ѹˤ3ñѰۡ ([2019-01-22-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#3542. CNN English Express2αѸýǺܤޤ ([2019-01-07-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
heldio #177. 3ñΥ򼨤󥰥
#4693. YouTube 2ơʣ3ñEbonics ([2022-03-03-1])

;Τˤ餺ľˡ߷Ǿ -s ȤȤƤϡ󥰥륺륺ν󤲤롥Ǥ I likes it., We goes home., You throws it. ʤɤ -s Ѥ롥do Ȥư졦ưˤĤƤС󥰥ǤϡưȤƤϾ dos /du:z/ ưȤƤϾ do ȤȤ褦ˡˡʬƤȤ (ex. He dos it every day, do he?) ʤߤˡǤưȤƤβ doneưȤƤβ did ѤȤ顤ʤ餪⤷ (ex. He done it last night, did he?)
嵭Ȥ̤ˡåȥɤ̥ɤ¿Ǥϡ12;Ρ3;ʣˤơνȽҤ٤Ūߡ (historic_present) ˡȤơư -s (ex. I goes down this street and I sees this man hiding behind a tree.)
ʾ塤Hughes et al. (28--29) ˰͵򤷤ƵҤ

Hughes, Arthur, Peter Trudgill, and Dominic Watt. English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of English in the British Isles. 4th ed. London: Hodder Education, 2005.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-06-28 Tue

#4810. sing β sang Ǥ⤢ sung Ǥ⤢롪 [youtube][notice][sobokunagimon][verb][inflection][gradation][vowel]

YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥϤ4Фޤ35ƤޤֱѸԵ§ưΤҤ⤴ --- 󥰤о졪Ǥ



ɸŪˤABC sing -- sang -- sung ȶޤ¤ABB sing -- sung -- sung ɸŪʤ⸽ѤƤޤϡָѡפǤϤʤűѸ줫³ǤűѸǤԵ§ưŪʡֶѲưסˤβˤϼο;Τ˱2Ĥꡤ줾12ȸƤФƤޤ2ʬϡɸѸǤĶٸǤ be ưΤߤ˻ĤäƤꡤ줾 was were ȤʤޤűѸǤϡwas -- were Τ褦2ʬ¾Ե§ưˤ⤪ʤ٤¸ߤȤ櫓Ǥ
sing ξˤ1 sang2 sungon Ǥθˤǡ1Ĥ˽󤵤뤳Ȥˤʤޤġư˱ơɤη֤˽󤵤뤫ϰۤʤäƤޤư1̲ޤ̤ưǤ2̲ޤξԤɤϼ¤˽Ѹ1500--1700ǯˤޤ³12ɤŪǤ
Ѹ1700--1900ǯˤˤ褦䤯ϲʤߡ줫פ줿ΤǤȽǴϥɥۥåǡɬͳ餫ǤϤޤsing ξˤϡűѸ1˴Ť sang ޤɸȤޤĿˡȤƤϡθ2˴Ť sung ʻѤ³ᡤߤαѸüԤˤ sung ѤͤΤǤ
ϡʬ sung ˤŬѤȤ̣ǤζŪʡָѡפ (analogy) Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ޤ󤬡ˤη³Ż뤹ʤСűѸ2λ¸Ȥߤ٤ݤʤΤǤ
ˤĤƤϡʲ hellog Ǥ夲ƤޤΤǤȤ

#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1])
#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])
#3343. drink--drank--drank Ω ([2018-06-22-1])
#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])

Voicy heldio Ǥ夲Ȥޤ#35. sing β sang sung 򡤤Ҥİ


Referrer (Inside): [2023-11-12-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-06-25 Sat

#4807. -ed ˤ뵬§ưνиϳ̿Ūä [youtube][notice][sobokunagimon][germanic][indo-european][verb][inflection]

3622ʿˤˡYouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ 34ƤޤΤαѸԵ§ư餱Ǥ



-ed Ĥвˤʤ롤ȤΤñʬ䤹Ǥ͡¿ưŬѤ뵬§ʤΤǡΤ褦ưֵ§ưפȸƤǤޤŪǹ٤ΰ찮ưϤε§˱鷺Ե§ưפȸƤФƤޤsing -- sang -- sung come -- came -- come Τ褦ʡŵʤФʤʤǤ͡촴첻ѲΤħǤ
嵭 YouTube äȤϡŪˤԵ§ưΤۤ¸ߤƤꡤ§ưˤΤʤ٤ʳ˽Ƹ줿ԤǤ롤ȤȤǤ§ưϿԤȤƸ줿ϡ㳰ŪʤΤȤ뤵Ƥǽ⤤ΤǤι줿ΤǤ礦֤֤¿ư߹ǤűѸϤޤޤǤˤϤäֵ§Ūפϰ̤ΩƤޤդˡꥸʥθ촴첻Ѳ륿פϡǤˡԵ§Ūפʷϵ˻äƤȤ櫓Ǥ
Τ褦ưѲϡޥɤͭΤΤǤĤޤꡤѲϱѸ졤ɥĸ졤ɸʤɤˤޤե󥹸졤졤ꥷʤɤˤƤʤΤǤʤޥɤˤΤ̿Ȥ٤Ǥ
YouTube ˤؿäϡŪäˤϤʤޤνˤĤơҼε̤ƿؤǤߤƤѸˤΤ⤷˥ϥޤ뤳ȴְ㤤ʤǤ

#3345. ѲưƳ෿γ̿Ǥ ([2018-06-24-1])
#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])
#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])
#3339. ѸδŪԵ§ư ([2018-06-18-1])
#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])
#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])
#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1])
#3670.رѸ춵٤Ϣ3֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤס ([2019-05-15-1]) ȡ˼Ƥ뵭

Referrer (Inside): [2023-11-12-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2022-05-28 Sat

#4779. shoe -- shod -- shod(en) [verb][inflection][vowel][participle]

¿αѸؽԤˤȤä shoe ϡַפ̣̾ȤѤΤۤȤɤǡ~˷롨ϡˤŴǤġפ̣ưȤƻȤäʹꤹ뵡ϤäˤʤưˡϤΤ餤ʤΤʤԵ§ưʤΤǤ롥ΤˤС§ shoe -- shoed -- shoed ⤢ˤϤΤԵ§ shoe -- shod /ʃɑd/ -- shod(en) /ʃɑdn/ ⤢롤ȤȤ
ʬȤƤ shod Ѥʸ򼨤

His feet were shod in slippers. (= He was shod in slippers.)
The children were well shod and happy.
She turned on her elegantly shod heel.
The horse was taken to be shod.

ܤƤưȤƤ shoe εϸŤűѸǤ⤹Ǥ scōgan ȤƸƤ롥ѲưȤƲ scōdʬ ġescōd Τ褦Ĺ첻ݤäƤѸʹߤû첻û첻ˤĤƤ OED Ǥ "anomalous" ȻŦƤ̤ꡤʤʤäΤʬäƤʤ

The doubling of the d and the consequent shortening of the vowel in Middle English schodde past tense, schodd past participle (whence the modern shod past tense and participle) are anomalous. (An Old English example occurs in Wulfstan Homilies p. 173, Unsceoddum fotum.) Compare Middle Swedish skodde past tense, and Swedish skodd past participle. The case is parallel to that of fledde, fledd < FLEE v. (where Swedish also has the corresponding gemination).


ʬ shod ؤƻȤ slipshod ֤ȤΤĤ֤줿ʷϤˡ餷ʤ󤶤ʡʡפ󤲤Ƥֳ롨äꤹפ̣ư slip Ȥ߹蘆äʣǤ롥ФϽѸ1580ǯŪslipshod shoes ֤ȤΤĤ֤줿סa slipshod piece of work ֤󤶤ʺʡסslipshod management ֤ʷбġפʤɤ򻲾ȡ

[ | ѥڡ ]

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow