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pragmatics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2021-12-18 Sat

#4618. ΩΤΥåΤεȯã [writing][printing][alphabet][grammatology][pragmatics][punctuation][bible][pragmatics]

ޥ󡦥ե٥åȤѤǤϡѲս䶯Ĵʬʤɡʬ̤˺Ω뤿ˤФХå (italics) Ѥ롥̾ΥޥΤǽ񤫤줿ʸΤʤǺٿȤΥåΤϤ褯ΩĤǤ롥ΤθŪˡȤäƤ褤cf. #574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1]
åΤϡ1501ǯμܽΤ˴ŤΤȤƥ٥ͥǸ줿椬äٿȤǷкŪʽΤȤ߽Ф줿ΤǤ롥åΤ餫ΩͿ뤿Ѥ줿櫓ǤϤʤΩΤ˻Ѥϡ16ȾΥե󥹤ǤοȤ줬󥰥ɤˤꡤ1611ǯζ (Authorised Version) ˤʸνΤȤѤ˵ڤӡ˻äˤϥåΤλȤϳ餹Ԥ⸽줿褦ǡۤɤޤǤ˻Ѥ̲ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
嵭 Daniels (68--69) ɤǽΤäȤǤ롥񤬱Ѹ񵭤ˤ륤åλѤδΩ˰äƤ¤ˤϡä˶ä줿ƱαѸ˾ΰյ礭ƳǧǤ롥

Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.

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2021-12-18 Sat

#4618. ΩΤΥåΤεȯã [writing][printing][alphabet][grammatology][pragmatics][punctuation][bible][pragmatics]

ޥ󡦥ե٥åȤѤǤϡѲս䶯Ĵʬʤɡʬ̤˺Ω뤿ˤФХå (italics) Ѥ롥̾ΥޥΤǽ񤫤줿ʸΤʤǺٿȤΥåΤϤ褯ΩĤǤ롥ΤθŪˡȤäƤ褤cf. #574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1]
åΤϡ1501ǯμܽΤ˴ŤΤȤƥ٥ͥǸ줿椬äٿȤǷкŪʽΤȤ߽Ф줿ΤǤ롥åΤ餫ΩͿ뤿Ѥ줿櫓ǤϤʤΩΤ˻Ѥϡ16ȾΥե󥹤ǤοȤ줬󥰥ɤˤꡤ1611ǯζ (Authorised Version) ˤʸνΤȤѤ˵ڤӡ˻äˤϥåΤλȤϳ餹Ԥ⸽줿褦ǡۤɤޤǤ˻Ѥ̲ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
嵭 Daniels (68--69) ɤǽΤäȤǤ롥񤬱Ѹ񵭤ˤ륤åλѤδΩ˰äƤ¤ˤϡä˶ä줿ƱαѸ˾ΰյ礭ƳǧǤ롥

Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.

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2021-11-23 Tue

#4593. Ū if you like ֤äƤ褱СפȯŸ [pragmatics][discourse_marker][lmode][construction_grammar][politeness][comment_clause][syntax][constructionalisation]

if you like/choose/prefer/want/wish/will Ȥɽϡif you wish it to be so called ֤äƤ褱Сפۤɤΰ̣ǡȤƸǤ褯Ѥ롥Ūˤ if ѤŪ˵ƤȷӤĤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǥ᥿ŪѤ롥3Ĥۤʸ󤲤Ƥߤ褦

It was, if you like, an error of judgment.
He, or She, if you prefer, could do better than that.
Music, if you will, is medicine.

Τ褦ʸŪʻȤΡif you + ư׹ʸBrinton (273) "if-EC" (= if-elliptical clause) ȸƤǤ롥ιʸȯŪѸΤȤ餷θȤ Call it cruelty if you like, not mercy. Τ褦 "call it X" ʸäΤǤϤʤƤƤ롥ʸ (constructionalisation) ǰƬ֤Brinton (290) ͤηѤ褦

In conclusion, elliptical if-ECs --- if you choose/like/prefer/want/wish --- all serve metalinguistic and politeness functions in PDE; like and prefer are particularly common in these functions. The clauses make their appearance in the LModE period. Semantically the metalinguistic meanings of if-ECs can be seen as developing from the concrete propositional meaning 'if you choose to do X'. The syntactic derivation of these clauses is problematic, however, because it is impossible to trace their origin back to bipartite (protasis-apodosis) structures where the valency of the verbs is complete. Reconstruction of the complement of the verb in the if-clause proves difficult because of the varied complement structures found historically and the rarity of such structures with metalinguistic meaning. While if-ECs in their propositional meaning typically occur with an explicit apodosis (if you want, open the window), apodoses never occur when the if-ECs function metalinguistically (it's large, even gargantuan, if you wish [*you may say so]). Despite its rather late attestation, a more plausible source for the if-EC is the 'call it X' pattern, which is inherently metalinguistic. Metalinguistic if-ECs may result from constructionalisation of the 'call it X' pattern in conjunction with explicitly metalinguistic if you V- clauses.


˴ؤιȤ٤Ǥ롥

Brinton, Laurel. "If you choose/like/prefer/want/wish: The Origin of Metalinguistic and Politeness Functions." Late Modern English Syntax. Ed. Marianne Hundt. Cambridge: CUP, 2014. 271--90.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-28-1]

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2021-11-14 Sun

#4584. or ɽ魯3ΰ̣ [pragmatics][semantics][speech_act][cognitive_linguistics][performative_hypothesis][conjunction][conceptual_metaphor][punctuation]

#4569. because ɽ魯3ͳ ([2021-10-30-1]) ȡ#4575. and ɽ魯3ΰ̣ ([2021-11-05-1]) ˰³³ (conjunction) ΰճ¿ (polysemy) ˴ؤ3ơor ȤŪ³ˤָɤߡסǧɤߡסȯù԰ɤߡפ3ˡǧ (Sweetser (93--95))

(1) Every Sunday, John eats pancakes or fried eggs.
(2) John will be home for Christmas, or I'm much mistaken in his character.
(3) Have an apple turnover, or would you like a strawberry tart?

嵭 (1) ϡָɤߡפǤ롥or δܵȤäƤ褤ŪȤʤ롥˥󤬥ѥ󥱡뤤ܶ̾Ƥ򿩤٤Ȥ̿¤ˤϤޤޤ˥ѥ󥱡ܶ̾ƤȤ˿٤ȤƤ⡤ä̷⤷ƤȤϴʤɬξԤ򿩤٤Ȥˤϡor λѤŬڤǤ롥
(2) ϡǧɤߡפȤʤ롥üԤϥ󤬥ꥹޥ˵äƤ뤳Ȥμ¤ǤȡǧפƤ롥⤷Ǥʤä顤üԤϥʤ礭򤷤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤʸμݤϡε𤽤켫ΤȤ⡤˴ؤüԤγοɽˤ롥
(3) ϡȯù԰ɤߡפȤʤ롥üԤϥåץѥȤ򴫤Ȥȯù԰٤ԤʤäƤ롥줫֤褦äƤǡ츫ŪΤ褦ˤߤ뤫⤷ʤ⤽ or ǷФ줿2Ĥϲ餫̿Ҥ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤƤ̿ʸʸɽƤ뤳ȤʬȤꡤͶȤȯù԰١ʡᴫͶˤԤʤƤΤǤ롥
or ¿ˤĤƾ嵭Τ褦ʴͤȤϤʤäΤǡȤƤⶽ̣

Sweetser, E. From Etymology to Pragmatics. Cambridge: CUP, 1990.

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2021-11-05 Fri

#4575. and ɽ魯3ΰ̣ [pragmatics][semantics][speech_act][cognitive_linguistics][performative_hypothesis][conjunction][conceptual_metaphor][iconicity][punctuation]

#4569. because ɽ魯3ͳ ([2021-10-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡbecause Ȥ1Ĥ³ˡָɤߡסǧɤߡסȯù԰ɤߡפ3郎ꡤѸüԤϤȾ̵ռ˻ȤʬƤ뤳Ȥߤ3Ĥδ֤ͳߤ˹Ԥ褷ʤ顤Ʊ³ȤʤƤΤǤ롥
ޤäƱȤ˴Ū³Ǥ and ˤĤƤ⤤ȤSweetser (87--89) ꡤ3Ĥɤߤɽ魯ʸѤ褦

(1a) John eats apples and pears.
(1b) John took off his shoes and jumped in the pool.
(2) Why don't you want me to take basketweaving again this quarter?
Answer: Well, Mary got an MA in basketweaving, and she joined a religious cult. (...so you might go the same way if you take basketweaving).
(3) Thank you, Mr Lloyd, and please just close the door as you go out.

(1a) (1b) ϡand κǤ̤βǤָɤߡפȤʤʸǤ롥(1a) (1b) ΰ㤤ϡԤϥ󥴤ñ³Ƥꡤ̾ɤߤǤϽȿžƤ⸽¤̿˱ƶͿʤΤФơԤ and ǷФƤ2ĤνפȤʤ(1b) ˤƤϡϷæ˥סӹΤǤꡤסӹ˷æΤǤϤʤ and ϡ֡δ鸽¤ȸδ֤ο (iconicity) θƤȤ롥ˤ벿餫³ and ˤäƼƤϡξʸ˶̤Ƥ롥
(2) Ǥϡʸˤƥޤ³ and Ƥ롥ᥢ꡼ϳڤʬνιꡤʻ䤬ͤȤǤϡ줬Ȥʤäơ˥ȽΤĤȤɤߤȤʤ롥ᥢ꡼ϳڤʬνιꡤθǥȽΤĤȤŪϡΤ (1b) Ʊͤ˴ްդ뤬ǤϻŪ˾ƤƤ櫓ǤϤʤषüԤ2Ĥδ֤˰̴طߤƤ뤳ȤƤ롥üԤϡʥդ and ˤǧΥåɽƤΤ
(3) ǤϡդȰȤ2Ĥȯù԰ (speech_act) and ʤϤꥳդˤǷӤĤƤ롥Ǥϸǧˤ벿餫³첽Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤޤȯù԰٤³ɽ蘆Ƥ롥

because Υ٤ȡand Ρ3Ĥɤߡפζ̤ϾʬˤȤ褦˻פ뤬줾 and Ρְ̣פۤʤäƤ뤳ȤϴΤǤϤʤSweetser ϡ1Ĥ³ǡ3Ĥɤߡפޤʤ뤳Ȥ because ǤϤʤ and Ǥڤ뤳ȤˤäơʬϤͭ᤿ȤȤˤΤ

Sweetser, E. From Etymology to Pragmatics. Cambridge: CUP, 1990.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-11-14-1]

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2021-11-03 Wed

#4573. Peterborough Chronicle ΥƥȤθȾˤʸΤ [anglo-saxon_chronicle][pchron][pragmatics][history]

Ѹ˸ˤơűѸ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ƥȤǤ The Peterborough Chronicle (pchron) Ȥ¸߰յ礭űѸκǤ٤ʼºݡȾʬѸˤäƤˤΥƥȤǤȤȡƸȾʬ˽񤫤ƤʸɬȥɸƤ餺ƱαѸɽ路ƤȤǡѲäθȿǤƤȤʥƥȤǤȤȤͳǤ롥ܤϡ#721. The Peterborough Chronicle αѸ˸β͡ ([2011-04-18-1])#722. The Peterborough Chronicle γ׿ݼ ([2011-04-19-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ºݤ Peterborough Chronicle ɤǤȡ "The First Continuation" "The Second Continuation" ȸƤФΤθȾʬˤĤƤϡȾʬǤ "The Copied Annals" ٤ơѸΥ⡼ɤäѤäȤݤ򶯤롥ܾɮסʸΡѸηϤܤ˸ѤΤǤϤʤҤƤƤ䡤񤭼ΥƥȤФؿ٤ȤʬޤǤ⤬礭ѲƤ롥
ΥåפȰ´θˤĤơWatt ǫ˵Ƥ롥Watt (80) ϡPeterborough Chronicle "The First Continuation" "The Second Continuation" Ȥ櫓ǰƬ֤ĤġѸؤβϴˤäơűѸ³ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ƤȤ򡤥ƥȤ˴ѻ뼡λ¤˴ŤƻŦƤ롥

- longer and less easily memorised annals
- a move towards more narrative structure with the increasing use of metapragmatic linguistic expressions to effect narrative evaluation: that is, an increase in inscribed orality ending, as we have seen, in the narrator-centred history of the Second Continuation
- an increase, particularly in the Peterborough Chronicle, in the focus on local rather than national topics
- an empathetic, critical narrative persona, particularly in the First and Second Continuations of the Peterborough Chronicle
- an overt sympathy for common people, especially in the Second Continuation


ʸɤȤΤԤˤȤäơؤǼǤŦǤϤʤǽҤ٤ƤΤϡ2Ĥ "The Continuations" ֤Ƥ "The Copied Annals" ȤϰۤʤꡤθʵϿǤ뤳ȤᡤϰθĿŪʵϿؤƤƤȤȤʹߤѸˤϡȤƤˤϸ§ȤΦƱͤ˥ƥǽ񤫤뤳ȤˤʤꡤѸǤϽ񤫤ʤʤΤȤƤαѸοबΥƥȸȾʬΩĻŪʤͽƤ褦˻פ롥"The Continuations" ϷŪˤ夫ȤƱѸǽ񤫤Ƥꡤ츫ȷ³ǧ뤳ȤǤƤʸΤܼŪ˻ŪƤƤꡤष˸ΤǤ Watts ϼĥ롥
ǡֻŪפȤ򤷤Τˤ Watts (58) ФƤΤϡ#230. äȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Koch and Oesterreicher ǤȤΡֶᤤȤС (Sprache der Nähe; immediacy) Ǥ롥ֱ󤤤ȤСפǽ񤫤ƤűѸ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The Peterborough Chronicle θȾʬˤäƤϡֶᤤȤСפƤƤ롤ȤΤ Watts μĥǤ롥

Watts, Richard J. Language Myths and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2011.
Koch, Peter and Wulf Oesterreicher. "Sprache der Nähe -- Sprache der Distanz: Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Spannungsfeld von Sprachtheorie und Sprachgeschichte." Romanistisches Jahrbuch 36 (1985): 15--43.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-11-06-1]

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2021-10-30 Sat

#4569. because ɽ魯3ͳ [pragmatics][semantics][speech_act][cognitive_linguistics][performative_hypothesis][conjunction][conceptual_metaphor]

because ͳɽ魯äȤ̤³ŪѻƤߤȡɽ蘆Ƥͳμˤ͡ʤΤ뤳Ȥʬ롥ǰ̴طůؤĤϤʤǧθؤδ˹ʤäƹͻƤߤǤ⡤3϶̤ǤSweetser (77) ʸ󤲤褦

(1) John came back because he loved her.
(2) John loved her, because he came back.
(3) What are you doing tonight, because there's a good movie on.

3ʸˤ because ɽ魯ͳμ餫˰ۤʤ롥(1) ϤäȤ̤ǡΰ̴طɽ蘆Ƥ롥ΤȤ򰦤Ƥ饸äƤΤ򲾤ˡָɤߡפȸƤǤ
(2) because ϡΰ̴طɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤäƤΤȤͳǥ򰦤褦ˤʤäȤɤߤΩʤʸθȤȤϡäƤΤȤ򺬵Ȥƥ򰦤ƤΤüԤäȤȤbecause ϡüԤΰŤ뺬ȤʤäƤ롥μݤǤȤʸĥС"I conclude that John loved her, because he came back." ۤɤȤʤ򲾤ˡǧɤߡפȸƤǤ
(3) ϡ᤬̿ɽ魯ʿʸǤʤʸʤΤǡbecause 餫̿ФͳǤȲ᤹뤳ȤԲǽǤϤʤֺղƤ롩פȻ䤬ҤͤƤͳϡDz褬ǤƤ뤫ǤꡤDzͶȻפäƤ뤫ȤʸĥС"I am asking you what you are doing tonight, because there's a good movie on." ۤɤȤʤ롥᤬ɽ魯ȯù԰ (speech_act) ԤʤäƤͳ because ʲǼƤ櫓򲾤ˡȯù԰ɤߡפȸƤǤ
3ʸˤ because ᤬餫ͳɽ路ƤȤϤäƤ⡤ͳ°˱ơָɤߡסǧɤߡסȯù԰ɤߡפȳơۤʤΤǤ롥3ĤΥѥɤȹͤƤ褤because 3ĤԤˤƳƤ³Ǥꡤθ𤻤˻ȤʤƤüԤޤ3ĤԤˤƸĤǤΤǤ롥

Sweetser, E. From Etymology to Pragmatics. Cambridge: CUP, 1990.

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2021-09-17 Fri

#4526. ʼˡرѸλ׹ˡäʸˡʸå [review][politeness][japanese][face][pragmatics][sociolinguistics][t/v_distinction][heldio][inoueippei]

7ˡ޿ʼˡرѸλ׹ˡäʸˡʸåǤޤԤϻηʸʸ칶ƱνǤʰ夵󡤤ܤޤƤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
Ԥΰˤ䤬6ƤֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸(heldio) ̥ȤȤƽб餷ƤƤޤʢƱνȤƤ˴ŤޤˡˤĤƤΤ٤Ǥ10ʬ2ܤμϿȤʤäƤޤΤǡ2ܤ⤪ʹƨʤ⡤2ܤκǸ5äۤɻ֤­ʤƤڤƤޤʵˡ



ܸʸˤˤʥƥޥȥۥͤϥåȤΤˤΤФơѸʸˤǤϤΤʤΤǥϥåĥ뤳ȤޤϡܿͤαѸؽԤ¿Ƥ뤳ȤǤϤʤǤ礦᤬ܽǷ̯ʥ䥸㥰˭٤ˤ꼡餫ˤƤΤϡǤϤʤȤȤǤѸʸˤˤ⥿ƥޥȥۥͤϤȤ롥ܸʸˤΤȤϰä¸ߤƤ롤ȤȤǤ
ǤϡɤäƤΤȤСѸʸˤδפˤϡΩס֤ĤʤספؤλָȤȤǤָĿͤȤʴطݤʤĤʤפΤѸήȤȤǤ͡ΩŪ夯岼طΤĤʤŻ뤹ŪܸʸˤȯۤȤϡΤ礭ۤʤޤ
䤬ѸˤδؿϡѸŪʡΩס֤Ĥʤספؤλָϡޤ줿ΤȤȤǤޤǤϤۤɶʤä褦˻פ뤫Ǥ餯äƤǤϤʤȡҲŪ岼ط񤹤2;̾ you/thou ζ̤äƤΤ⡤17ʹߡˤä¤פФޤ
ܽ濴ơޤѸʸӤݥ饤ȥͥȤäȤȻפޤѸظԤȤƤԤοĺϡΡʸˡʸåפ˸Ƥ褦˻פޤʸˡȤŪʷʪˤ⡤ôμҲͭʸ׹ͲϩǻȿǤƤΤȤǤ
ܽϤ˻ȤѸ㤬˭٤ǡѽŪɤळȤǤޤºݡѸä񤤤ꤹȤˡ®ĤθˡѤƤޤYou lost me. Ȥ Let me share with you . . . . ȤǤ˫줿Ȥ Can you tell my wife that? ֤Τϡˤϻ⤤ƸʤǤ
ФʤɤѸܤǤҤɤ

ʼرѸλ׹ˡäʸˡʸå١˼Ҥ޿ӡ2021ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-27-1] [2022-03-17-1]

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2021-07-10 Sat

#4457. ѸͤդĬή [swearing][slang][asseveration][lexicology][semantic_change][taboo][euphemism][pc][sociolinguistics][pragmatics]

Ѹˤˤͤ (swearing) 夲̾ʸ Hughes 롥Ѹͤդ⡤¾θոȰۤʤ餺ƻμҲۤȿǤĤѲƤȡĤޤήԤΰǤ뤳Ȥ䤫Ƥ롥ϤƬˡSwift ΰŪ2ĤΰѤ󤲤Ƥ (236)

   For, now-a-days, Men change their Oaths,
   As often as they change their Cloaths.
                                                               Swift

Oaths are the Children of Fashion.
                                                               Swift


ѸͤդˤˤϡĤ礭Ĭήѻ롥Hughes (237--40) ˰͵򤷤ơŦƤ褽ḽˤƤѲȤȤ館Ƥ褤

(1) ֿʤΡˤˤơפΤ褦 by to ʤɤֻѤ (asseveration) ϸƤ
(2) ͤդΥפˤĤơŪʤΤŪŪʤΤؤθ夬ߤ롥
(3) C. S. Lewis "the moralisation of status word" ȻŦ褦ˡɽ魯줬ƻŪʰ̣礤ӤӤѻ롥㤨 churl, knave, cad, blackguard, guttersnipe, varlet ʤɤϤȤȳʬ̾äƻŪʡְפްդ褦ˤʤꡤͤղƤ
(4) ϫƯפȴϢơvagabond, beggar, tramp, bum, skiver ʤɤͤղηϡϲƤꥶ٥īħŪˤߤ줿
(5) ͤդ̩ܤʴطĥ֡ (taboo) ˤĤơǯŪʥפͼŪʥפؤθ夬ߤ롥

ѸͤդĬήɤ븦ϡֱѸ˼ҲפΰȤ٤ˤϼ¤꤬͡ޤޤƤ롥㤨С嵭ˤ̤ꡤ֡䤽ȴϢնʸˡ (euphemism) ȯŸȤδϢΤꤿʤäƤ롥ޤŵŪʸѲΥפȤɲ (amelioration) 䰭 (pejoration) ˤ̩ܤ˴طˡǯ political correctness (= pc) ˡȤδϢⵤˤʤȤslang ˤȤŤʤꡤҲŪӸŪʹͻоݤˤʤ롥ƲοΰȻפ

Hughes, Geoffrey. Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and Profanity in English. London: Penguin, 1998.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-22-1]

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2021-06-11 Fri

#4428. hedge prototype δط [hedge][prototype][semantics][pragmatics][logic]

Ϣ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) ȡ#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ ([2021-06-10-1]) Τ褦 hedge 夲Ƥ롥 Lakoff ʸ򻲾Ȥƹͻ³
ʸɤ hedge ѤäƤεκǸǤҤ٤ñʤ֤ܤաפǤϤʤ֤̿򿿤餷ˤꡦ¤άפ򤹤٤ʤȤ Lakoff ιͤ hedge ϤΤ褦ʤΤ餷ȡɬŪ˰̣̤˹äƤȤˤʤ̣˴ؤ븡ڼȤůؤˤĤʤäƤ
hedge prototype οط餫ˤʤä㤨Сsort of Ȥ hedge ϡץȥפ龯æΤƤ˺Ѥ̣ΡִؿפȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ºݡLakoff ϥե󾧤 Lofti Zadeh θꥤ󥹥ԥ졼ءŪʴؿѤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ΰ̣ʬϤԤʤäƤ롥Lakoff ʸ (482) ꡤʲοޤ򸫤Ƥ餤

Lakoff's Hedges

οޤθϼ̤֤ͤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ǤפȤ꤬̿硤ºݤˤɤ줯餤ؤι⤵ǤС̿ϿǤȹͤ뤫ˤĤ¿οͤ˥󥱡Ȥä̤Υޥ꡼ɤ롥Ĥޤꡤ5'3" 5ե3160cmˤ tall ȤߤʤԤϤۤ0%6'3" 6ե3190cmˤǤФۤ100%βԤ tall ʷƻȤߤʤ6'3" ǤСvery tall Ǥ100%˶ᤤ⤤ͤ򼨤rather tall 6'3" ФƤϡäŬڤɽȽǤ
פˡ5ɽФ줿ƶηɽ hedge ȤƤθ̤Ǥ롤ȲǤ롥϶Ǥ뤫顤ŪˤϴؿȤɽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥 Lakoff ȤƲ餫Ϳ̩ʰ̣ǤδؿΩܻؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤhedge prototype δط褯ʬͤǤϤ롥
ˤĤ Lakoff Ȥ (492--93) ѤƤ

6.5. Algebraic Functions Play a Role in the Semantics of Certain Hedges

Hedges like SORT OF, RATHER, PRETTY, and VERY change distribution curves in a regular way. Zadeh has proposed that such changes can be described by simple combinations of a small number of algebraic functions. Whether or not Zadeh's proposals are correct in all detail, it seems like something of the sort is necessary. . . .

6.6. Perceptual Finiteness Depends on an Underlying Continuum of Values

Since people can perceive, for each category, only a finite number of gradations in any given context, one might be tempted to suggest that fuzzy logic be limited to a relatively small finite number of values. But the study of hedges like SORT OF, VERY, PRETTY, and RATHER, whose effect seems to be characterizable at least in part by algebraic functions, indicates that the number and distribution of perceived values is a surface matter, determined by the shape of underlying continuous functions. For this reason, it seems best not to restrict fuzzy logic to any fixed finite number of values. Instead, it seems preferable to attempt to account for the perceptual phenomena by trying to figure out how, in a perceptual model, the shape of underlying continuous functions determines the number and distribution of perceived values.


Ĥδ֤ˤեȤȴʤʤΰˤޤãƤޤä⤽ hedge ֤ܤʸաˡפȤǧϤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΥƤʤ褦ˤפƤ

Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

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2021-06-10 Thu

#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ [hedge][prototype][semantics][pragmatics][intensifier]

εǡ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) 夲ѸˤĤƤ sort of hedge ɽȤƵ󤲤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤΤȤ hedge μ¿ͤǤ롥
ΰʸǿ줿 Lakoff ʸɤp. 472 "SOME HEDGES AND RELATED PHENOMENA" ꤹɽǤƤ롥Ѹ hedge ʴϢɽζȤơʲ˷ǺܤƤ

sort of
kind of
loosely speaking
more or less
on the _____ side (tall, fat, etc.)
roughly
pretty (much)
relatively
somewhat
rather
mostly
technically
strictly speaking
essentially
in essence
basically
principally
particularly
par excellence
largely
for the most part
very
especially
exceptionally
quintessential(ly)
literally
often
more of a _____ than anything else
almost
typically/typical

as it were
in a sense
in one sense
in a real sense
in an important sense
in a way
mutatis mutandis
in a manner of speaking
details aside
so to say
a veritable
a true
a real
a regular
virtually
all but technically
practically
all but a
anything but a
a self-styled
nominally
he calls himself a ...
in name only
actually
really
(he as much as ...
-like
-ish
can be looked upon as
can be viewed as
pseudo-
crypto-
(he's) another (Caruso/Lincoln/ Babe Ruth/...)
_____ is the _____ of _____ (e,g., America is the Roman Empire of the modern world. Chomsky is the DeGaulle of Linguistics. etc.)


ʬ褦ˡ#4236. intensifier ʬ ([2020-12-01-1]) ǵ󤲤̣Ǥζո (intensifier) ϡ hedge ΰȤߤʤȤǤ롥ޤ hedge ñˡ֤ܤաפ餤ǧƤǤʤȤʬäƤ̿򿿤餷ˤꡦ¤ά򤷤ƤΤ褵

Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-11-1]

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2021-06-09 Wed

#4426. hedge [hedge][pragmatics][terminology][cooperative_principle][prototype][sociolinguistics][cognitive_linguistics][semantics]

hedge (hedge) ϡѸ졦ǰȤƹΤƤ롥ѸȤƤϡֳפ̣ñžơ֤ܤաפ̣롥ܸյΤȤȸäۤʬ䤹
إ˥¼ŵ٤ˤȡ֡ʸȤʤΡˤϤ餫ȯܤ硨̸͸Ĵ¤餲աإåԢI wonder, sort of ʤɡաפȤ롥
ޤCruse ΰ̣Ѹ콸Ƥߤȡؤʬ䤹ͿƤ

hedge An expression which weakens a speaker's commitment to some aspect of an assertion:
   She was wearing a sort of turban.
   To all intents and purposes, the matter was decided yesterday.
   I've more or less finished the job.
   As far as I can see, the plan will never succeed.
   She's quite shy, in a way.


Ҥ٤Ƥ̿˴ؤơ줬ȤʤΤϤβˤƤǤ롤Ⱦդ򤷤ƤȽΤͽɤ뤿θάȤäƤ褤̤ˤϡ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1]) ˤäƥҤ٤櫓ˤ⤤ʤǸդȤˤäơͿʤDzؤ˺ѤޤƤȤάǤ롥ϻ䤿Ū˹ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤꡤܸ˸¤餺ɤθˤƤ⤽Τμʤ͡ѰդƤ롥
hedge ȤѸ嵭Τ褦ʸŪʰ̣򤷤ƤѸȤƤ hedge ϤȤǧΰ̣ʸ̮Ȥ櫓 prototype ʸ̮Ѥ줿Τ餷Bussmann Ѹ콸 (205)

hedge
Term introduced by Lakoff (1973). Hedges provide a means for indicating in what sense a member belongs to its particular category. The need for hedges is based on the fact that certain members are considered to be better or more typical examples of the category, depending on the given cultural background ( prototype). For example, in the central European language area, sparrows are certainly more typical examples of birds than penguins. For that reason, of these two actually true sentences, A sparrow is a bird and A penguin is a bird, only the former can be modified by the hedge typical or par excellence, while the latter can be modified only by the hedges in the strictest sense or technically speaking.


θѸ켫ΤȾδ̣֡礤ѤʤȯŸƤȤȤΤ褦ȤǡĿŪˤ hedge ȤѸϤɤ⤷äꤳʤʤֳס

Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-11-1] [2021-06-10-1]

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2021-06-07 Mon

#4424. Ѹ쿷ʹФ̻ŪѲ [newspaper][syntax][genre][pragmatics]

Ѹ쿷ʹ˴ؤŪˤˤĤơFries γɤѥȤʤޤȤޤäƤꡤʬܳŪʴؿ󤻤ȤϤʤäΤΡƤ⤷ʬǧ뤳ȤǤä˴ؿäΤϸФ (headline) ̻ŪѲǤ롥ʲˡFries (1070--71) ƤҲ𤷤
ʹθФ70ǯĶˤͭ롥ָФפȤäƤ⡤䤿Ƥ륿פθФ (headline proper) Τۤˤ⤤Ĥμब롥1718ƬˤƤϡνн (dateline) äƸФȤ봷̤ä
ޤ̾Ի̾̾ʤɤ1, 2üŪɽหФ (section heading) Ūä (ex. "LONDON", "AUSTRIA", "BIRTHS", "SHIP NEWS") οʹǤСڡξ1ǰƤơޤΤȹͤ롥
20νᤫϡ³Ω渫Ф (crosshead) ⸽Ƥ
䤿Ƥ̾θФ (headline proper) ϡ¤ϸŤΤ褦ˤä櫓ǤϤʤ18ޤǤϾ嵭Τ褦˸ФȤ dateline §Ǥꡤheadline proper Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤΤ19äƤǤ롥θ塤¤ʬۤäƤʿѸ12٤7ĹˤޤĹ
headline proper ϡŪˤ̾ŪФưŪФʬ롥̾ŪФȤ The earthquakes, The Russian epidemic, Surrender of General Johnston, Brazil and Portugal, Russian and India Τ褦ʥפؤ
ưŪФˤϡTo cease fire, Normal life returning to Krefeld, Recall suggested Τ褦ưѤΤ⤢СGerman Cabinet resigns Τ褦ưѤΤ⤢롥19ޤǤϤۤȤɸ줺ưŪФϤƸŪħȤäƤ褤
ŪȤϰ̣Ūʴ鸫ФʬहȡArrival of the La Plata, Destructive Fires, Prices up Τ褦 "relational" ʥפȡA Scotch Ghost Τ褦ʽ˾˴ؤ̾Ūʡ"regional" ʥפʬ롥
ʹϡǥȤƤȯŸȤȤˡθŪħ礭ѲƤѸνפʥȤơʹѸŪˤ礭ʲǽꤽ

Fries, Udo. "English and the Media: Newspapers." Chapter 68 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1063--75.

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2021-05-18 Tue

#4404. ܸͳηɾ san [vocative][honorific][pragmatics][japanese][loan_word][title][khelf_hel_intro_2021][hypocorism]

ֱѸƳ2021˸ɽ줿ƥĤϡرˤְ̣ SIRǤŪʱѸءѸ˸ǤϡƤӤ (vocative) ϼŪˤȤɤޤꡤפĴоݤȤϤʤʤȤߤʤƤޤˡ˸ƬˤꡤǤϽפʸơޤȤȤ館ƤޤΥƥĤϡФɾ (honorific) θƤӤ sir ʤбǤ madamˤˤĤơ˸δҲ𤹤ΤǤƤӤˤɵ椹̥Ϥ˵ŤƤ館ФȻפޤ
ƥǡܤγعǤαѸμȤǡѸdzƤ֤ȤˤɤΤ褦ʷɾΤȤΤդ路ȤǺߤ֤ƤޤΤ񤷤Ǥ͡ŪŵŪˤ Mr. Miss (or Mz.?) Ǥ͡ʻǻȤˤʤäƤޤĿͤȤƤܸͳ san ֤פλѤդ路ȻפäƤꡤ̤αѸѤˤƤ⡤äήԤäƤФ褤ȴԤƤޤɾΤȤƤ san ϡOED Ǥ san, n.3 ȤƸФ줬ΩƤƤꡤäȤñǤ

   A Japanese honorific title, equivalent to Mr., Mrs., etc., suffixed to personal or family names as a mark of politeness; also colloquial or in imitation of the Japanese form, suffixed to other names or titles (cf. mama-san n.).
      When suffixed to a female personal name, and in more polite endearment, san is often coupled with the prefix O- (see quot. 1922).

   1878 C. Dresser in Jrnl. Soc. Arts 26 175/1 Mr. Sakata, or, as they would say Sakata San, who was appointed..as one of my escort through Japan.
   . . . .
   . . . .
   1922 J. Joyce Ulysses ii. xii. [Cyclops] 313 The fashionable international world attended en masse this afternoon at the wedding... Miss Grace Poplar, Miss O Mimosa San.
   . . . .
   . . . .
   1972 J. Ball Five Pieces Jade xiv. 188 It would make me the greatest pleasure, Nakamura san.


san ϡؤƱνܡʸ˻̤ѸüԤȱѸäȤˤϡ̤˻ȤޤϷ˽鷺ŪѤǤɾΤǤ⤢ꡤǤԹ礬褤ΤǤ줬äȹŪήԤäƤСñȤƤѤȤƤ⡤ܸ줫礭ʹ׸ˤʤȻפäƤޤ
ʤܸΡ֤׼Τϡɰդι⤤֤ޡפṳ̂۷ǡǤɰդ⤹㤹礦ɤ褤֤Ťˤޤ䞤۷֤פϰη (hypocorism) Ǥ͡

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-28-1]

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2021-03-26 Fri

#4351. ȤƤθ԰ [politeness][face][pragmatics][sociolinguistics][taboo]

챺 (6) ȥꥢΥܥꥸ˼ҲθŪʽˤˤĤơե󥹤μҲؼ Durkheim ʲΤ褦˼Ƥ롥

ڥǥ륱ε
(i) ʤΡפؤ٤ϡ٤ơֵ (rites)פˤɽ롥ηȤ뤳ȤǡͤӤȤΤդޤμҲỤ̄ƱΤǶͭ뤳ȤǤ롥
(ii) εǽϡʤΤ뤳ȤΤʤ褦ˡʤΤ¯ʤΤʬΥΥ뤳ȤǤ롥ξ硤ϴŪˡ?ʤפȤǵꤵΤǡ־öŪʩ rites négatif ̥ޥޡ)פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
(iii) ʤΤʤȤΤȤǡüʾ郎ʤСʤΤ̤礦Ȥ롥ξ硤ϡ?Ƥ褤פȤǵꤵΤǡѶŪʩ rites positif ̥ޥޡ))פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥


԰٤⡤ΰ̣Ǥεȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤʤΤȤϸĿͤΥץ饤Х (negative face) ΤȤǤȲ᤹С԰١ᵷϻٻ롥1ˡ԰٤⵷Ʊ͡ĿͤλŪʹ԰٤ˤȤɤޤΤǤϤʤƱΤǶͭ٤ΤǤ롥2ˡ԰٤ˤƤϡĿ͡äʹˤΥץ饤ХȤʤ褦ջȤ˽ʬդʧΤ̤Ǥ (cf. negative politeness) 3ˡĿͤΥץ饤Хʬ˼ƤȤΤȤǡĿ̤ͤ礤ŤμʤѰդƤѤ뤳ȤƤ (cf. positive politeness)
԰٤ "face-work" ȤȤ館 Goffman (cf. #1564. face ([2013-08-08-1])) ⡤ Durkheim εΩӤƤˡݥ饤ȥͥ󾧤 Brown and Levinson (cf. #4346. եꥹѤθ ([2021-03-21-1])) ⡤Durkheim Goffmann ξԤƶƤ
԰١ᵷˤСǤʤɤʤΤϡˤƤϸĿͤ "face" ȤȤˤʤ롥ƼҲŪʸѤȤ롥

챺 ͡إݥ饤ȥͥ١ҡ2008ǯ
Durkheim, É. Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: le système totémique en Australie. Félix Alcan.
Goffman, Erving. "On Face-Work: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction." Psychiatry 18 (1955): 213--31.

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2021-03-23 Tue

#4348. ͤƤ֤Ȥ [address_term][politeness][pragmatics][historical_pragmatics][anthropology][personal_pronoun][personal_name][onomastics][t/v_distinction][taboo][title][honorific][face]

ؤǤϡֿͤƤ֡פȤ԰٤ϡءҲء̾ؤʤ͡ʴܤƤܥ֥δؿΰǤѸˤʬǤ⡤̾ (anthroponym)ƾ (address_term)2;̾ t/v_distinction ʤɡֿͤƤ֡פȤ˴ؤͻ¿ʤƤȶŪʹ԰٤Ǥ뤫顤ï⤬̣פȤäƤ褤
⤽ֿͤƤ֡פȤϤɤȤʤΤ챺 (78--79) ꡤ٤Ѥ롥

ƻˤʤ뤬ȿͤƤ֡ɤȤκŪʰ̣ǧƤʸŪ˸СͤƤ֤ȤˡȿɤȤǤꡤŪʥ֡񿨤¦̤ġΤᡤ¿θʸˤơƤ֤Ȥζػߡ뤤Ϥ˵ŪƾΤȯãܸ⤳Υ֡αƶŪƾΤϡȤС͡ʡᤷ١ˡס֤ʤʡˡסָʡʪΡɤξˡס֡¡ʡʪ̾ˡסŲʡᳬʤβˡǤ󤲤뤳ȤǤ롥夲ʬ򲼤ޤΡȿ͡ɤƤƤ֤ϡƤ֤ȤǼʬ꤬ƤޤΤ򤱤뤿ˡȤʤ٤ƤФʤ褦ˤƸƤ֡ɤȤưŤˤʤäƤֲŪƾΤǤ롥
ȤȤ˿Ƥطˤˤϡ֡ŪưŤȿžषΡȿ͡ɤ򤸤˸Ƥӡ̤Ƨ߹Ǥ椯褦ʸƾΤȤʤ롥ϡΰƧ߹Ǥʹִط»ʤʤΤ餤2ͤδ֤ˤϳ֤ƤʤȤޤߤΡŪƾΤǤ롥ͭ̾ʤȤθƤӼΤƤ䲼̾ǸƤ֤ȡˤˤƾΡ¤줿ͤΤʤΤˤƾΤŵ̾ˤƾΤ⤽ηġ


ͤƤ֤ΤϰΥ֡ (taboo) ǤȤȡϤФˤ٤֡ǤꡤΤθƾΤ¿쾯ʤ쥪ץˤƤȤȤפǤ롥ͤƤǤϤʤƤФ򤨤ʤȤ̷Τʤǡ䤿Ϥ̷ˤǾ¤ޤ褦Ȥʤ顤԰٤ԤʤäƤΤǤ롥

챺 ͡إݥ饤ȥͥ١ҡ2008ǯ

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2021-03-21 Sun

#4346. եꥹѤθ [politeness][face][solidarity][pragmatics]

䤿ռƤ뤫ݤˤ餺԰٤ϤܾۤŪʥեβǽʥեꥹˤޤǤ롥եꥹ¤ʤˤϻ¾奼ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ塤٤κϤ˥եꥹ¸ߤƤȹͤƤ褤
Brown and Levinson (76--78) ϡեꥹ礭ȤεΥ (D)ϴط (P) (R) 3װˤäƷޤȤ꼰챺 (30--31) Ѥ뤳ȤǡҲ𤷤褦

ڥեꥹѤθ
Wx = D (S, H) + P (H, S) + Rx
   Wx (weightiness): ԰ x Фեꥹ
   D (distance): ä (speaker) ʹ (hearer) μҲŪΥ
   P (power): ʹ (hearer) ä (speaker) Ф
   Rx (rating [ranking] of imposition): ʸˤ԰ x

Ĥޤꡤ԰ x Υեꥹ (Wx) ϡ襳οʹִطˤäʹΡּҲŪΥ (D)סƤοʹִطˤʹäФ (P)סơx Ȥ԰٤ʸǤɤ٤٤ˤʤȸʤƤ뤫Ρ (R)סȤǤĻŪƯƷޤäƤȥ֥饦󥽥Ϲͤ


άȤƤϡȤƤ褯ǤǤ롥٤Ȥ򤤤СñʲûǤ褤ΤǤŬڤʽŤդɬפʤΤǤϤʤȤäȽϤꤦ롥3ĤǤեꥹθѤŪ˸ȤΤϡľˤQˤ⤫ʤ
3ĤǤǤ Rx ˡʸˤפȤ꤬ղäƤΤ̣ĹǤ롥챺 (31) ɾ˼򷹤褦

κǸϡʸŪʤߤǤⶽ̣ȤСιԤ˹ԤͤФơιʪäƤƤ褦ꤹ롤Ȥ԰٤ͤ褦ޤܤξ硤߻Ϥޤ굤¤ΤǤϤʤ⤷ޤ줿Ȥ빽Ѥ路ͤ¿ȤȤȤѤǤϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥ळȤ񹳤򴶤ʤȤͤ¿ۤʤΤǤʤϤʤƤ⤫ޤʤȹͤͤ⾯ʤʤޤ줿¦⡤ʬͤˤƤ뤳ȤξڤȤƸؤ˻פʤ٤ǤʤΤȤ
ºݤ˷׻Ǥ뤫ɤϤȤ⤫֥饦󥽥ȤߤϡʤȤ⳵ǰŪˤϤۤȤ館Ƥ롥֥饦󥽥ФȽΤʤˤϡʸθƤʤȤΤ롥޸褦ˡʸɤװѥ᡼ȤȤ߹ޤƤꡤȽľˤʤ̸ά͡


ʤۤɡȤƤñοƤǤ롥Ϣơ#2126. FTA FTA 򤱤ά ([2015-02-21-1]) ⻲ȡ

Brown, Penelope and Stephen Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.
챺 ͡إݥ饤ȥͥ١ҡ2008ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-03-26-1]

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2021-02-16 Tue

#4313. ƳʡʡгʤδطˤĤư [greetings][interjection][formula][syntax][exclamation][pragmatics][syncretism][latin][case]

ε#4312. ָƳʡפǧ뤫ݤ ([2021-02-15-1]) ˤ褦ˡƳ (vocative) ϡŪʰӸؤǤ1ĤΩʤȤǧƤƥʤɤθŵǤ顤2Ѥ -us ǽñˤΤΩƳʷǧˤʳǤϷŪ˼ʤͻ (syncretism) Ƥ롥ָƳʡפȤּʤθƤӤˡפȹͤۤåꤹȤΤ¤Ǥ롥
Τ褦˸ƳʤŪ˼ʤͻ礷ƤȤǧǡŪǽδָƤӤפȶᤤطˤȤܤִò (exclamation) ˤƤϡषгʤͳ褹֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥħ˴ؿƤ롥Poor me! Lucky you! Τ褦ɽǤ롥
ٹ (157--58) ꡤŪ˲餫ξάؤ7Ĥδòʸ󤲤ʸ̾ϷŪˤ̳ʤȤ٤ǽŪˤƤʤСʤгʤ³ơٹβѤ롥

How unlike their Belgic sires of old!---Goldsmith.
Wonderful civility this!---Charlotte Brontë.
A lively lad that!---Lord Lytton.
A theatrical people, the French?---Galsworthy.
Strange institution, the English club.---Albington.
This wish I have, then ten times happy me!---Shakespeare.

κǸ me ϸʸμǤ٤Τɽ魯ΤǤ뤬;ñ̾ϴưʸǤϼʤгʤѤ뤳ȤΤǡˤϼͳ餷ʡ130ȡˤƥθˡޤͤȤ츶Ǥäȸ롥ȤС

Me miserable!---Milton, Paradise Lost, IV. 73.

ƥ Me miserum! (Ovid, Heroides, V. 149) Ȱפ롥


ѺǸΥƥ me miserum ȴϢơBlake γʤ˴ؤ "ungoverned case" ꤹ1ѤƤ (9)

In case languages one sometimes encounters phrases in an oblique case used as interjections, i.e. apart from sentence constructions. Mel'cuk (1986: 46) gives a Russian example Aristokratov na fonar! 'Aristocrats on the street-lamps!' where Aristokratov is accusative. One would guess that some expressions of this type have developed from governed expressions, but that the governor has been lost. A standard Latin example is mē miserum (1SG.ACC miserable.ACC) 'Oh, unhappy me!' As the translation illustrates, English uses the oblique form of pronouns in exclamations, and outside constructions generally.


˵򰧻Τ褦ʷʸˤäƤ#4284. ʸϤۤȤ̵ ([2021-01-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ¿ϡŪˤϼư줬ά졤гʤ̾礫ʤäƤΤ
ŪǽδǴϢȤܤƤӤòȤ롼פǤꡤ˷Ū˶̤ƳʡʡгʤȤФ륰롼פ¾Ǥ롥դδطʣˤơ⤷

ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-21-1]

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2021-02-15 Mon

#4312. ָƳʡפǧ뤫ݤ [vocative][case][latin][pragmatics][terminology][title][term_of_endearment]

ؤǤϡŪ˳ (case) 1ĤȤƳ (vocative) ǧƤ㤨СꥷƥˤƸƳʤϼʤʤɤȰۤʤ̤ʷ֤Ȥ礬 (ex. Quō vādis, domine? domine ʤɡˡǸƳʤȤʤΩΩƤյǤ롥
ε#4311. ʤȤϲ ([2021-02-14-1]) ǷǤʤ򿶤֤С"Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads." Ǥ롥ƳʤȤΤϡʸιǤȤƤΩͷΥ¸ߤǤꡤ̤Ǥ˰¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤ顤¸ط¸ߤ뤳ȤȤηϤ¦°ƤȤΤ̷Ǥ롥Ƴʤϰ¸ط¸ߤɸΤȤȥåǽ⤷ʤɬ⤹٤ƤθؼԤ­ˤϻäƤʤ¤Ū̩äƼĥؼ Hjelmslev ϳʤȤǧƤʤѸؼ Jespersen ƱͤѸؼԤ Curme ⡤ʤ1ǽȰ֤ŤƤˤʤ
ƳʤεǽǤָƤӤפˤϡΩΤߤʤ餺Ĵÿ롥Ūˤϡ餫ˡ¾Ǥȶ̤ƤɬפΤΤǤ롥СŪʴʤȤƤߤʤɤ̤ˤƤ⡤ǽˡδϥƥ꡼ƤΤ褵
ָƳʡפˤϸ¤줿üʸ礬Ѥ뷹ȤȤŦƤ̾̾ you²̾Ρι桤̾ŵΤۤˤ (my) darling, dear, honey, love, (my) sweet; old man, fellow; young man; sir, madam; ladies and gentlemen ʤɤ󤲤롥

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-11-08-1] [2021-02-16-1]

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2021-01-18 Mon

#4284. ʸϤۤȤ̵ [greetings][interjection][formula][syntax][article][exclamation][pragmatics][christmas]

I wish you a merry Christmas! Ȥά Merry Christmas! ȤʤꡤI wish you a good morning. ά Good morning! Ȥʤ롥ȶ᤹Ƶα뤳Ȥʤ⤷ʤΤ褦ʷʸ (formula) ̾ؾάˤϡڤȤȤ¿ֻʤɤȼ A merry Christmas to you! Τ褦˴줬Ĥ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤϳ餵̥롼ǤϤʤΤΡʸ⤱й⤤ۤɴޤǴޤƾά褦òŪ Charming couple!, Dirty place!, Excellent meal!, Poor thing!, Good idea!, Lovely evening! Ȥ̤礦¾ Cigarette?, Good flight?, Next slide? ʤɤεˤ̤봧ξάȤ롥ɽŪʷʸQuirk et al (11.54) 褦

GREETINGS: Good morning, Good afternoon, Good evening <all formal>; Hello; Hi <familiar>
FAREWELLS: Goodbye, Good night, All the best <informal>, Cheers, Cheerio <BrE, familiar>, See you <familiar>, Bye(-bye) <familiar>, So long <familiar>
INTRODUCTIONS: How do you do? <formal>, How are you?, Glad to meet you, Hi <familiar>
REACTION SIGNALS:
   (a) assent, agreement: Yes, Yeah /je/; All right, OK <informal>, Certainly, Absolutely, Right, Exactly, Quite <BrE>, Sure <esp AmE>
   (b) denial, disagreement: No, Certainly not, Definitely not, Not at all, Not likely
THANKS: Thank you (very much), Thanks (very much), Many thanks, Ta <BrE slang>, Thanks a lot, Cheers <familiar BrE>
TOASTS: Good health <formal>, Your good health <formal>, Cheers <familiar>, Here's to you, Here's to the future, Here's to your new job
SEASONAL GREETINGS: Merry Christmas, Happy New Year, Happy Birthday, Many happy returns (of your birthday), Happy Anniversary
ALARM CALLS: Help! Fire!
WARNINGS: Mind, (Be) careful!, Watch out!, Watch it! <familiar>
APOLOGIES: (I'm) sorry, (I beg your) pardon <formal>, My mistake
RESPONSES TO APOLOGIES: That's OK <informal>, Don't mention it, Not matter <formal>, Never mind, No hard feelings <informal>
CONGRATULATIONS: Congratulations, Well done, Right on <AmE slang>
EXPRESSIONS OF ANGER OR DISMISSAL (familiar; graded in order from expressions of dismissal to taboo curses): Beat it <esp AmE>, Get lost, Blast you <BrE>, Damn you, Go to hell, Bugger off <BrE>, Fuck off, Fuck you
EXPLETIVES (familiar; likewise graded in order of increasing strength): My Gosh, (By) Golly, (Good) Heavens, Doggone (it) <AmE>, Darn (it), Heck, Blast (it) <BrE>, Good Lord, (Good) God, Christ Almighty, Oh hell, Damn (it), Bugger (it) <esp BrE>, Shit, Fuck (it)
MISCELLANEOUS EXCLAMATIONS: Shame <familiar>, Encore, Hear, hear, Over my dead body <familiar>, Nothing doing <informal>, Big deal <familiar, ironic>, Oh dear, Goal, Checkmate


ʸ¿ϲ餫ŪάФΤǤꡤǤԵ§ȸ뤬ä͡Ū󤬲ݤȤħ⤢롥㤨Сˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̤ο;ΤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤܵळȤǤʤĤΤ¿ʸȤΤǡ(A) happy new year! Τ褦ˡ괧̵ͭʤɤ˴ؤ variation ĤΤ⤢ȹͤƤ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-24-1] [2021-02-16-1]

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