ְʼδѸظإͥϤ3ۤɤФޤѸ졦˴ؤؤιֵݤΤǤϤʤޤǸԤɤϭǤΩäŪʡΤ٤ܻؤơ轵ȿ18:0010ʬưåץɤƤޤ¿˥ͥϿƤƤޤ꤬Ȥޤꤤޤ
25Ƥޤֿ⡪ go β went ͳǤYouTube ȤڤޤơΥȥǥⲾ⡪ĤƤޤʾСˡȿڲǽʲǤϤʤޤǻˤȤɤޤΤǤϤޤĹ餯ƤͤǤ
λñ㲽ƤСgo/went ˸¤餺ѸʤҤƤϸ̡ˤ˴ѻԵ§ʸܤϡޥƤʤĿͤϱѸüԽĤ֤Ƥʤ衤ȤҲؾΥȥޥȤƵǽƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤgo Ȥ goed ǤϤʤ wentפȤ֤Τߤ˶ͭƤ礤դȽƤ뤫ɤΤȥޥʤΤǤϤʤȡ
Τ褦ʥȥޥ椬ΩƤ go/went ΥڥǤɬפϤޤۤΤɤʥڥǤɤäϤǤǤѸˤƤϡޤԵ§ŪθƤ go/went ҲŪʥȥޥȤФ졤ѤƤ롤ȤȤʤΤȹͤƤޤ
֤ʤ go β went ʤΤפȤѤʵˤϡ2Ĥ¦̤ޤ1Ĥϡʤˤä went ȤʤΤǤȤ䤤ǤؤβϱѸˤդȤȤǤ#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])#4094. ʤ go β went ˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-07-12-1])#4403. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ3֤ʤ go β went ˤʤΡס ([2021-05-17-1])
ʤĤޤǤäƤ go βȤ goed ѤʤΤȤ䤤ФƤϡۤʤǤ褦˻פޤ嵭μҲŪʴβǤˤĤơ#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) 䡤رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ٤ p. 78
դˤϤԵ§Ȥ櫤ФƤΤǤ
δ졡رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ١ҡ2016ǯ
she θ츻ˤĤơϢ Laing and Lass ʸ夲Ƥcf. #4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1])#4770. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ɾ ([2022-05-19-1]))
Ʊʸμʴؿ3;ñ̾ʤη֤ˤĤƤгʤͿʤη֤ˤĤƤƤ롥űѸɸŪʥѥˤСгʤ hīeͿʤ hire η֤äˤߤ餫̤ꡤͿʷгʷ߹ǡŪ herפ뤳ȤˤʤäǤС¾3;̾ǤƱȤäƤ롥ñͿʤ him г hine ߹ߡʣͿʤ him г hīe ߹ʸˤ켫Ȥ them ִ줿ˡ
3;̾˴ؤͿʤгʤ߹ȤθݡͿؤгʤοʿˤϤޤܤ줺褽ĺΤȤäΤȵ䤬뤬ñ˴ؤƤ Laing and Lass (209) ˤǫä
By the time ME proper begins to emerge, and to survive in the written record in the mid to late twelfth century, the new 'she' type for the subject pronoun already begins to be found. For the object pronoun the levelling of the 'her/hir' type from the OE DAT/GEN variants is also already the majority for direct object function. For the fem sg personal pronoun used as direct object ($/P13OdF), LAEME CTT has 60 tokens of the 'heo/hi(e)' type across only 7 texts. If one includes hi(e) spellings for IT ($/P13OdI) showing survival of feminine grammatical gender in inanimates, the total rises to 77 tokens across 14 texts. Only 2 texts (with 3 tokens between them) have 'heo/hie' exclusively in direct object function for HER. The other 5 texts show 'her/hir' types beside 'heo/hie' types. Against this are 494 tokens of the 'her/hir' type for HER found across 51 texts. Or, if one includes 'her/hir' type spellings for IT showing the survival of grammatical gender, the total rises to 590 across 58 texts.
פˡгʤͿؤοʿϡճѸʳǤǤ˿ʤǤȤȤˤʤ롥餯ñʣǤ褦ʾä뤬ˤĤƤ̤ɬפ롥
ȴϢƴϢơ#155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1])#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1])#4080. ʤ she νͭʤŪʤ her ƱˤʤΤǤ ([2020-06-28-1]) ȡ
#4349. ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤ ([2021-03-24-1]) ȤѤʵȴϢơ⤽ξԤͳ褬礭ۤʤˤĤơLass βѤ褦ޤʬˤĤơȤ櫓Ѳưͳ˾Ƥ (Lass 161)
. . . its [= past participle] descent is not always very neat. To begin with, it is historically not really 'part of' the verb paradigm: it is originally an independent thematic adjective (IE o-stem, Gmc a-stem) formed off the verbal root. The basic development would be:
IE PGmc *ROOT - o - nó- > *ROOT - α -nα-
Ѳư˴ؤ¤ꡤʬư캬ˤϤʤȤưѥȤ߹ޤƤʤäȤȤŪˤϡư줫Ωưζΰ㤤ˤ¸
ʬˤϡŪưζΰ㤤˰¸ʤȤ𤬤ä (Lass 163) ˤĤƤϤǤˡ#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã ([2021-03-20-1]) ǰѤȤǤ롥
֤ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤפȤ˸礦äơ⤽ʬȸʬͳ褬礭ۤʤäƤפȤʤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
to εˤĤơ#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1]) ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤
to פΤۤϡűѸֻ to ˡҤͿʤ˶ޤ -anne Ȥķ֡ϰ̾ȤäƤ褤ΤʤΤǡ̾줵ʤ˶ޤˤ³
ϡѸˤζʽʤɤǤ褯ŪʵҤΤǤ롥ȤɬΤǤϤʤ褦Los (144) ˰ۤʤƤꡤΤۤӸŪϤ롥
The etymology of the to-infinitive is often given as a bare infinitive in the complement of a preposition to, but this leaves the gemination ('doubling') of the -n- in the to-infinitive unexplained. The gemination points to the presence of an earlier -j-, probably part of a nominalising suffix. This parallells (sic) the origin of the gerund . . . , and indicates that the to-infinitive is not built on the bare infinitive, which was a much earlier formation, but on a verbal stem, like any other nominalisation:
(57) to (preposition) + ber- (verbal stem) + -anja (derivational suffix) + -i (dative sg) Common Germanic *to beranjōi, Old English: to berenne, Middle English: to beren/bere, PDE: to bear.
Τ˸űѸθ beran ̤̾ȸΩƤͿʤ˶ޤƤ *berane ˤʤ berenne ˤϤʤʤ첻ۤʤ뤷ҲνŤ (gemination) θˤʤФʤʤȤˡƵŤ
Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
8Ⱦ11ˤƥαѸϸťΥɸǻܿθܿ (contact) ϸαѸη˿ʱƶڤܤѸ˾ΰյ礭ˡ¿θ椬ʤ졤ѤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ťΥɸ˴ؤ old_norse ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
θܿħϡñʤüѤˤȤɤޤ餺٥ˤƶڤǤˤ롥˶ñ㲽 (simplification) ʿ (levelling) ˴ؤơܿιäȤŦƤ롥θܿܿΥݥΤʤǤɤΤ褦ʰ֤ŤˤΤ͡ʵ롥
ʬ˱ƶϤΤ Thomason and Kaufman (97, 281) θΩƤǤϡθܿοϡ (borrowing) 뤤ϸ (language_shift) ˤƶȤäˤȤϡξθüԤǤϤʤθüԤǤȤ
ξüԤȤ˼餸Ƥ륿פθܿǤȤ롥2ʤ뤤2ˤüԤߤŶĤ֤ʿƤ͡ (koineisation) βǤϤʤȤΩˤĤƤϡǤˡ#3972. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation ([2020-03-12-1]) ȡ#3980. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (2) ([2020-03-20-1]) ǤҲ𤷤Ƥ Winford (82--83) Dawson ˰͵ĤIJ⤷ƤʬѤ
Hope Dawson (2001) suggests that the variety of Northern English that emerged from the contact between Viking Norse and Northern Old English was in fact a koiné --- a blend of elements from the two languages. The formation of this compromise variety involved selections from both varieties, with gradual elimination of competition between variants through leveling (selection of one option). This suggestion is attractive, since it explains the retention of Norse grammatical features more satisfactorily than a borrowing scenario does. We saw . . . that the direct borrowing of structural features (under RL [= recipient language] agentivity) is rather rare. The massive diffusion of Norse grammatical features into Northern Old English is therefore not what we would expect if the agents of change were speakers of Old English importing Norse features into their speech. A more feasible explanation is that both Norse and English speakers continued to use their own varieties to each other, and that later generations of bilingual or bidialectal speakers (especially children) forged a compromise language, as tends to happen in so many situations of contact.
ܿؤγǤϡ͡ΩԤƤƤ褦˻פ롥
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Dawson, Hope. "The Linguistic Effects of the Norse Invasion of England." Unpublished ms, Dept of Linguistics, Ohio State U, 2001.
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
űѸʰˤ˻ϤޤѸƤܴۤ뤷οϡѸˤ˾νäȤäƤ褤ˤѸθȤƤҤä֤äƤޤäȤäƤǤϤʤȤ櫓̾졤ư졤ƻη絬Ϥʺ;ʤ졤ʻȷӤĤƤʸˡƥ (category) Ȥؤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
̾ˤĤƤСűѸǤ (gender) (number) (case) 3ƥλ̰ΤȤ٤ǽƤѸǤϤ褽ȳʤΥƥ岽üˤ餵졤ͥȤʤäƺ˻롥
ưˤĤƤϡűѸǤϿ; (person) (number)ˡ (mood) (tense) ǽŪäοιȤ졤ʳΥƥθ礬ޤä٤ƤΥƥޤӤƤȤϤṲ̄ͥΤϻǤ롥
Lass (161) ϡḽѸưΥƥŪʶ̤ȤΤ褦˿
TENSE pres. MOOD ind. NUM. sing. PERS. 1, 2 -0
3 -s
pl.
subj./imp.
past -d
ŪԵ§Ϲٸ˽椷Ƥ롥ŵԵ§ưǤ롥§Ū -ed դƲ밵Ū¿ưФơԵ§ưϿʤƤŪ٤ι⤤ưǤ롥Ե§Ե§Ȥ go be β went, was/were ʤɤϡ佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤΤǤꡤŵƤʤǤǤʤϡĶٸǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥դλϰʲεǤ夲Ƥ
֤ʤٸˤԵ§ʤȤ¿ΤǤ ʵ729դֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤƲ
#3859. ʤˤԵ§ʸݤΤǤ ([2019-11-20-1])
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])
Ǥϡʤ٤ι⤤ưˤԵ§ѤΤ¿Τ (memory) ֤οŪɽ (mental representation) ʤŪǤ롥Smith (1535) βѤ롥
The relationship between high frequency and irregularity has to do with memory in so far as those verbs that are used frequently have strong mental representations such that the irregular past forms are stored autonomously and thus accessed independently of the present stem. Such items are said to have become "entrenched" in storage . . . . On the other hand, a low frequency form does not necessarily have its past form stored autonomously and does not allow for direct access to that past form. Thus, its use in the past involves access to the present stem and rule application . . . .
٤ι⤤ưβϡˤ˻Ѥ뤿ˡΤʤľܥǤФˤޤäƤΤǤ롥go Ȥ߷ˤ went ˤɤ夯褦Ǥϡ٤Ωʤgo ͳˡľ went ΰФˤɤ夭٤㤤ưǤС߷ˤơ -ed դȤ§ŬѤη⡤ޤΤȤˤʤΤѤ롥ĤޤꡤФ٤˱ľܥȴܥ2ʬƤΤΨŪǤ롥
Ǥϡ-ed դƲ뵬§ưϾ˷ȼܥʤΤȤȡɬ⤽ǤϤʤ褦Smith (1535) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤢븦ˤȡƱǤ kneaded needed ︳ԤȯƤäȤŪ٤㤤Ԥ -ed Τۤ٤ι⤤Ԥθ⡤ʿѤƿߥĹȯ줿Ȥϡneeded ΤۤưפǤ뤳ȡ餯ľܤ˵¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥
Smith, K. Aaron. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Frequency and Language Change." Chapter 97 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1531--46.
(case) ϡŪȤäƤ褤ʸˡƥǤ롥ΰۤʤɤδ֤ˤ⡤ʤˤĤƤϻ褦ʸݤʬ֤ۤѻ뤳Ȥ顤ϸηϤˤΤ˰㤤ʤ
عʸˡǤʡŪʡͭʤʤɤѸ줬˽ФƤۤɤǡ¿γؽԤˤʤ߿ΤǤϤ뤬⤽ʤȤϲʤΤΤ뤳ȤФ Case ȤȥƬ Blake (1) ͿƤѤ
Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads. Traditionally the term refers to inflectional marking, and, typically, case marks the relationship of a noun to a verb at the clause level or of a noun to a preposition, postposition or another noun at the phrase level.
ʸ̮ǤϡμưȤȤˤʤꡤμֻ졤ֻ졤뤤̤̾ȤȤˤʤ롥ʿСʸˡŪ˻ۤ롦δطˤȤۤ¦Ω̾줬ʤɸȤˤʤʤۤ¦ʤɸʥ⤢ˡ
ǻŦƤ褦ˡŪˤгʤȤжޤˤɸĤޤŪʼʤؤƤΤνˤƤϰפʸˡطȤäŪʼʡ뤤ϰ̣Ȥạ̈ŪʼʤؤȤ⤢ΤǡϴñǤϤʤ
ΤʤθؤεΤʤѤֳʡפȤѸλؤΤϡȤηϤȤƤγ (case system) ǤꡤȤ˳ʸʤɤγɸ (case marker) ǤꡤȤ˳ʷ (case form) äꤹ롥ˡȤ̣Ūʥ˥奢ӤӤơŪгʡפʤɤΤ褦Ѥ⤢롥ȤƤϡռƤˤ "case" ʳʡˤȤѸѤ̣ռƤˤ "grammatical relation" ʸˡطˤȤѸѤΤ褤ȹͤƤ롥ԤϡBlake (3) Ƥ˽äѸǤ롥Ԥˤ "case relation" Ȥɽ⤢ΤBlake ϶̤Ƥ롥
It is also necessary to make a further distinction between the cases and the case relations or grammatical relations they express. These terms refer to purely syntactic relations such as subject, direct object and indirect object, each of which encompasses more than one semantic role, and they also refer directly to semantic roles such as source and location, where these are not subsumed by a syntactic relation and where these are separable according to some formal criteria. Of the two competing terms, case relations and grammatical relations, the latter will be adopted in the present text as the term for the set of widely accepted relations that includes subject, object and indirect object and the term case relations will be confined to the theory-particular relations posited in certain frameworks such as Localist Case Grammar . . . and Lexicase . . . .
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
3ñ -s ȤΤϡѸνؼԤǽˤĤޤʸˡɽʤǤ줬3;ΤñǤꡤʸλߤΤȤˡưˤ -(e)s դʤФʤʤȤ츫Ȳΰ̣ΤʬʤʷޤǤǤʪǤˤҤɤȤˡ3ñ (3sp) ξƤˤ⤫餺 -s դʤƤϤˤʤưȤΤޤcan, may, shall Τ褦ʽư (auxiliary_verb) ǤHe can swim., She may say so., The truth shall be told. ʤɤǤϡ3ñƤ褦ˤߤޤ褷 *cans, *mays, *shalls Τ褦ʷѤޤѸǤϡΤ褦ʷ¸ߤʤΤǤäʤǤ礦βİ
ä٤ȤνưϡʤΤǤcan, may, shall ʤɤɽ路Ƥ̣ϳΤ˸ߡʾʤȤǤϤʤˤȤ٤Ǥ츻ŪˤϲǤȤȲʤΤǤ顤3ñָפͭ -s դʤɤȤȤ˾٤ʤäΤǤ
ǤϡʤȤƤϲʤΤ˰̣ϸߤȤʤäƤΤǤ礦ϤʤʤǤưˤƤϲߤΰ̣ӤӤȤ̣ѲŪ˷֤äƤ褦ʤΤǤȤȤβ can, may, shall βΰ̣ߤΰ̣ӤӤ褦ˤʤȡ˲ɽ魯ɬפȤʤꡤ-t/d դ could, might, should Ȥ߽ФޤΤˤϸѸǤưβȾΤޤºݤˤ Could it be true?, She might be in London by now., We should apologize. Τ褦ˡ̣ŪˤϸߤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤưβˤϡΤ褦˸ߤΰ̣ӤӤ褦ˤʤ뷹ߤޤ
夲褦ʽưϡŪˤϡֲư (preterite-present_verb) Ȥ̯̾ĤƤޤԻĤˤĤƤ##3648,58,66,3504εå
ؤμȤǥѥߥʡŤBNCweb, COCA, COHA, EEBO corpus ʤɤɽŪʶŪ̻ŪѸ쥳ѥ˽ƿˡѷиԤǤرֻդȤƥѥѤΤϤȤ Zoom ˤ륪饤Ǥ롥
츫ѥѤȤΤϽ鿴Ԥˤϥϡɥ뤬⤤Ȼפ줬ŬڤƳСʣʸŪˡ̤ˤƤ⡤ʬˤ˻ȤʤȤǤ롥
ճȤȤʤΤϡѥѸ (terminology) ⤷ʤ㤨Сlove ư POS ꤷ lemma concordance line KWIC ɽΥե졼 collocation äƤ log-likelihood ФƤƤ͡ɬפ˱ noise ޥ˥奢ǽƤƤ补פʤɤȤؼ鿴ԤïǤ褦ȤȤǡѥνѸʤȤ⥸㡼ˤIJ⤷Ƥ
lemma ʥޡޡˤˤĤơʿСǰƬˤǤΡָФפȻפФ褤ư love ˼СºݤαʸΤʤǤϡ졦߷̿ʤ love Ȥη֤뤳Ȥ⤢С3ñ loves Ȥƽи뤳Ȥ⤢뤷ʬ˷ loved 丽ʬ졦ư̾ loving Ǹ뤳Ȥ⤢ʡ줿lovin' ȤƵ뤫⤷ʤˡlove Τν֤ϡΤ˸ߤ˾İۤʤäƤ뤬ơۤʤñȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤɽŪŪ love ȤưΡŪѲˤʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ɽŪŪ¸ߤ lemma ȸƤǤ롥I love you. Τ褦 love Ȥ֤ǽФƤȤƤ⡤ love Ȥ lemma Ρľˡ1;ñ߷ζŪʸȤƤ love Ǥ롥ξԤϤޤŪ˰פƤ뤱ɤ⡤ޤԤŪ loveԤ϶Ū love ȤƳǰ϶̤ɬפ롥
̤γ٤ߤС䤿ñؽκݤ˽礿ΤϡġθФȤ⤤ lemma ȡζŪʽѲȤȤˤʤ롥ΥåȤŬڤ˥ҥŤ졤ƬƤСñ˴ؤƽλƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ΥåȤȤˤĤ줿̾ lemma ʤΤǤ롥
֥ѥlove ư lemma Ƥ͡פȤΤϡưȤѤƤ love, loves, loved, loving ʤɤ٤ƽäƤƤ͡פȸ롥㤨 BNCweb ξˤϡ "{love/V}" Τ褦˻ꤹ뤳ȤǾ嵭 lemma ǽǤ롥
褯ѤʵǤ̾θľˡˤǤ I was a bird. ʻĻäˤǤŪʲȤơ֤⤷䤬Ļäġפɽˤ̯ʲѤ If I WERE a bird . . . Ȥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤǶθǤ If I WAS a bird . . . Τ褦ʡ̾Ρǧ褦ˤʤäƤƤϤ褦ǤŪˤ If I WERE a bird . . . 侩Ƥޤ were ȤϡäʤΤǤ礦ʲβİ
ǤפϡŪˤưγѤ˴ؤľˡ³ˡʡŪˡֲˡפȤΤƤΡˤϡ2ĤΤ˰ۤʤΤȤƶ̤ƤȤȤǤŪʷ֤СľˡǤ I was, you were, he was, we were ʤɤȳѤƤޤ³ˡǤ I were, you were, he were, we were ʤɤȳѡʤष̵ѡˤƤΤǤʥåȤƱ褦ʷ֤ȤƤȤСΤˤΤ褦˸ΤǤ⤽ľˡ³ˡηϰۤʤäƤȤפǤ
be ưϡ¾ư٤˳ʤ˹٤ǤȤͳǡΡְۤʤפߤޤݻƤȤȤˤޤդˤС⤷ be ưʳưǤ⤽Τ褦ʡְۤʤפݻƤΤǤСIf I won a lottery . . . ʤ⤷СġˤʤɤȤɽˤơ won ⸽ԤȤϰۤʤ֤äƤǽ⤤ΤǤ
be ưϤüưȤơ̤˸ŷݻƤȤ櫓Ǥ If I WAS a bird . . . Ȥʤ褿Ƥޤä顤ʬ䤹ϤʤޤǸĤ꤬ǤӤƤΤ褦ǡäȼ䤷ʤȤ뤫⤷ޤϤɤͤǤ礦
Ϣ##2601,3812,3990,3991εåˤޤȤޤΤǡɤ
ε#4022. ѸˤˤʸˡѲĬήǤС礫ʬϤءס ([2020-04-27-1]) ˤĤưƤ
١ȤŪߤȳΤˡ (synthesis) ȡʬϡ (analysis) ֤뤬ºŪˤ100%Ūʸ100%ʬŪʸȤΤ¸ߤʤɤθ⡤ʬϤξˤȤľΤɤ˥ץåȤ롥űѸϿľ¦ζ˥ץåȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤˤʤűѸ⡤λ夫ߤнʬ˿ʿʤǤ뤫ƱͤˡѸʬ¦ζǤϤʤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤȤȤǤ롥Ѹˤư̾ζޤʤɤϤĤäƤ뤫
äơűѸ줫鸽ѸؤʸˡѲĬήħŤ礫ʬϤءפϡľ0100ؤǤϤʤȤȤդʤФʤʤŪˤСľ30餤80餤ؤ٤ȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⽽ʬ˷ŪʥեȤȤϻפ
#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) #1816. drift ˬ ([2014-04-17-1]) ǵľ餷ޤϡ0100ؤɽƤ뤫Τ褦ɤ뤬ĥǤ롥οޤϤ⥲ޥɤ˸ꤷ֤Ūʰ֤ΤǤꡤ깭Ūʻ줿ޤǤϤʤνθʤСűѸ줫鸽ѸؤΥեȤϤ֤ƤȤ館Ƥɬפ
Smith (41) 礫ʬϤءפвˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Traditionally, the history of English grammar has been described in terms of the shift from synthesis to analysis, i.e. from a language which expresses the relationship between words by means of inflexional endings joined to lexical stems to one which maps such relationships by means of function-words such as prepositions. This broad characterization, of course, needs considerable nuancing, and can better be expressed as a comparatively short shift along a cline. Old English, in comparison with Present-day English, is comparatively synthetic, but nowhere near as synthetic as (say) non-Indo-European languages such as Present-day Finnish or Zulu, older Indo-European languages such as classical Latin --- or even earlier manifestations of Germanic such as 4th-century Gothic, which, unlike OE, regularly distinguished nominative and accusative plural forms of the noun; cf. OE hlāfas 'loaves' (both NOM and ACC), Go. hláibōs (NOM), hláibans (ACC). Present-day English is comparatively analytic, but not as analytic as (say) Present-day Mandarin Chinese; a 21st-century English-speaker still marks person, number and case, and sustains grammatical cohesion, with concord between verbal and pronominal inflexions, for instance, e.g. I love bananas beside she hates bananas.
礫ʬϤءפϥåե졼ȤƤϤȤƤɤ嵭դĤŪƤɬפ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
Ѹˤ1500ǯʾˤ錄ޤδ֤ʸˡѲĬήɽʤС礫ʬϤءפ˿Ԥޤ⤷ƥȤDZѸˤʸˡѲ⤷ʤȤ䤤Ф줿ʤСΥե졼Ƥ10060ϼޤʢΥƥȤǤϤñäǤϤʤǤ줯餤פȤȤȤƲᤷƤˡ⤦ǫʤСֱѸŪʸ줫ʬŪʸؤȥեȤƤפȤʤޤ
ѸϡűѸ줫ѸФƶʸѸ˻ˤΤʤǡžƤޤűѸŪ (synthetic) Ȥ졤ḽѸʬŪ (analytic) ȤޤѲϡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis to analysis) ؤΰȤȤˤʤޤ
ǤˤơפʬϡפȤϤ⤽ⲿΤȤǤ礦ޤɤѸǤϤʤȾפäƤΤǤĹ餯ΩƤޤäƤΤǻʤȤäƤޤäޤ礦
ˤפȤϡ˴ؤŪʻɸΤȤǤŪʸǤϡŵŪ˸Ūʰ̣ɽ魯ʡʸ촴ˤʸˡŪʵǽôʡʶʤɡˤȤ߹碌ʤäƤꡤԤˤʣʸˡǽƤ뤳Ȥ¿ǤʾʬǤʤ1ĤξʶˡʣʸˡǽŪפ˵ͤƤȤ櫓Ǥʱñ synthesis ϡۤʤΤ1ĤȢ˵ͤ礹륤Ǥˡ
פФơʬϡפޤʬŪʸǤϡѡĤγơŵŪ1ĤεǽбƤꡤ֤ȵǽɳդаñǤʱñ analysis ϡĤäܰܲۤǤˡ
㤨СűѸǡֲȡΡפ̣ hūsa (hūs + -a) ͤƤߤޤ礦촴 hūs Ụֲ̄ȡפô -a ʣͭʤʸˡǽôäƤޤ-a ϷŪˤϤʾʬǤʤǾñ̤Ǥ˿ȳʤ˴ؤ2ĤξͤޤƤ櫓Ǥ顤θŪƤȤޤѸǡֲȡΡפбɽ of houses Ȥʤꡤhouse- Ụֲ̄ȡפôäƤϸűѸӤǤޤʣ -s ˤäơ°ʡʽͭʡˤ of ˤäɽ蘆Ƥޤȳʤγơεǽ̡ΥѡĤɽ蘆Ƥ櫓Ǥ顤θʬŪȤޤ
ѸˤŪϤ˴ѻޤư3ñ -s ʤɤϡθƤ̤̾ꡤ1ʤ뾮ʤΤʤ3;ΡñߡʡľˡˤȤʣʸˡͤޤƤꡤŪǤޤ;̾Ǥ I, my, me ʤɤΤ褦˸Ѳ뤳ȤǰۤʤʤɸƤΤ⡤ŪΤȤޤ̾졤̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤμθˤĤƸűѸȸѸӤƤߤʤСѸ줬οȤ̤ơˤʬƤȤϵ褦Τʤ¤Ǥ
Τ褦˱Ѹˤˤϰ̤ˡ礫ʬϡפؤή줬졤ήοʤ߶ˤäƻ礭3ʬˡŪ˺ΤƤޤűѸ϶ζ̤褯ݻƤִʶޤλ (period of full inflection)Ѹ϶ϻĤäƤΤ1Ĥθ˼̤Ƹߤ˶̤ʤʤäƤֿʿޤλ (period of levelled inflection)ƶѸ϶;üּ줿ޤλ (period of lost inflection) ȤޤơŪʻ塤礫ʬϤؤβϴŪ塤ʬŪʻȸƤǤ褤Ǥ礦Ѹˤˤߤ뤳Ĭήϡ¤ϥޥˤ䡤ҤƤϰˤȤˤƤǧĬήǤ⤢ޤ
ˤ˹ߤ롤οˤäư줿ŪμޤϡĬήפȤˤȤɤޤ餺ФСή (drift) ȤߤʤƤޤdrift Ȥϡꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (150) "Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift." ȽҤ٤ΤǽȤޤƥޥɤν졤Ȥ櫓ѸϡήˤήƤ1ĤɾƤޤ
⤽ʤѸɮƬȤưˤΤ褦ήΤǤ礦Ĺ餯ƤƤǤޤ̤ǤѲˤήϥήǤϤʤήޤ⡤û֤ήǤϤʤĹϤäƻ³ήǤԻĤʤΤϡѲμΤǤϤüԤγơѤݤ˲θѲήʤɰռƤʤˤ⤫餺θѲή䤷ʤᡤƱήؤȰѤǤ椯ȤǤѲήȤϡüԤΰռĶȤǺѤƤ롤ߤϤʤΤǤ礦Ȥ⡤ưϤ̤ΤȤˤΤǤ礦Ǥ
ήθϤƤѸʸˡ礫ʬϤءѲƤȤϳΤǤʸˡˤθϡñ㲽ƤС礫ʬϤءפȤӤعˡ͡ʳ٤ŤܤդꤷƤΤȤäƤǤϤʤǤ礦
Ǹˡ˴ϢΥ֥ΤפʤΤʲ˵Ƥޤɤߤ
#2669. ѸܸʸˡˤĬή ([2016-08-17-1])
#522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1])
#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1])
#1816. drift ˬ ([2014-04-17-1])
#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1])
#2626. űѸ줫ѸˤƤζο ([2016-07-05-1])
Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
ɸϡ̿ΥǥȡֱѸˡפŻҷǼĤǤѤʵǤ
with me, for her, against him, between us, among them ʤֻθ˿;̾줬ȤˤŪʤ˳ѤѤޤʤʡʸФηˤѤƳơ *with I, *for she, *against he, *between we, *among they ȤʤʤΤȤǤϤɽʸˡǧʤȤǤˡ
ǤñʲϡֻŪȤʤ뤫פǤưŪ줬;̾ξŪʤη᤹褦ˡֻŪ;̾ŪʤɬפȤȤȤǤưΤˤ¾ưˤˤƤֻˤƤ⡤줬ɽ魯ưطΡоݡפȤʤΤɬľޤΡоݡפɽ魯礬ŪפǤꡤ줬Ρʼˤȶ̤äʷäƤСʸˡεǽܤˤ̤䤹ʤǤ
ʸ¾ưֻ줬ǤСθΤɬŪŪȤȤˤʤꡤäʷɬפϤʤΤǤϤʤȤ䤬ޤºݡʸˡϥ嵭 *with I, *for she, *against he, *between we, *among they Ǥ̣Ϥ褯Ǥޤ¾ưθǤ *Do you love I/he/she/we/they? ʸˡŪ˥ȸƤ⡤¤ϰ̣̤Ƥޤ櫓Ǥ
ǤϡεˤĤƱѸˤλäƤߤޤ礦ǯۤθűѸλˤϡ̾˸¤餺٤Ƥ̾줬ֻθǤŵŪˡͿʡפȸƤФ뤳ȤƤޤֻμˤäƤϡͿʡפǤϤʤгʡפ°ʡפη⤢ޤˤͽ줿ʼʰʳΡ˳ʤηᤵƤΤǤcf. #30. űѸֻȳʡ ([2009-05-28-1])ˡʤʤߤˡѸΡŪʡפϸűѸΡͿʡפгʡפѾΤǤ
̾˴ؤƤϡƤʤ -e դΤͿʤȤʤäƤޤ㤨Сֿϡפ God ǤֿΤˡפ for Gode ȤäǤ³ѸλˤơͿʸ -e ޤäƾäƤäˡξǼʤȶ̤Ǥʤʤ for God ȤʤޤäơѸ for God God ϡλˤäƤϡ-e Ƥǡ¤ͿʤʤΤȸʤȤʤΤǤ
;̾˴ؤƤϡʤȶ̤줿Ϳʤη褯ĤޤűѸǡֿפ;̾Ǽ硤ֿϡפ He ǡֿΤˡפ for Him ȤʤޤξϸǤޤäѤäƤޤ;̾̾Ȱۤʤ٤⤯椨ͿʤΤ -e ʤɤθĤȤñʤѤʤäᡤʤȤζ̤塹ޤݻ䤹äΤǤyou it ˴ؤƤϡˤβ͡ʻФơŪʤʤȹ줷Ƥޤޤ
ѸǤϡưŪˤֻŪˤ衤̾ʤмʤƱäƺѤޤ褦ˤʤäƤꡤäϤʤ櫓Ǥ顤;̾ˤƤ⡤ʤƱäȤϵʤǤ;̾ˤĤƤϲδѤˤꡤޤ with me, for her, against him, between us, among them ʤɤŪʡʤĤƤͿʡˤѤƤΤǤפˡ;̾ϡ̾줬иƤͿʤμʤȤιפȤѲΥԡɤ夤Ƥ줺ˤǤ֤꤫⤷ޤĤ;̾ͿʤĤ˼ʤȹ줹äƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦λˤϡμ줿 with I, for she, against he, between we, among they ʹƤϤǤ
ѸˤϤߤʤ²¿θǤϷƻ (adjective) ˶ (inflection) ߤ롥˥ޥɤνˤƤϡƻޤ˴ؤợŪʴ鶯Ѳ (strong declension) ȼѲ (weak declension) 2ζ̤ߤʳơξˤĤƤϡ#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) ȡˡΤ褦ʶζ̤ϡޥɤħ1ĤȤƤꡤӸŪ˶̣cf. #182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])ˡ
ѸǤϡűѸˤϤζ̤Τˤߤ줿ѸˤƶοʿʹԤȡƱ̤ϤθˤƼƤäcf. #688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1])#2436. ƻʣޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-28-1]) ˡѸϡƻζޤζ̤ϤޤΤΤäƤꡤʬޥŪǤŪǤʤʤäƤȤ롥
űѸˤƻζѲȼѲζޤ#250. űѸζɽΥ祳 ([2010-01-02-1]) ȴФƤ

ǤϡʤűѸ䤽¾ΥޥˤϷƻζޤ˶ζ̤Τΰ㤤ܤ뤳Ȥˤꡤƶ뤳ȤǤ롥ѲޥѥįƤߤȡ̾춯ѲޤȻؼ̾ޤξѥߤƤ뤳Ȥ˵դϡƻ줬Ȥ֤̾ȤơʶѲ̾ŪʶޤƤȤˡؼ̾ζޥѥʬŪ˿ƤΤȹͤʤ⤦ܤϡ#2560. űѸηƻ춯Ѳޤ̾̾κѥ ([2016-04-30-1]) ȡˡ
ѲζޥѥϡħŪ n ޤǼѲ̾ζޥѥˤäǤ롥Ϥƻ̩̾ܤʴطˤäΤѲ̾ζޤŵŪˤߤ n εϰĸ *-en-/-on- ˤȤ졤ϥƥ䥮ꥷ̾ˤФи (ex. Cato(nis) "smart/shrewd (one)", Strabōn "squint-eyed (one)") Τ褦ʸͭ̾Ѥ뤳Ȥ顤ɤѲޤϸ̲εǽ̤褦Ǥ롥ȤȡűѸηƻѲޤȼ se blinda mann "the blind man" ȤϡȤ "the blind one, a man" ۤɤƱŪʶäȹͤ롥줬䤬ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ޤȤʸˡƤȤ߹ޤƤȤˤʤäΤ
ʾ塤Marsh (13--14) Ȥơʤޥɤηƻ˶2ζޤΤ˴ؤ1ĤҲ𤷤
Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
ϢŪư want 夲餫γ٤ѸˤƤ (cf. [2020-04-08-1], [2020-04-09-1], [2020-04-10-1]) want ;ưȤѤƤˤĤƿ줿;ư졦ʸΤ餤ˤϡ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ȡ
ߤǤߤͤˡߤΤŪΩI want refreshment. Τ褦Ѥ롥want Ȥơַ礤Ƥפ̣ŤѸǤϡ Want (to) me of refreshment. Τ褦ˡ˳ƤͤͿʡʤ뤤 to ˤˡ礱ƤΤ°ʡʤ뤤 of ˤŵŪˤȤ;ιʸʻѤƤ;ιʸεϡwant Ȥ켫ΤεƱͤ˸ťΥɸˤ롥OED want, v. θ츻εҤߤƤߤ褦
The early Scandinavian verb was originally impersonal (personal uses in the individual Scandinavian languages reflect later developments); in English this is reflected by sense 2. Levelling of cases in Middle English made it possible for the object of the impersonal construction (often in initial position) to take over the function of the subject of a new personal construction, allowing further sense developments. For a detailed discussion see M. Bertschinger To Want: an Essay in Semantics (1941).
εҤˤСťΥɸǤϤष;ιʸȤƤˡꥸʥǤꡤ;ιʸϸȯãȤȤˤʤ롥ѸǤư want νФ1175ǯ Ormulum ǡǤˡ;ιʸ֤ʤ1200ǯ Sawles Warde ;ιʸȤƤλѤߤ롥λ¤顤Ѹ˼Ƥ줿ꡤꥸʥ;ιʸȡ;βʹʸȤʻѤƤȹͤΤ
θ츻ΰѤ˲⤵Ƥ want ο;ββϡ¾;ưο;βˤƤϤޤꡤɸŪȤƹƤΤǤ롥ȤͿʷɽ蘆Ƥֿ͡פФư֤ΩäȡޤޤοȳʤͻФˤꡤʷ֤졤ư줬̣ŪŪ˿;βȤή֤ΡפŵŪ°ʡʤ뤤 of ˤɽ줿ޤοȳʤͻη̡̣ŪŪưľŪȤƺƲᤵ˻ä
OED ַ礤ƤפθǤ;ιʸν㷲褦
c1225 (?c1200) Sawles Warde (Bodl.) (1938) 16 (MED) Of al þet eauer wa is ne schal ham neauer wontin.
?c1225 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Cleo. C.vi) (1972) 298 Ne þunche hire neauer wunder ȝef hire wonti þe haligastes froure.
?c1225 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Cleo. C.vi) (1972) 145 Hwenne ow ne wonteð nan þing þefaȝeneð wið ow.
a1325 (c1250) Gen. & Exod. (1968) l. 2155 Ðan coren wantede in oðer lond, Ðo ynug [was] vnder his hond.
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) l. 3053 þam wanted brede, þeir water es gan, Hope o lijf ne had þai nan.
OED ˤȡwant ;ιʸκǽ "1830 T. P. Thompson in Westm. Rev. Jan. 262 There wants a collection of dying speeches of nefarious governments." ȤꡤǤѤȤʤäƤ롥
Ϣ want ȤѸŪ˷겼뵭Ƥʲ [2020-04-08-1] [2020-04-09-1]ˡϸ t ˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ѸˤζʽʤɤǤϡwant Τ褦Ūñ줬ťΥɸ줫μѸǤȤΤ϶ä٤ȤȤƤФиڤ롥ޤ t ťΥɸηƻǤ뤳ȤŦcf. #1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1])ˡ t äƤϰճȹä𤬤롥
#3999. want αѸ --- 츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2020-04-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ̾ want ư want Ȥϸ촴ΤƱäƤϩϰۤʤ롥̾ want ϡťΥɸηƻ vanr ʷ礤ˤ˶ޤ vant Ȥ֤̾ŪѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥ư want ϸťΥɸư vanta ʷ礯礤Ƥˤͳ褹롥Ĥޤꡤ캬б wan ʬ̤ȤߤƤ褤 t ˴ؤƤϡ̾ξˤϷƻͳ褹ȤʤФʤ餺ưξˤϡ̤Ĵˤޤ̤ͳ褬ȤȤˤʤ롥äơwant t ϷƻǤȤʽŪʻŦϡ̾ȤƤ want ˤΤƤϤޤȤȤ
ư t ˤĤƤĴ٤뤳ȤˤǤ϶ʽǸڤ롤̾ t ƻͳ褹ˤĤƷ겼Ǥ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡťΥɸ vanr Ϸƻǡ?礤Ƥ (lacking) ̣ʸűѸηƻ wana ƱˡťΥɸǤϡ줬 be ưȤ߹蘆ä;ιʸOED want, adj. and n.2 θ츻ˡΤ褦˵Ҥ롥
Old Icelandic vant (neuter singular adjective) is used predicatively in expressions of the type vera vant to be lacking, typically with the person lacking something in the dative and the thing that is lacking in the genitive and with vant thus behaving similarly to a noun (compare e.g. var þeim vettugis vant they were lacking nothing, they had want of nothing, or var vant kýr a cow was missing, there was want of a cow).
ƻȤƤ vanr vantˤϡĤޤ "was VANT to them of nothing" ˤȤäƲ礱ƤʤäˤΤ褦˼Τʤ;ιʸˤѤƤȤȤǤ롥ˡۤɹ٤äΤťΥɸüԤܿѸüԤϡ˶ޤ vant 켫Τ촴Ǥ뤫Τ褦˲ᤷƬҲѸ첽Ĥ t ߤ want ַ˳פ̣̾ȤƼƤȹͤ롥
μѤˤƤϡ¦üԤʸˡ̤ƤʤꡤޤƸ촴ȴ㤤ơָפȤƼǤޤϤǤ⤢äºݡƻͳ褹 t ¾Ȥơscant ˳, thwart ʲڤäơ, wight ͦʡˡquart ʷʡˤʤɤ롥
Ϣơե -er ޤޤޱѸ˼ޤ줿 cesser, detainer, dinner, merger, misnomer, remainder, surrender ʤɤ⡤̣ȤˤĤƤϡ#220. supper ([2009-12-03-1])#221. dinner ([2009-12-04-1]) ȡ
ε ([2020-03-30-1]) ˰³ɸˤĤƤˤΤܤäƤߤޤ礦ƤޤȤСѸβˡ˿;ѲʤΤϡεȤʤűѸ³ˡǤľˡ٤п;ѲǤꡤεʿ;ѲѸˤ -n ξüˤ꼺Ƥޤä顤ȤȤˤʤޤǤ⤦Ƨ߹䤦Ƥߤޤ礦űѸȤʳˤƤľˡ٤³ˡο;ѲäȤΤϡäɤͳˤΤǤ礦
űѸƱ²ΥޥɤθŤߤƤߤޤȡ³ˡˤľˡƱͤʣʿ;ѲäȤ狼ޤѸ to bear Ϣʤư³ˡߤο;ѲɽʥޥˤLass (173) ȤȤ˰Ѥޤ礦Go ϥȸ졤OE ϸűѸ졤OIc ϸťɸؤޤ
(iii) Present subjunctive. The Germanic subjunctive descends mainly from the old IE optative; typical paradigms:
(7.24)
Go OE OIc sg 1 baír-a-i ber-e ber-a 2 baír-ai-s " ber-er 3 baír-ai " ber-e pl 1 baír-ai-ma ber-en ber-em 2 baírai-þ " ber-eþ 3 baír-ai-na " ber-e
The basic IE thematic optative marker was */-oi-/, which > Gmc */-ɑi-/ as usual; this is still clearly visible in Gothic. The other dialects show the expected developments of this diphthong and following consonants in weak syllables . . . , except for the OE plural, where the -n is extended from the third person, as in the indicative. . . .
. . . .
(iv) Preterite subjunctive. Here the PRET2 grade is extended to all numbers and persons; thus a form like OE bǣr-e is ambiguous between pret ind 2 sg and all persons subj sg. The thematic element is an IE optative marker */-i:-/, which was reduced to /e/ in OE and OIc before it could cause i-umlaut (but remains as short /i/ in OS, OHG).
鼨ΤϡŤޥǤ³ˡǤľˡƱ褦˴ʿ;Ѳꡤɽ6åȤΤˤȼθäƤȤȤǤŪ˸Ť褯ĤƤȤ뺸Υȸ줬ŵȤʤޤȤűѸǤϤȤȤʣʿ;Ѳ餫λñ㲽ޤ
Ǥϡ餫λȤϲǤ礦ΰѤǤƤޤ1ĤˤϤϤ겻ѲͿƤޤűѸˤˤơȸθ˼तθ첻Ҳ˼岽üȤȤޤη̡³ˡߤñ bere ؤȼ̤ޤ³ˡߤʣϡ3;Τθ˴ޤޤƤ n ʥȸθ baír-ai-na ȡˤ (analogy) ˤä12;Τؤ礷 beren ȤѤʣޤޤ嵭ϡʶѲưΡ³ˡߤˤĤƤǤ³ˡǤ褦ѤޤѲư⤪褽Ʊ褦ʲɤޤ (Lass 177) ̤ȤơűѸǤΤȤƿ;Ѳ³ˡηϤǤäΤǤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ѸβˡǤϡƻʸߤȲˤľˡˤߤ褦ʿ;ѲߤޤˡߤǤϿ;Ρʤӿˤˤ餺ưϸΤΤǤˡǤ;Ρʤӿˤˤ餺ŵŪ -ed ǽľˡƱ֤Ѥޤ
äȤ⡤ͤƤߤľˡǤ3;ñߤ -(e)s ٤ǤΤǡѸǤϿ;ѲŪ˵Ȥޤbe ưϿ;ѲʣǤľˡˤƤϿ;Ρʤӿˤ˱ƸǤ is, am, are ̤졤Ǥ were, were ̤뤫ǤˡˤƤϸǤѤ be Ѥ졤ȤʤѤ were ѤޤʸǤϲˡ If I were you . . . ʤ If I was you . . . Τ褦ǽǤʸˡǤ were Ѥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤˡbe ưᤰüˤĤƤϡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])ˤȤ
ѸˤδҤȤƤΤϡʤˡˤϾ嵭̤;ѲڤߤʤΤȤǤˡŪˤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ȸƤФΤǡϸԤѸȤäƤޤѸ to love ʱɽˤϢʤűѸư lufian ο;ѲɽʺɽˤįƤߤޤ礦
| űѸ lufian | ľˡ | ³ˡ | Ѹ love | ľˡ | ³ˡ | |||||||
| ?????? | ???? | ?????? | ???? | ?????? | ???? | ?????? | ???? | |||||
| | 1; | lufie | lufiaþ | lufie | lufien | | 1; | love | love | love | ||
| 2人称 | lufast | 2人称 | ||||||||||
| 3人称 | lufaþ | 3人称 | loves | |||||||||
| 1; | lufode | lufoden | lufode | lufoden | 1; | loved | loved | |||||
| 2人称 | lufodest | 2人称 | ||||||||||
| 3人称 | lufode | 3人称 | ||||||||||
2֤ε ([2020-03-23-1], [2020-03-24-1]) ˰³ɸεˤĤƵޤƥʸˡѸ modus ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡȻפȤޤOED mode, n. θ츻˼Τ褦ʸڤޤ
In grammar (see sense 2), classical Latin modus is used (by Quintilian, 1st cent. a.d.) for grammatical 'voice' (active or passive; Hellenistic Greek ĦάȦŦҦς ), post-classical Latin modus (by 4th-5th-cent. grammarians) for 'mood' (Hellenistic Greek ἔæʦ˦ɦҦς ). Compare Middle French, French mode grammatical 'mood' (feminine 1550, masculine 1611).
Ĥޤꡤmodus ϸŵΥƥǤŪʡˡפΰ̣ѤƤΤΡŵƥǤϤष̤ưʸˡƥǤ֡ (voice) ΰ̣ѤƤȤȤˤʤޤʸˡƥɽ魯Ѹ췲ƱƤ뤫Τ褦˸ޤϤɤФ褤Ǥ礦
¤ voice ȤѸ켫Τˤ褦ʻ𤬤ޤ#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤơvoice ϸŪʡ֡פΰ̣Ѥˡ̤ưʸˡƥǤֿ;Ρ (person) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ̾ʸˡƥǤֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ˥ƥѸƤߤޤȡ֡פɽ路Ѹ1Ĥ genus ޤθϸ gender ȯŸ̾ʸˡƥǤ (gender) ̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ʾ夫鸫ƤΤϡդѸ췲κƱŪˤϤäȤȤǤͤƤߤСߤǤư̾ʸˡƥɽ魯ѸƤߤȡˡ (mood) (aspect) (voice) (gender) (case) ʤɡ鸫Ǥϰ̣ȽȤޤʤΤ褦ѸܸǤѸǤˤƤƤΤʤΤ¿Ȥ˵դޤŪʬ䤹Τϻ (tense)(number); (person) 餤ǤϤʤǤ礦
Ѹ mood/mode, aspect, voice, gender, case ܸΡˡסס֡ססֳʡפʤɤϡաʤȯݡˤΡˡס¦̡סּ٤̣롤̣ŪˤϤʤ¤ʷ̾ȤäƤ褯kind, type, classּסַספʤɤȸƤ褤ʪǤȤȤϡϤޤصŪʬ̾ˤ˲餫ѶŪʰ̣ǽ餫ɤ߹ޤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤǽޤ
ޤȤޤ礦2֤εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤƤޤβϡѸεȤ餤ɬƤޤmode ϸ츻ȤƤϡˡ٤̣̾ˤϤѶŪʰ̣ϤۤɴޤޤƤʤäȹͤ뤫ǤҤ٤ȤϤޤѸεȤεǤäơդǤˤ衤䤿ˡֵʬפ֥⡼ɡפȤѶŪʰ̣ɤ߹Dzᤷ褦Ȥ뤳ȼΤ꤬櫓ǤϤޤºݤΤȤŪˤСˡסֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȤϤʤոƤΤǤϤʤȡ伫ȤפäƤޤ
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