I wish you a merry Christmas! Ȥά Merry Christmas! ȤʤꡤI wish you a good morning. ά Good morning! Ȥʤ롥ȶ᤹Ƶα뤳Ȥʤ⤷ʤΤ褦ʷʸ (formula) ̾ؾάˤϡڤȤȤ¿ֻʤɤȼ A merry Christmas to you! Τ褦˴줬Ĥ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤϳ餵̥롼ǤϤʤΤΡʸ⤱й⤤ۤɴޤǴޤƾά褦òŪ Charming couple!, Dirty place!, Excellent meal!, Poor thing!, Good idea!, Lovely evening! Ȥ̤礦¾ Cigarette?, Good flight?, Next slide? ʤɤεˤ̤봧ξάȤ롥ɽŪʷʸQuirk et al (11.54) 褦
GREETINGS: Good morning, Good afternoon, Good evening <all formal>; Hello; Hi <familiar>
FAREWELLS: Goodbye, Good night, All the best <informal>, Cheers, Cheerio <BrE, familiar>, See you <familiar>, Bye(-bye) <familiar>, So long <familiar>
INTRODUCTIONS: How do you do? <formal>, How are you?, Glad to meet you, Hi <familiar>
REACTION SIGNALS:
(a) assent, agreement: Yes, Yeah /je/; All right, OK <informal>, Certainly, Absolutely, Right, Exactly, Quite <BrE>, Sure <esp AmE>
(b) denial, disagreement: No, Certainly not, Definitely not, Not at all, Not likely
THANKS: Thank you (very much), Thanks (very much), Many thanks, Ta <BrE slang>, Thanks a lot, Cheers <familiar BrE>
TOASTS: Good health <formal>, Your good health <formal>, Cheers <familiar>, Here's to you, Here's to the future, Here's to your new job
SEASONAL GREETINGS: Merry Christmas, Happy New Year, Happy Birthday, Many happy returns (of your birthday), Happy Anniversary
ALARM CALLS: Help! Fire!
WARNINGS: Mind, (Be) careful!, Watch out!, Watch it! <familiar>
APOLOGIES: (I'm) sorry, (I beg your) pardon <formal>, My mistake
RESPONSES TO APOLOGIES: That's OK <informal>, Don't mention it, Not matter <formal>, Never mind, No hard feelings <informal>
CONGRATULATIONS: Congratulations, Well done, Right on <AmE slang>
EXPRESSIONS OF ANGER OR DISMISSAL (familiar; graded in order from expressions of dismissal to taboo curses): Beat it <esp AmE>, Get lost, Blast you <BrE>, Damn you, Go to hell, Bugger off <BrE>, Fuck off, Fuck you
EXPLETIVES (familiar; likewise graded in order of increasing strength): My Gosh, (By) Golly, (Good) Heavens, Doggone (it) <AmE>, Darn (it), Heck, Blast (it) <BrE>, Good Lord, (Good) God, Christ Almighty, Oh hell, Damn (it), Bugger (it) <esp BrE>, Shit, Fuck (it)
MISCELLANEOUS EXCLAMATIONS: Shame <familiar>, Encore, Hear, hear, Over my dead body <familiar>, Nothing doing <informal>, Big deal <familiar, ironic>, Oh dear, Goal, Checkmate
ʸ¿ϲ餫ŪάФΤǤꡤǤԵ§ȸ뤬ä͡ŪݤȤħ⤢롥㤨Сˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̤ο;ΤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤܵळȤǤʤĤΤ¿ʸȤΤǡ(A) happy new year! Τ褦ˡ괧̵ͭʤɤ˴ؤ variation ĤΤ⤢ȹͤƤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
quite ȤϡˡʸǤ롥ŪˤϷƻɽ魯٤ĴȤȤ館Ƥ褤͡ʰ̣αƤޤ롥ΤʤǤⲿȤե졼ɸ quite a few Ǥ롥quite ٤ζĴȤȤǤС֤ȤƤ⾯ʤפΰդȤʤꤽºݤˤϸˤơ֤ʤΡΡפͽ۳ΰդȤʤ롥quite a lot (of) ͽ̤֤ȤƤ¿ʤΡˡפ̣뤳Ȥͤȡɤˤ˺롥
OED Ƥߤ褦quite a few ϡfew, adj., pron., and n. θФΤȤ Phrases 1ĤȤΩƤƤ롥
d. Originally U.S. quite a few.
(a) Used adjectivally: a considerable number of.
1833 Nolan County (Sweetwater, Texas) News 26 Jan. Quite a few White Flat people attended the singing at Trent.
1939 L. Hughes Let. 9 Dec. in Remember me to Harlem (2001) 159 That phase of Harlem's rise to culture and neo-culture seems to be of historical importance and interest to quite a few people.
2014 Providence (Rhode Island) Jrnl. (Nexis) 22 July (News section) 1 I went fishing yesterday afternoon and caught quite a few spotted trout.
(Hide quotations)
(b) Used as noun: a considerable number; also with of-phrase as complement.
1844 Christian Advocate Apr. 139/5 We were glad to find 'honorable brethren', quite a few 'tis true, prepared to go with us.
1883 P. Robinson in Harper's Mag. Oct. 706/1 There's quite a few about among the rocks.
1933 L. Bloomfield Language xi. 172 Quite a few of the present-day Indo-European languages agree with English in using an actor-action form as a favorite sentence-type.
2006 S. M. Stirling Sky People ix. 204 Cries of welcome greeted them; quite a few had observed the shot from a distance, and fresh meat was always welcome.
ˤȡ19Ⱦ˥ꥫѸޤ줿ŪɽǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥ʤͽ۳ΰ̣ˤĤƤϡä˲Ϥʤ
ͤΤϡquite θŪˡȤд¤ͳ褹ǽǤ롥ܸΡ֤äȡʤˡפˤȤʸ̤ˤϡ־̡פ̣뤬֤äȥޥˤʤäƤʤפȤ֤ϤäͤĥޤפȤˤϡ־̡פǤϺѤޤʤʴޤߤ롥¼Ūˡ¿̡פ̣Τˡɽ̾ϡ־̡פɽѤ
quite a bit, quite a little ʤɤɽ⡤ȿžơ¿פɽ魯Ȥǡquite a few Ʊ롼פquite a little ˤĤƤϡOED Ǥ little, adj., pron., and n., and adv. ΤȤ "10. Used as an (ironic) intensifier in various constructions, as quite a little ---, quite the little ---, a nice little ---, etc." ȸڤꡤФ1763ǯȤʤäƤ롥ȤɽǤ롥
ǶᡤرλŦ˥ϥäȤ뤳Ȥ¿ؤդƤ롥ɸ귿ʸȤߤʤƤꡤȤꤿƤʬŪ˹ͤȤʤäŦơֳΤˡפȴdear ϡֿưʤפ̣̤ηƻǤ뤫顤my dear friend ʤ褯ʬ롥Ƭΰ (salutation) ʤɤǤϡŪ˳ʤȤ⤤ Dear my friend 롥Dear Mr. Smith ʤɤȤƤɤʤΤ
ŪʴФȤƤϡƬΰ Dear ϽƻȤϡΤδ (interjection) ˶ᤤΤǤꡤɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤäƤ褤Τ⤷ʤĤޤꡤ my dear friend ȡ˳ʤ Dear my friend ٤ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤȤ⤷ʤCGEL (775) Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦˰ƳޡȤߤʤƺѤޤƤ롥
It is conventional to place a salutation above the body of the letter. The salutation, which is on a line of its own, is generally introduced by Dear;
Dear RuthDear Dr BrownDear MadamDear Sir
̻Ūˤߤе䤬ͯƤ롥Dear my friend Τ褦ʸ礬Ƹ줿ΤϤĤʤΤθɸβϤʤΤäΤѸǤ Dear my lord Dear my lady 㤬¿褦 milord, milady θòȤؤ꤬˰㤤ʤ
ѸξˤĤưҤ٤ƤСCOCA ǸƤߤ¤ꡤ¤ϡdear my ̾פϷ褷¿ʤŪˤ⤤ʴ롤⤷ơޤǤʢK꤬Ȥˡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ǯδ֡May the force be with you! Τ褦ʵ may ȯãˤĤơŪΩ줫ؿƤܥ֥Ǥ may 뤤 optative γƵǰäƤ̤1ǯۤ2018ǯ1215ˤϡض쥭ѥdzŤ줿˸زΥݥǧΤ˸ --- ʸˡʸǧΤδط ---פˤơֱѸˤ뵧 may ȯãפȤܤǾäƤ
ֵס뤤ʿäơֵפȤϲȤǽפˤϡޤǼĤˤȯù (speech_act) 1ǤȤǤäƤϤäɤΤ褦ʹ٤ʤΤܼȤΤʤ⡤˸椷Ƥ餤롥
Ƥȯù٤θϡ⤷褦ʾʤΤ⤷ʤϤ뤫ĶȤˤ䡤ޤˤˤȯŸβǽƤȤΤ⤷ʤ
ȤޤֵפȤϲɴʻŵ2ǤꡤǤᤤȻפֵ禱פιȤƤߤ
?禱
Ȥ
禱Ϲ˲С٤ƤνŪꡤǰ̣롥ΰ̣ε禱Ūˤߤ뽡ݤǤ롥ξ硤禱ȤϡʩȤäĶŪ¸ߤȿԤȤθήΰ֤Ǥȹͤ롥禱Ϥޤ̤ơ÷禱2ʬƹͤ뤳ȤǤ褦÷ȤѤƵդʤɤ֤뵧禱Ǥꡤ禱ȤϿΤʤǰƵ뷿Ǥ롥ξԤȤտŪˡĴ㡤羸ʤɤޤޤư¹Ūˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤪˵禱ĿŪפȽŪפ̤뤳ȤǽǤ롥Ԥ佡Ūܥǡ뤤Ͽˤפ⤫٤ƸĿŪ˹ԤΤԤǤ롥Ȥ줬귿콸ŪˤʤΤԤǤ롥ξ硤禱鲽ƤȤ褦
禱ϤޤǤⵧоݤäΩ롥ΤĶŪ¸ߤΩƤʤˤϵ禱䵧¸ߤʤȤͤ⤢롥ʩʩȤ롥衼ȤäԤΤʤˤϡͳʤοᤶȤạ̈ǤεǤƤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥ԤˤäƤϡΤ褦ʵ禱Ū禱ȤФƿȤθή濴禱¸ԽŪʤŪ禱̾ŤƤ롥
禱Ƥˤꡤաʤɤ롥ξ硤ʩФƶŪʸ̤ʤ餫ľŪƯԤΤϡʰ̣Ǥε禱䵧ǤϤʤȤΩ⤢롥ؼԤ佡Ȥθˤ褯ߤ뤷ޤĤƤ̤θԤˤƱͤθͭϤäǤϡṲ̄ԤΤϡѤʤʸǤȤ롥Ƽʸ鵧禱ӵؤȤʲ줿θθη̡ʸƤȤ줿̤ˤ⡤ˤߤ褦ʵ꤬¸ߤ뤳ȤȽޤε禱ʸŪʤ뤳ȤŦ褦ˤʤäꥹȶμεˤʩǰʩˤ衤줬쵡Ū˷֤뤳ȤˤäƼʸŪѤƤ뤳Ȥ⸽¤¸ߤ롥椨ǶǤϡʸ鵧禱ؤȤϤޤʤ
ܸε禱θϡȤˤ줬Ҹ浧禱ӤȤȡΰ̣ʤꤵƤ롥϶ŪŪãäƿʩ˵ꤹ뽡ư̰µʿ˭ʤɤ븽(䤯)ΤǤ롥̩ϻ濴Ϥϡϻ뤤ϿҤʤɤǹԤ롥̩ˤ൷ʤɤɽǤ롥Ͳû禱 ѵ
ࡤʸ may ˴ؤʤɤݵ˹ƤɤȴʤʤäˤʤäƤȯù٤ϡؤΰˤȤɤޤäƤϤʤ̤ƤʤιơޤΤ褦ǤϤʤǽ뷹Τθϡưפ cross-disciplinary Ȥʤ롥ƥľˤäưˤȥԥåǤϤ롥
ε ([2019-08-24-1]) Wittgenstein 쥲 (Sprachspiel, language-game) ˿줿Bussmann (262) Ѹ켭ŵˤȼ̤ꡥ
language game
L. Wittgenstein's term referring to complex units of communication that consist of linguistic and non-linguistic activities (e.g. the giving of and complying with commands in the course of collaborating on the building of a house). Signs, words, and sentences as 'tools of language' have in and of themselves no meaning; rather meaning is derived only from the use of these items in particular contexts of language behavior.
¾ڼ (logical positivism) ž Wittgenstein ΡΤ褦 ƥȽŻθѤ̣Ѥϡů (ordinary language philosophy) 礭ʱƶͿȯù (speech_act) ޤ (pragmatics) ȯŸˤ"the meaning of a word is its use in the language" Ȥ̣ΤȤ館ϡʤ꤬ΤΡ1ĤθȤߤʤƤ롥
̣ΰ̣˴Ϣơ#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])#1990. ͡ʼΰ̣ ([2014-10-08-1])#2199. Bloomfield ˤȤäƤΰ̣ΰ̣ ([2015-05-05-1])#2794. ְ̣ ([2016-12-20-1])#2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1]) ʤɤƤȤӤ줿
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
ؿܸ (107) ˡܸδưʤ뤤ϴˤʬ㤬ƤǽܤʬǤ롥
ҤġӨ֤ˤס֤ʤ
I ̹ͨ
ҼʸޤʤӨ֥ס֤פפ
II̹źáͨҤϤ䤷Ө֤ɤäס֥ϥ㥳
IIIȯϵͨҸƤӤӨ֤䤢ס֤ס֤
ҵưӨ֤ס֤ۤ
軰һӨ֤ͤס֤ʤ
ͼұӨ֤Ϥס֤ס֤ס֤
ȿӨ֤áס֤ۤס֤äȡ
IVͷӤȤС֤ͨȡס֤ס֤Ρ
#2000. ˸ʬȲ ([2014-10-18-1]) ˰³ơ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ϡǯδ֤˹ŪˤŪˤ̾٤ƤǤϻ HiSoPra* (= HIstorical SOciolinguistics and PRAgmatics) ˻äƤäƤ뤷Ϥγ並ԤߤƤߤƤμ¤˴ؿޤäƤƤΤ롥
˸ΰΰϹμήɸؤǤϼꤳܤƤֻ¿ʡС뤳Ȥ¿˸θΰ褦Ȥߤϡε ([2014-10-18-1]) ǤҲ𤷤褦ˡĤ롥ϡArnovick (96) Ѹ˸ǰƬ֤ĤĵƤ3ʬˡҲ𤷤褦
Pragmatic forms: discourse markers, terms of address, connectives, and interjections;
Interactional pragmatics: speech acts, politeness, impoliteness;
Discursive domains: scientific and medical discourse, journalism, religious and political discourse, courtroom discourse, literary discourse, public and private correspondence.
Arnovick ƱʸǤϡѸ˸ȥѥѤοˤĤƤ⤫Ƥ롥ƳŪʸϤȤʤäƤΤǡѸ˸˽ƴؿä顤ɤǤ餤
Arnovick, Leslie K. "Historical Pragmatics in the Teaching of the History of English." Chapter 9 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 93--105.
[2019-04-07-1]ε˰³Will you . . . ? ʸȯˤĤơOED ˤȡιʸνФ1300ǯ Vox & Wolf ȤưʪäˤȤ롥Bennett and Smithers Ǥ The Fox and the Wolf ꡤβս (l. 186) ʸ̮ (ll. 171--97) ФƤߤ褦
'A!' quod þe wolf, 'gode ifere, Moni goed mel þou hauest me binome! Let me adoun to þe kome, And al Ich wole þe forȝeue.' 175 'Ȝe!' quod þe vox, 'were þou isriue, And sunnen heuedest al forsake, And to klene lif itake, Ich wolde so bidde for þe Þat þou sholdest comen to me.' 180 'To wom shuld Ich', þe wolf seide, 'Ben iknowe of mine misdede?--- Her nis noþing aliue Þat me kouþe her nou sriue. Þou hauest ben ofte min ifere--- 185 Woltou nou mi srift ihere, And al mi liif I shal þe telle?' 'Nay!' quod þe vox, 'I nelle.' 'Neltou?' quod þe wolf, 'þin ore! Ich am afingret swiþe sore--- 190 Ich wot, toniȝt Ich worþe ded, Bote þou do me somne reed. For Cristes loue, be mi prest!' Þe wolf bey adoun his brest And gon to siken harde and stronge. 195 'Woltou', quod þe vox, 'srift ounderfonge? Tel þine sunnen, on and on, Þat þer bileue neuer on.'
ʪήϤǤ롥ĤٰͤƤޤäѤͤΤФ̤꤫äΤ礤ϵƤӻߤչߤϵΤϵͤȤʬæФ褦Ȼʤ롥ϵˤޤǤΰԤˤĤ褦ȡϵϤεˤʤꡤѤʹߤȴꤦ褦ˤʤ롥ǡWoltou nou mi srift ihere, / And al mi liif I shal þe telle? (ll. 168--69) Ȥϵȯˤʤ櫓
նʸ̮ǤΤȤˡư줬¿ѤƤꡤѤϵݤ礤Τʤΰջ֤տޤΤäƤȤݤ롥βսϡwill ΰջ֤ΰ̣Ǽȡ֤ʤˤϻʹȤջ֤ޤǤлϿΤ٤Ƥʤ˹𤲤ޤ礦פȤʤ롥Ǥʸ̮餫ϵϸѤʹƤ餤ȻפäƤ롥äơɤߤäơ֤ʹƤʡϿΤ٤Ƥʤ˹𤲤ޤ礦פȤǽȤʤ롥Ȥΰջ֤䤦ȤȰȤϡ̣Ūˤ϶ϺǤꡤǡʤƤȹͤ櫓顤Ǥξΰ̣¸ƤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ľθѤϡȤϼ뤫Τ褦 Nay! . . . I nelle. Ǥ롥ѸǤ Will you hear my shrift now? Ф No, I won't. Ƥ褦ʤΤʤȤѤϡϵȯʹȤջ֤뤫פȤȲʤդˤεФ No ƤΤǤ롥ϵȤƤϰΤĤǸäΤ⤷ʤˤϵȲᤵƤޤäȤˤʤ롥ºݡϵϤ뤫Τ褦ˡNeltou? ʤΰջ֤ʤȤˤ֤Ƥ롥
⤷ϵ¦˰ΰ̣ƤȤƤ⡤ΰȤްդϡʸ̮˻٤ƽƸतü첽줿Ūް (particularized conversational implicature) Ǥäơ̲줿Ūް (generalized conversational implicature) ǤϤʤޤƤ䴷Ūް (conventional implicature) Ǥʤ褦˻פ롥λ Will you . . . ? ʸνȤߤʤȤѤ餺ǽ⤷ʤ줿ʸ뤤ȤΩɽȤߤʤˤ᤹
Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Ѹˤˡư will Ѥɽ魯ȤơWill you do me a favor? ʤɤɽ롥ŪƤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ˤäƤ Will you shut up? Τ褦ˤ䤭Ĥ̿Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ŪʻؼȤ Will you sign here, please? Τ褦ˤѤ졤ݥ饤ȥͥμ٤˱ѤΤǡȤʤΤϰճŪˤ̤ΰդȤʤΤǡΰտޤΤˤˤ please դȤ¿
ɽεϡ2;Τΰջ֤䤦ջ̤ȤƤ Will you . . . ? ˤȹͤ롥ŪĤΤǤϤʤޤΰջ֤ºŤ䤦ȤκۤȤΤǡʬ餫ǫʸˤʤ뤫ʸγƤʤ顤ºݤ˹ԤʤäƤΰꡦ̿ᡦؼȤȤǡݥ饤ȥͥθŵŪȯù (indirect speech act) λȤ롥
OED will, v1. ˤȡI. The present tense will. ΤȤ6bˡˡƤ롥
b. In 2nd person, interrog., or in a subord. clause after beg or the like, expressing a request (usually courteous; with emphasis, impatient).
a1300 Vox & Wolf in W. C. Hazlitt Remains Early Pop. Poetry Eng. (1864) I. 64 Thou hauest ben ofte min i-fere, Woltou nou mi srift i-here?
a1400 Pistill of Susan 135 Wolt þou, ladi, for loue, on vre lay lerne?
1470--85 Malory Morte d'Arthur i. vi. 42 Sir said Ector vnto Arthur woll ye be my good and gracious lord when ye are kyng?
1592 R. Greene Philomela To Rdr. sig. A4 I..craue that you will beare with this fault.
1600 Shakespeare Henry V ii. i. 43 Will you shog off?
1608 Shakespeare King Lear vii. 313 On my knees I beg, That you'l vouchsafe me rayment, bed and food.
1720 A. Ramsay Young Laird & Edinb. Katy 1 O Katy wiltu gang wi' me, And leave the dinsome Town a while.
1823 Scott St. Ronan's Well III. iv. 96 I desire you will found nothing on an expression hastily used.
1878 T. Hardy Return of Native III. v. iii. 144 Oh, Oh, Oh,..Oh, will you have done!
ɽȤƤ Will you . . . ? ưν°˸ will ȯãǽΤŪˤϤꤽOED ǤС°4Ĥ1592ǯΤΤǤꡤ֤طդΤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤ1300ǯȤʤᤤ餯ɽȤ夷Τ϶ѸäƤǤϤʤȤŪʵǽް (implicature) İ̲ȤΤϡ˸˾ˤĤƲ뤿ؤ̯ǤꡤΤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤϢơ#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ ([2014-10-02-1]) ⻲ȡ
[2019-01-24-1], [2019-01-25-1] ˰³Ƥꡥǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯ɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤƤ please ȯãνˤĤƤߤƤȯã˴ؤ2Ĥβ (1) Please (it) you that . . . ʤɤˤꡤưǤ please ʲڤΥƸɸȤȡ(2) if you please, . . . ʤɤˤꡤɽ魯° please ΩƸɸȤ⤬뤳Ȥˤʤ롥(1) ϼᤫȯã(2) Ͻ°ᤫȯãȤȤˤʤꡤоŪʲΤ褦ˤߤ롥
Brinton (21) ⡤ɤ餫ٻ櫓ǤʤAllen θ˴ŤξŪ˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
An early study looking at an adverbial comment clause is Allen's argument that the politeness marker please originated in the adverbial clause if you please (1995; see also Chen 1998: 25--27). Traditionally, please has been assumed to originate in the impersonal construction please it you 'may it please you' > please you > please (OED: s.v. please, adv. and int.; cf. please, v., def. 3b). Such a structure would suggest the existence of a subordinate that-clause (subject) and argue for a version of the matrix clause hypothesis. However, the OED allows that please may also be seen as a shortened form of if you please (s.v. please, adv. and int.; cf. please, v., def. 6c). Allen notes that the personal construction if/when you please does not arise through reanalysis of the impersonal if it please you; rather, the two constructions exist independently and are already clearly differentiated in Shakespeare's time. The impersonal becomes recessive and is lost, while the personal form is routinized as a polite formula and ultimately (at the beginning of the twentieth century) shortened to please.
ɸ please θϤɤʤΤ뤤ξȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤˤϡѸˤξԤζ٤ܤĴɬפꤽ
Brinton, Laurel J. The Evolution of Pragmatic Markers in English: Pathways of Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
Allen, Cynthia L. "On Doing as You Please." Historical Pragmatics: Pragmatic Developments in the History of English. Ed. Andreas H. Jucker. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995. 275--309.
Chen, Guohua. "The Degrammaticalization of Addressee-Satisfaction Conditionals in Early Modern English." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 23--32.
ε ([2019-01-24-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥθɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤƤ please ϡưθ³ǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯Ūˤ please ˸³Τưθˤ餺͡ʥѥꤨOED please, v. 6d ˡ;ŪˡȤơ͡ѥεҤ롥
d. orig. Sc. In imperative or optative use: 'may it (or let it) please you', used chiefly to introduce a respectful request. Formerly with bare infinitive, that-clause, or and followed by imperative. Now only with to-infinitive (chiefly regional).
Examples with bare infinitive complement are now usually analysed as please adv. followed by an imperative. This change probably dates from the development of the adverb, which may stand at the beginning of a clause modifying a main verb in the imperative.
1543 in A. I. Cameron Sc. Corr. Mary of Lorraine (1927) 8 Mademe..pleis wit I have spokin with my lord governour.
1568 D. Lindsay Satyre (Bannatyne) 3615 in Wks. (1931) II. 331 Schir pleis ȝe that we twa invaid thame And ȝe sell se vs sone degraid thame.
1617 in L. B. Taylor Aberdeen Council Lett. (1942) I. 144 Pleis ressave the contract.
1667 Milton Paradise Lost v. 397 Heav'nly stranger, please to taste These bounties which our Nourisher,..To us for food and for delight hath caus'd The Earth to yeild.
1688 J. Bloome Let. 7 Mar. in R. Law Eng. in W. Afr. (2001) II. 149 Please to procure mee weights, scales, blow panns and sifters.
1716 J. Steuart Let.-bk. (1915) 36 Please and forward the inclosed for Hamburg.
1757 W. Provoost Let. 25 Aug. in Beekman Mercantile Papers (1956) II. 659 Please to send me the following things Vizt. 1 Dozen of Black mitts. 1 piece of Black Durant fine.
1798 T. Holcroft Inquisitor iv. viii. 49 Please, Sir, to read, and be convinced.
1805 E. Cavanagh Let. 20 Aug. in M. Wilmot & C. Wilmot Russ. Jrnls. (1934) ii. 183 Will you plaise to tell them down below that I never makes free with any Body.
1871 B. Jowett tr. Plato Dialogues I. 88 Please then to take my place.
1926 N.E.D. at Way sb.1 There lies your way, please to go away.
1973 Punch 3 Oct. Please to shut up!
1997 P. Melville Ventriloquist's Tale (1998) ii. 140 Please to keep quiet and mime the songs, chile.
ʸ狼褦ˡthat , to 졤졤and do ʤɤΥѥǧ롥Τ줬³ΤΰŪǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯ˡȤƹޤäƤäΤǤ롥
ǫʰꡦ̿ɽ魯졦ȤƤ please ϡǽŪˤϥݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness) ̤ɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤäƤ褤ȤȤϡ?Ф롤?˵פΰդưǤꡤưȤƤˡϸߤߤ줬ˤƸɸƤäΤOED please, adv. and int. θ츻ˤСƻڤȤƤ2̤꤬ͤȤ
As a request for the attention or indulgence of the hearer, probably originally short for please you (your honour, etc.) (see please v. 3b(b)), but subsequently understood as short for if you please (see please v. 6c). As a request for action, in immediate proximity to a verb in the imperative, probably shortened from the imperative or optative please followed by the to-infinitive (see please v. 6d).
ͤƻڤ1Ĥϡ;ưȤѤƤ please (it) you ʤɤޤäȤΤǤꡤ⤦1Ĥϡ;ưȤѤƤ if you please ޤäȤΤǤ롥ȤƤԤԤԤ˴ŤΤǡ1530ǯ˽ФƤ롥;ưȤƤ please ˡϡ15˥åȥɤκȤˤäѤФΤǤ롥Τ줫ɽޤäΤŪʸɸȤƽƸΤϡOED ˤ1771ǯǤ롥
1771 P. Davies Let. 26 Sept. in F. Mason John Norton & Sons (1968) 192 Please send the inclosed to the Port office.
Ūˡ please ɽȯãΤꤹΤȤʤꤨɽϾ嵭2Τۤˤ⡤͡ɽäǤ롥㤨СۤƱȤ if it please you (cf. F s'il vous plaît), may it please you, so please you, please to, please it you, please you ʤɤäˡϡΤʤ뤤Ϥ٤ơˤ˵ĤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
#3527. ƾΤΥݥ饤ȥ̻ͥѲ̾ϥͥƥء̾ϥݥƥء ([2018-12-23-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸθƾΤѤݥ饤ȥͥάϡʤʤʣʤΤä褦̾ (66--67) ϡƾΤ̻ŪĴ٤Ƥߤϼ岽ñ㲽ǧȤμҲŪطʤˤĤƥȤƤս꤬ΤǡѤ褦
̻Ū˸ȡѤạ̈Ѳ (modification) θˤ address terms ι¤ñ㲽ʤɡĤѲ롥ȤƤϡΨθ塦٤ץ饤ХºšҲŪع¤ήưƤ롥ñ˸ȡˤƼΨ夹Ʊˡ٤뤳ˤꡤή˸¤Ƥ̱ˤꡤ¿οͤˤäˤ˽褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥⤦ˤϡ͡γήưޤꡤ͡ηɾΤʣȤ롥ҲŪʸŪʽˤ address terms ñ㲽ƤäΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ͡γư¿ˤϡ뤳ȤΤʤȤ negative politeness ٹ礤ι⤤ address terms Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤäȤȤǤ롥
ְȤơϡ2;ñ̾ thou/you ΩѸ˥ͥƥݥ饤ȥͥɽ魯Ԥ you زä줿ΤʤΤˤ⡤Фа礤˽Ф (cf. #1336. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ (2) ([2012-12-23-1])ˡμҲطʤäǺˬƤߤǤ롥
̾ ҡ3ϡ˸ˤʸˡȸѲסʸˡ --- Ÿ ---ٽ ¼ݺ ƻͺԡˡĬҡ2005ǯ59--74ǡ
ε#3523. ʸʸˡˤ빽ʸȤϡ ([2018-12-19-1]) ǡʸʸˡħ1ĵʸʸˡϡäʸˡΤ˰ۤʤΤȤƤȤ館ʤȤѤΩġι¤ι¤ǤϳΤʣϰۤʤΤΡȵǽڥñ̤Ǥǰ㤤ϤʤȹͤΤǤ롥
ʸʸˡθѤȤơۤˤħŪʤȤ롥1Ĥϡ̣ȸΤΤʶʬߤʤȤȤ̣ŪʾϡꡤѰȤäŪʾȤȤɽƤȤΩȤ롥
ʸʸˡκҤȤĤħϡ츫ȰճʤȤˡʸˡˡŪ (generative) ΩȤäƤ뤳ȤŪפȤϡʸˡŪ˵Ƥ̵¤ɽ褦ȤǡƤʤ̵¤ɽӽ褦ȤƤ뤳ȤؤʸˡΤ褦ˡѷŪ (transformational) ǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥졦̣Ūʷ顤餫ѷФɽؤη߽ФȤꤷƤʤ
餫ˡʸʸˡʸˡǤϤʤǧʸˡΩΤ褦˸뤬#3511. 20γƸɤ˥ץåȤ ([2018-12-07-1]) οޤǤߤ褦ˡˤ⽽ʬʤƤǤŪʸˡȤ⤤ܤƤʸˡХŪʰּˤ뤳Ȥ̥ŪʤΤ⤷ʤ
Goldberg, Adele E. Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
Stein ϱѸ2 (inversion) Ȥꤢ줾줬Ūˤʤ뵡ǽѲ뤲ƤƤ롥Stein (135, 139) ΰäֹ¤ϡ type A type B Ǥ type A ϿƳ̤type B ̤ѸƬƤΤǤꡤűѸֹ¤ľܤ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤϤʤ
[ type A ]
In came Chomsky.
Down with the rebound comes . . .
Beyond it rose the peopled hills.
Developing offshore drilling in California are two Texas oil men.
[ type B ]
Rarely did I hear such overtones of gratitude as went into the utterance of this compound noun.
Not until the Book of Splendour did appear in Spain in the thirteenth century did a formidable metaphysical text on cabalism appear.
Often did she visit the inhabitants of that gloomy village
Only of late have I learned about the complexities of subjectivity
Never did I hear about cabalism.
ֹ¤ŪܤϡStein (146--47) ˤм̤Ǥ롥
Prior to the central structural process, the grammaticalisation of SVO, inversion (or not) did have non-propositional meaning, which is best described as 'textual' or discourse meaning, but no affective meaning. . . After the dissolution of the Old English types of inversions, the late Middle English situation shows an incipient tendency for use as a focussing device. The modern developments include the rise of the B type (the emotional type), expressive and subjective in meaning, as well as the rise of the A type, with a discourse-cum-affective type of meaning. The latter type is in part a renaissance of a discourse meaning that was present in the Old English (VSO) pattern, which did not have the affective component. To that extent the development has gone full circle.
ʾޤȤСŪ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤϡ֤εǽŪʤΤòƤSVOظѸǤŪǽϼƾεǽȯãSVO礬ΩˤƤϴŪʵǽ̤ǽФƤȤȤˡʬŪŪʵǽ褷ƤȤή
֤ηǤϤʤǽŪܤȤΤ⡤ͤùǤȤ⤷ʤˤ
Stein, Dieter. "Subjective Meanings and the History of Inversions." Subjectivity and Sbujectivisation: Linguistic Perspective. Ed. Dieter Stein and Susan Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 129--50.
#2478. may ȴ let ȯã ([2016-02-08-1]) ǡξʸΰճȤפˤĤŪʴҲ𤷤ѸζŪ⡤Huddleston and Pullum (944) ξԤΰ̣Ū˸ڤƤ롥
[Optative may C]onstruction . . . , which belongs to somewhat formal style, has may in pre-subject position, meaning approximately "I hope/pray". There is some semantic resemblance between this specialised use of may and that of let in open let-imperatives, but syntactically the NP following may is clearly subject . . . . The construction has the same internal form as a closed interrogative, but has no uninverted counterpart.
may let ְ̣Ū˻ƤȤϼΤǤʤǤְ̣פϸޤְ̣פˡȯù٤ȤƤΡֵפԤʤСˡִפʤΤ;ִפʳȤơֵפդΤΤϤ
Ūˤϡ³̾礬ʤ֤뤫Ūʤ֤뤫Ȥ餫˶̤ȻŦƤ롥ΤˡξԤϤ˰ۤʤ롥may let бȯù٤ɽ魯ɸȤȤ館θ̾γʤζ̵̤뤹줳ȤˤСָɸ̾ʡưθˡפȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥϻ¤ǤꡤŪˤƤȵ뤳ȤϤǤ롥ʤȤɽŪˤƤϡߤʤ롥
may let ⡤ʸƬư츶̿ɸꡤʸƬ Oh ǴòɸꤹΤƱͤθŪʵǽǻäƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ#2923. ȱμ ([2017-04-28-1]) Ȥ줽ʡʤΤ褦˻פ롥
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ε#3402. presupposition trigger Υס ([2018-08-20-1]) presupposition ˤˤĤƼ夲ˤϤȤ櫓פ3Ĥ롥(1) constancy under negation, (2) defensibility or cancellability, (3) the projection problem Ǥ (Huang 67--75)
(1) constancy under negation
ʸꤵƤ⡤̵Τޤޤ˻ĤȤ̣롥εǤСThe king of France is bald. Ȥʸϡ"There is a king of France" Ȥ뤬Ʊʸꤷ The king of France isn't bald. ȤƤɤ뤬ʤνפ˴ŤơפȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
An utterance of a sentence S presupposes a proposition p if and only if
a. if S is true, then p is true
b. if S is false, then p is still true
(2) defeasibilty or cancellability
ˤϡطʤȤʤꡤ¤μäδް (conversational implicature)äʸ̮ˤäƤ̵ȤʤȤ롥㤨СJohn got an assistant professorship before he finished his Ph.D. Ǥ "John finished his Ph.D" Ω뤬ۤƱʸ John died before he finished his Ph.D. ǤƱΩʤʤ롥ˤϲǤʤȤ¤μ뤫餳ǧΤǤ롥
ޤThere is no king of France. Therefore the king of France isn't bald. Ǥϡ1ʸ¸ߤˤꡤ2ʸ̾Ϥ "There is a king of France" ȤΩʤʤ롥
ۤˤϡThe president doesn't regret vetoing the bill (because in fact he never did so!) Ǥϡbecause ʲʤʸǤ "The president vetoed the bill" Ȥ뤬because ʲäʸǤϡŪꤵ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ȯư줬Ѥˤ⡤ΩʤȤ롥John said that Mary managed to speak with a broad Irish accent. Ǥϡ"Mary managed to speak with a broad Irish accent" Ȥʤ
(3) the projection problem
ñʸȤ߹蘆äʣʸȤʤȤñʸˤä߽Ф줿ϡʣʸˤƤ (projection) 졤ѤΤȻפ뤫⤷ʤΤˤΤ褦ʾ¿ (2) Ǥߤ褦ˡñʸǤʣʸΤμݤ礷ʤˤϡ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ɤΤ褦ʥͤ졤뤤ͤʤΤ뤳Ȥͤ "the curse and the blessing of modern presupposition theory" ȤƤФƤ롥ιۤǤ뤳Ȥ "curse" ǤꡤŪȯۤäƤʤнǤʤȤǡΰ̣ΩٻΤȤ "blessing" Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
μפʥȥԥåǤ presupposition ˤȤϡñˤСʸȯȤΤ褦˿ȤƼ̿ΤȤǤ롥㤨СֻηȿȤǤפǤϻ˷뤳ȤȤ뤷ֱߤʪפǤϱߤäȤȤ롥ʸˤƷ߽Ф presupposition trigger ȸƤ֡ǤϡֻηפȤֱ̾ߤˡפȤ칽¤ presupposition trigger ȤʤäƤ롥
Huang (67--68) ϡѸ presupposition trigger ȤƤĤμƤ롥ʲ ">>" ε "presuppose" ΰդǤ롥
(1) Definite descriptions
The king of France is/isn't bald.
>> There is a king of France
(2) Factive predicates
a. Epistemic or cognitive factives
John knows/doesn't know that Baird invented television.
>> Baird invented television
b. Emotive factives
John regrets/doesn't regret that he has said the unsayable.
>> John has said the unsayable
(3) Aspectual/change of state predicates
Mary has/hasn't stopped beating her boyfriend.
>> Mary has been beating her boyfriend
(4) Iteratives
a. Iterative verbs
John returned/didn't return to Cambridge.
>> John was in Cambridge before
b. Iterative adverbs
The boy cried/didn't cry wolf again.
>> The boy cried wolf before
(5) Implicative predicates
John managed/didn't manage to give up smoking.
>> John tried to give up smoking
(6) Temporal clauses
After she shot to stardom in a romance film, Jane married/didn't marry a millionaire entrepreneur.
>> Jane shot to stardom in a romance film.
(7) Cleft sentences
a. Cleft
It was/wasn't Baird who invented television.
>> Someone invented television
b. Pseudo-cleft
What Baird invented/didn't invent was television
>> Baird invented something
(8) Counterfactual conditionals
If an ant were as big as a human being, it could/couldn't run five times faster than an Olympic sprinter.
>> An ant is not as big as a human being
(1)--(5) ϸѤ lexical triggers(6)--(8) ϹʸѤ constructional/structural triggers Ǥ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ˤѲβž®ΰȤΤ롥#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡո (intensifier) 䡤֡ɽ (taboo) ζ餲նɽ (euphemism) ޤƤϾä뤳Ȥϡ褯ΤƤ롥ѤСɽϥ饤ե뤬ûȤȤˤʤ
Ʊͤˡε#3267. ɸȤηϩ ([2018-04-07-1]) Ǽ夲ɸ⡤Ū饤ե뤬ûȤƤ롥ºݡɸŪ˿ɽޤƤϾä֤ƤεǤ⼨褦ˡɸääդˤ٤⤤ȡƼθ줦뤳ȤطʤˤΤˤĤ Lewis (909) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Discourse markers are known for their frequent renewal. Particularly subject to sociolinguistic factors and fashion, they tend to be "caught" easily, spreading quickly among social networks. Choice of markers therefore can reflect age, social position, and so on. Discourse markers date quickly: many of the most frequent discourse markers and connectives of the 20th century arose only in the 18th or 19th century, including of course, after all, still, I say.
饤ե뤬®ȤäƤʾλ֤褦Ǥꡤոնʸˡ˸饤եۤ®櫓ǤϤʤΤˤäѤˤʤȸ路ۤɤˤϡֵ§ŪʡѲΰȤߤʤޤѤκǽˤ褦ˡɸüԤħŤȤΤⶽ̣˼ҲŪʴѻоݤˤʤ뤳Ȥ̣뤫ɸήԤȤƤ¦̤ϡäܤƤ褤
Lewis, Diana M. "Late Modern English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 56 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 901--15.
ɸ (discourse marker, DM) ˤĤơ#2041. ɸ졤 ([2014-11-28-1]) discourse_marker γƵǼ夲ƤǤϡԸ椫ޤȤ Archer ˽äơɸħȷϩˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
ޤɸħ顥Archer (660) ϼ4夲Ƥ롥
- DMs are phonologically short items that normally occur sentence-initially (but can occur in medial or final position . . .);
- DMs are syntactically independent elements (often constituting separate intonation units) which occur with high frequency (in oral discourse in particular);
- DMs lack semantic content (i.e. they are non-referential/non-propositional in meaning)
- DMs are non-truth-conditional elements, and thus optional (i.e. they may be deleted).
ƤɸϡˤɤСɸʤɤǤϤʤäˤβǡɽɸ餷ʤäƤȤȤǤ롥ǤϡɤΤ褦ɽɸؤȯŸ䤹ΤŵŪɸηϩˤĤƤϡŪʴ鵭ҤΤȡ̣ŪʴΤΤ롥ޤԤˤĤ (Archer 661)
- adverb/preposition > conjunction > DM;
- predicate adverb > sentential adverb structure > parenthetical DM . . .;
- imperative matrix clause > indeterminate structure > parenthetical DM;
- relative/adverbial clause > parenthetical DM.
̣Ūʴηϩϡ̤ (Archer 661)
- truth-conditional > non-truth conditional . . .,
- content > procedural, and nonsubjective > subjective > intersubjective meaning,
- scope within the proposition > scope over the proposition > scope over discourse.
Archer, Dawn. "Early Modern English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 41 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 652--67.
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