#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ ([2015-08-03-1]) κǸ˴ñ˿줿褦ˡѸǤΰΥݥ饤ȥͥȥƥȤƤϡShakespeare ѽФ褦ˡI pray you/thee, prithee, I beseech you, I require that, I would that ʤɤ褯Ѥ줿Ѹˤʤȡä˸Τˤƿष17껶ȯŪ˸ϤƤ please (< if you please < if (it) please you) ͥȤʤäƤѤɽΤ褦ѲƤطʤˤϡäΤ
εˤĤƤϡplease Ω˴ؤʸˡȤƸŪ˹ͻ褦ȤΩ줬ǡҲʸ˳ؤ˸δܤȤΩ⤢롥ԤΩ줫ϡ㤨С19 pray 촶ȤƶŪʴްդĤ褦ˤʤäˡ̾ΰɽȤƤϤդ路ʤȴ褦ˤʤäȤƤ롥
Busse ˸Ω줫餳Ѳܶᤷλ˾ä꤫ʹؤȰܤȤݥ饤ȥͥȥƥžäΤǤϤʤȿ¬Ƥ롥Ť I pray you ΥפŬ (felicity condition) ϡä꤬ʹˡƤ餤ȻפäƤפȤǤΤФơ (if you) please ΥפǤϡä꤬ʹˡ褦Ȥտޤ뤫ɤ֤ͤפȤǤȤ㤤롥ԤŬϡCan/could you pass the salt? Τ褦ʵηѤˤ⸫ΤǤꡤΤ I pray you ʤɤ⸽Ūʶ롥
Busse (31--32) Ϥο¬Τ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
Pragmatically, the redressed command and the question have in common that they ask for the willingness of the listener to do X (willingness on the part of the hearer being a felicity condition for imperatives to be successful). Yet, indirect requests with pray/prithee put the focus on the speaker and assert his/her sincerity: Speaker sincerely wants X to be done.
The diachronic comparison of requests with pray to those with please on the basis of the OED and the Shakespeare Corpus has led me to the assumption that the disappearance of pray in polite requests and the subsequent rise of please as a concomitant can be explained pragmatically. This is to say that at least in colloquial speech a shift in polite requests has taken place from requests that assert the sincerity of the speaker (I pray you, beseech you, etc.) to those that question the willingness of the listener to perform the request (please). . . .However, in more formal types of dialogue, verbs that express the speaker's sincere wish that something be done, such as I beseech, entreat, implore, importune, solicit, urge, etc. you still persist.
⤷ѲѸ줫ˤƤΥݥ饤ȥͥȥƥ礭ʿܡä꤫ʹؤξΰܹԡƤȤСϱѸ˼ҲΰȤʤ
Busse, Ulrich. "Changing Politeness Strategies in English Requests --- A Diachronic Investigation." Studies in English Historical Linguistics and Philology: A Festschrift for Akio Oizumi. Ed. Jacek Fisiak. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2002. 17--35.
#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1]) Ǽ夲 Present Perfect Puzzle ȸƤФʸˡ꤬롥褯ΤƤ褦ˡߴλϲλؤȤ϶Ǥʤ㤨 Chris has left York. ȤʸˡŪʸˤơChris York ȯäΤϲΤϤΤؤ *Yesterday at ten, Chris has left York ȤʸˡŪȤʤäƤޤ "past-adverb constraint" ʤݤƤΤ뤳Ȥ"puzzle" ȤƤΤ
1ĤβˡȤƤƤΤ"scope solution" Ǥ롥ߴλư have ߤؤƤȤˡؤκѰ (scope) ʬޤˤϡξͤȤͤľΤ褦˸뤬Ĥ롥㤨СChris claims to have left York yesterday. Ǥϡ yesterday λѰ to have left York ޤǤޤǤꡤǤʸξλѰȰ㤤ʤ褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤϵƤΤǤ롥ޤǤϡߴλϡɤߤλؤȤⶦʤȤ뤳ȤǤʤĤޤꡤ*Chris has been in Pontefract last year. ʸǤǡ*Chris has been in Pontefract at present. ʸǤ뤳ȤǤʤ
ˡٻƤ뤤Ȥ "current relevance solution" 롥ߴλȤϡߤȤδϢɸʤǤȤͤޤDz鸽ߤؤη³Τ礿뵡ǽʤΤǤ뤫顤ȤζϵʤȤ롥üԤľˤ礦Ȥ뤬ȸߤδϢϡ¤ϲˤäɽ魯ȤǤǤϤʤȤȿ롥㤨СWhy is Chris so cheerful these days? --- Well, he won a million in the lottery. ǤϡߤȲδϢʤȤϸʤޤȸߤδϢ餫ǤäƤ⡤*Chris has been dead. ϵ줺Chris was dead. ϵ롥
Klein (546) Ͻ2ĤȽơŪʴ餳äTT (= "topic time" = "the time for which, on some occasion, a claim is made" (535)) TSit (= time of situation) Ȥ2λֻؼƳơ1ĤȯäΤʤǡTT TSit ɽȤΩƲŪʻ (p-definite (= point-definite)) ƤϤʤʤȲꤷ
P-DEFINITENESS CONSTRAINT
In an utterance, the expression of TT and the expression of TSit cannot both be independently p-definite.
Klein ε٤Ƹ뤳ȤϤǤʤĥ Present Perfect Puzzle ϡˤϤʤˤȤȤ˵ƤʸϡŪ꤬ΤǤϤʤŪ˥ʥϤƤΤǤ롥"p-definite constraint" ϡΥѥȤǤǤϤʤ㤨 *Today, four times four makes sixteen. ʤƤʤΤʤ뤤ϥʥˤǤ롥Ǥϡư makes (TT) Today (TSit) ξΩơߤλɽ路Ƥ (p-definite) ˡŪʸȤʤΤȤ
"p-definiteness constraint" ϡ⤦1ĤΥѥβƤǤ롥
Klein, Wolfgang. "The Present Perfect Puzzle." Language 68 (1992): 525--52.
äϵɽ֤礦áʤäƤäפۤɤȤƤ Jesus 롥God goddamn ʤɤƱͤͤդǤꡤ餫˽Ū̾˵Ĥ줬ȤȤ˸ɸ (pragmatic marker) ؤȯŸΤǤ롥ޤǤʤ Jesus ϿλҥꥹȤؤ"Jesus, please help me." Τ褦Ūòʸ̮Ǥ⤷ФѤ줿Ȥ顤ꡤͤξ̤̩ܤ˴طŤ褦ˤʤäη̡ñȤǴȤѤ˻ꡤˡȤƤϡϤ䥤ꥹȤؼ뵡ǽϤƴǤ롥ʸ̮Ƿ֤Ѥ뤳ȤˤꡤθθŪʴްդߤĤѲ (pragmaticalisation) Ǥ롥ʲJucker and Taavitsainen (134--38) ˵äơθݤƤߤ褦
λؼòˤƤӤƴȤƤ Jesus ˡΥǡϡʲʸˤ궦Ūˤⴶ뤳ȤǤ (qtd. in Jucker and Taavitsainen 134)
I went through the motions, but I still prayed to Jesus at night, still went to church. (COCA, ABC_20/20, 2010)
Oh, Jesus please bless her. Here goes another one, little lady. (COCA, CNN_King, 1997)
He flicks on the TV. Nothing. Goddamn box. Not even plugged in. Jesus. He can't be prowling around looking for a socket. Shit. (COCA, Gologorsky, Beverly. The things we do to make it home, 1999)
űѸǤ⥤ؼꡤòꤹΤ Iesus θ줬ѤƤŪʸ̮˸¤ƤѸǤϤǤŪʸ̮ѤƤ롥㤨С1377ǯˤ "Bi iesus, with here ieweles, howre iustices she shendeth." ȤꡤѲƻؤƻǤǤ뤳Ȥ롥ѲǶ̤ƤΤüԤα̿벿ԤؤʤǤꡤμԤȤϿäꡤ̤μԤäꡤ̿äꤹ櫓
ѸǤϡͤդȤƤ Jesus ˡΤˤʤäƤ뤬Ǥ⸵ˡȤζܤۣϿ¿Jucker and Taavitsainen (136) ϡۣΰޤθѲƻڤͶƳ (invited_inference) δƤ롥
The expression is regularly used with both the original meaning of religious invocation and the invited inference that the speaker also wants to communicate a certain amount of surprise and annoyance, and, therefore, the invited inference becomes part of the coded meaning of the expression, while the original meaning is increasingly backgrounded.
Ѳβϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ѳ (subjectification) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤꡤº Jesus ηФѲϡüԤδ褦ˤʤäǼѲȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤòθƤӤȤʸƬ˸䤹Ȥʸ¾ǤΩ¥첽䤷ʤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤǤ롥
Jucker, Andreas H. and Irma Taavitsainen. English Historical Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
may ˤĤơ#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1])#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1])#2478. may ȴ let ȯã ([2016-02-08-1]) ǰäƤˤĤơǶᡤʸ줿Ѹ may ʸγΩϡűѸμ˸ŪװѤ߽Ťʤä̤ǤꡤīͼäΤǤϤʤȤݤŪʻƱäǤ롥
ξܺ٤ˤϿʤ (82) may ʸǤޤǡפꤹǿŪʬѤ롥
a. STAGE 1: OE ?
I wish that NP-Nom[inative]. + V-S[u]BJ[unctive]. ̽°
... (so) that NP-Nom. + V-SBJ. ̽°
b. STAGE 2: OE ?
NP-Nom. + V-SBJ. ̼͡ex) God bless you!
X + V-SBJ. + NP-Nom. ̼͡ex) Long live the Queen!
c. STAGE 3: Late OE ?
I wish that NP-Nom. + MAY + Inf[initive]. ̽°
... (so) that NP-Nom. + MAY + Inf. ̽°
d. STAGE 4: ME ? *EModE/ME ?
NP-Nom. + MAY/MIGHT + Inf. ̼͡ex) Thy voyce may sounde in mine eres.
*X + NP-Nom. + MAY/MIGHT + Inf. ̼ ex) from dyssese he may us saue.
X + MAY/MIGHT + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼͡ex) ai mighte he liven.
Cf. (X) + MOTE + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼ ex) mote þu wel færen
Cf. LET + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼͡ex) late we hine welden his folc ...
e. STAGE 5: EModE ?
MAY + NP-Nom. + Inf. ̼͡ex) May the force be with you!
Ϣή˴ؤäƤװϡưν°ˡȸ硤³ˡѤˡ³ˡѤȤƤνư may ȯãνư motan εˡαƶlet ʸȤ䡤"pragmatic particle" ȤƤ may Ȥθȯãʤ¿ˤ錄롥餬ʣ߹礤1Ĥħˡޤ줿ȤʥꥪˡѸˤ˱Ѹؤ̣롥
ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ
#1867. May the Queen live long! θ ([2014-06-07-1]) κǸǿ줿褦ˡmay ʸ let ʸˤ롥Ūˤκǽ˸Ȥ˳Ūľ3;μ뤳ȤǤŪˤϵꡦȤ̣ǻ̤äȯù٤ôȤǤ롥Ǹλ̤äƤ˴ؤƤСȯù٤⡤űѸ줫ѸˤŵŪư³ˡˤäɽ路Ȥ롥̻Ūˤϡmay ˤ let ˤ衤³ˡưѤ̳뱪ˡΩŪʤȤơꥢϤ櫓Τ˻Ѥ경гơȴȤȯù٤ɸޡʤ "pragmatic particle" ȤƵǽ˻ämay let ŪȤƱ˰ȤȯۤϡεǸڤ Quirk et al. Τߤʤ餺Ѹ椷Ƥ Rissanen (229) ˤäƤ⼨Ƥʾp. 82 ⻲ȡˡ
The optative subjunctive is often replaced by a periphrasis with may and the hortative subjunctive with let:
(229) 'A god rewarde you,' quoth this roge; 'and in heauen may you finde it.' ([HC] Harman 39)
(230) Let him love his wife even as himself: That's his Duty. ([HC] Jeremy Taylor 24)
Note the variation between the subjunctive rewarde and the periphrastic may . . . finde in (229).
Of these two periphrases, the one replacing hortative subjunctive seems to develop more rapidly: in Marlow, at the end of the sixteenth century, the hortative periphrasis clearly outnumbers the subjunctive, particularly in the 1 st pers. pl. . ., while the optative periphrasis is less common than the subjunctive.
Rissanen ϡmay let ѤŪꡦˡȯãƱ˰äƤ뤬ξԤߤ˱ƶäɤˤƧ߹ǤʤȯãκˤĤƸڤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ԤȯãԤȯãˤ¥ʤ줿ȤߤƤǽϤ뤷ʤȤ Rissanen ȤƤ뾾 (82) ϤΤ褦˲ᤷƤ褦ΰ̴طִطˤĤƤϤܺ٤Ĵɬפ츫Ȥޤǰۤʤˤߤ may let ѡʾ˲η뾽ȤƸƶ٤ࡥ
ϢƵ may ˤĤƤϡ#2256. ɽ魯 may ν ([2015-07-01-1]) let's δּѲˤĤƤϡ#1981. ּѲ ([2014-09-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rissanen, Matti. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.
ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ
ǼĤˤ "It is . . . that . . . ." ηʬʸ (cleft sentence)붯ĴʸˤˤĤƼ䤬줿ˤĤơʲΤ褦ơ˲
ʬʸʤ붯ĴʸˤȯŸ䡤Ǵ֤ŪפοܤˤĤƤϡʣʷаޤȼ⤬ꡤǤǤޤΤϸűѸ줫餢ꡤˤ it Τߤʤ餺 that 䥼ѤƤޤѸˤʬʸȤݤŪʴˤ餺̻ŪʴʬϤΤǤСthat ϴطǤꡤit ϤԻǤȽҤ٤ƤȻפޤĤޤꡤ"It is father that did it." ȤʸǤС֤٤ȤΤΡǤפȤȤˤʤޤͤǤʤ it ѤΤ̯ʴϤޤ"Who is it?" it ʤɤǤȻפޤʸűѸǤƱǤˡȤ "It is I that am wrong." ˤߤ褦ˡthat ԻʸƬ It ǤϤʤľ I Ǥ뤫Τ褦ʰפ˻ޤʾ塤ޤơβǤ
ˤĤơٹ (245--46) Τ褦Ƥ롥
դѤ줿 It is... μط̾줬ʤǤȤνʸˤư It is I that am wrong. Τ褦ˤФȿ;οǰפ롥ȤС
It is you who make dress pretty, and not dress that makes you pretty.---Eliot
But it's backwaters that make the main stream. ---Galsworthy.
It is not I that bleed---Binyon.
ϺɤʸˡȤǤ⡤餯ȿФΤϤʤǤ that Ի餫 It Ǥ롥ǤϤʤΰˡԤʤ뤫ȤСάIt ʸˡη that ԻǤϤ뤱ɤ⡤ٸԤǾˤϤäƤߤСϷ褷Ƽ˴ޤޤư⤷Ͼ֤ʤɤμ礿ΤΤǤϤʤʤ It is I that am wrong. ȸȤԤǾˤ¤ I am wrong. ˤۤʤʤǤ롥
ٹ p. 246 ǡե "Nous, nous n'avons pas dit cela." "Ce n'est pas nous qui avons dit cela." 2ĤζĴηˤƤ⡤嵭ƱȤȤƤ롥Ϣơ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) ȡ
βκǸ˽Ҥ٤ȤϡˤβŪפͼѲƤȤȤǤ롥̤δߤС衤ŪʷȤƽȯΤĴȤŪŪôʤȤȯãη̤ȤơŪפͼѲˤ餵줿ΤȲǤ뤫⤷ʤٹμĥʸˤƷ֤СüԤƬˤ did it ʤ٤ˤΤ餫 father ˤȤǰ뤷wrong ʴְäƤˤΤ餫 I ȤǰϤǤ롥椨ˡδǰ¨Ūפ褦ˤʤäΤơѸޤǤˡΰפͼŪʷΤΤŪʵǽ̤¤ȤƳΩƤΤǤ롥
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ɸ ethnomethodology ʥΥɥˤϡ1967ǯ˥ꥫμҲؼ Harold Garfinkel κФѸǤꡤ쥳ߥ˥˴ؤҲŪʥץؤäδäȤʤ뵬ϡꡤQõ뤳ȤŪȤ롥 (anthropological linguistics)Ҳ (sociolinguistics)ʬ (conversation analysis)٤̱² (ethnography_of_speaking) ʤɤΰȽŤʤʬꡤغŪʬǤ롥Trudgill μҲѸ켭ŵꡤϢ4ĤѸβͿ
ethnomethodology A branch of sociology which has links with certain sorts of sociolinguistics such as conversation analysis because of its use of recorded conversational material as data. Most ethnomethodologists, however, are generally not interested in the language of conversation as such but rather in the content of what is said. They study not language or speech, but talk. In particular, they are interested in what is not said. They focus on the shared common-sense knowledge speakers have of their society which they can leave unstated in conversation because it is taken for granted by all participants.
ethnography of speaking A branch of sociolinguistics or anthropological linguistics particularly associated with the American scholar Dell Hymes. The ethnography of speaking studies the norms and rules for using language in social situations in different cultures and is thus clearly important for cross-cultural communication. The concept of communicative competence is a central one in the ethnography of speaking. Crucial topics include the study of who is allowed to speak to who --- and when; what types of language are to be used in different contexts; how to do things with language, such as make requests or tell jokes; how much indirectness it is normal to employ; how often it is usual to speak, and how much one should say; how long it is permitted to remain silent; and the use of formulaic language such as expressions used for greeting, leave-taking and thanking.
ethnography of communication A term identical in reference to ethnography of speaking, except that nonverbal communication is also included. For example, proxemics --- the study of factors such as how physically close to each other speakers may be, in different cultures, when communicating with one another --- could be discussed under this heading.
conversation analysis An area of sociolinguistics with links to ethnomethodology which analyses the structure and norms of conversation in face-to-face interaction. Conversation analysts look at aspects of conversation such as the relationship between questions and answers, or summonses and responses. They are also concerned with rules for conversational discourse, such as those involving turn-taking; with conversational devices such as discourse markers; and with norms for participating in conversation, such as the rules for interruption, for changing topic, for overlapping between one speaker and another, for remaining silent, for closing a conversation, and so on. In so far as norms for conversational interaction may vary from society to society, conversation analysis may also have links with cross-cultural communication and the ethnography of speaking. By some writers it is opposed to discourse analysis.
ethnomethodology ϡεǽ (function_of_language) Ȥˤ⵿ꤲ롥ȤΤϡethnomethodology ϡߥ˥ƻȤƤǤϤʤŤƻȤƤȤ館뤫Wardhaugh (272) ۩"people use language not only to communicate in a variety of ways, but also to create a sense of order in everyday life."
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Ѹˤˤ thou you λȤʬ T/V distinction ˤĤƤϡ#1126. 衼åѤμˤ T/V distinction ε ([2012-05-27-1]) #1127. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ ([2012-05-28-1]) t/v_distinction γƵǼ夲Ƥ
2;ʣ̾ηɾñȤƤˡϡ4ΥФ vos λѤ˻Ϥޤꡤ12 Chrétien de Troyes ʤɤˤեФơѸؤϤ餯13ꡤ1600ǯˤϴѤȤƺդƤ17˿ƾñ thou ϿषϤᡤɸѸǤ18ѤȤʤäJohnson (261) 嵭Ūаޤ¤˼ݤ褯ޤȤƤΤǡΤޤްѤ
IN LATIN THE EMPEROR, representing in his person the power and glory of his predecessors, was addressed with vos in the fourth century A.D. By the fifth century, this pronoun was commonly employed to indicate respect. In French by the time of Chrétien de Troyes, vous was not only given to superiors but was also interchanged by equals. In Latin and French works of twelfth-century England, the plural pronoun had been used as a singular by, for example, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Wace, and Marie de France. The practice of using ye and you (the "you-singular") instead of thou and thee (the "thou-singular") apparently spread to English during the thirteenth century and by about 1600 had become established in polite usage. For some time thereafter, however, the thou-singular continued to appear in emotional or intimate speech and in the discourse of superiors to inferiors and of the members of the lower class to one another. Gradually decreasing in use, it became obsolete in the standard language in the eighteenth century and now appears only in poetry and the address of the deity or among Quakers and those who speak a dialect.
Johnson ϡthou οह17˾ơεʤ罰ե47ʤѥȤơyou thou ʬۤ٤Ĵоʪ̤˾ήήήʬषʲΤ褦̤ (Johnson 265)
| 1600--1649 | You | Thou | You* | Thou* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper Class | 5,851 | 2,664 | 64.36 | 35.64 |
| Middle Class | 2,807 | 629 | 81.40 | 18.60 |
| Lower Class | 2,385 | 470 | 83.47 | 16.53 |
| 1650--1699 | ||||
| Upper Class | 10,853 | 2,353 | 81.40 | 18.60 |
| Middle Class | 3,145 | 574 | 81.77 | 18.23 |
| Lower Class | 2,849 | 317 | 88.32 | 11.68 |
| * In percent. |
The historical uses of the you-singular, as in respect or irony, and of the thou-singular, as in emotion or intimacy, to an inferior, or in the exchange of the members of the lower class, are exemplified in the various texts throughout the era. However, further demonstrating the meaninglessness of the distinction between them, you may frequently be found in circumstances where thou might be expected to occur, and, at times, thou where we should expect to find you.
Johnson, Anne Carvey. "The Pronoun of Direct Address in Seventeenth-Century English." American Speech 41 (1966): 261--69.
#2248. ;̾ȤƤ you ([2015-06-23-1]) Ǽ夲ȴϢơŤ2;ñ̾ thou ΰŪʿͤؼˡȯãΤϤĤȤ夲롥εǤ줿褦ˡOED Ǥ thou ˤĤƤΤ褦ʸʬबʤƤ餺ΤʤȤϸʤMED Ǥ͡ʸƤ롥ǤŤȤƵƤΤϡűѸȤäƤ褤ʸǤ롥a1150 (OE) Vsp.D.Hom. (Vsp D.14) 3/18: Þonne þu oðerne mann tæle, þonne geðænc þu þæt nan man nis lehterleas.
ۤƱ餤ᤤȤơ?a1160 Peterb. Chron. (LdMisc 636) an. 1137: Hi..brendon alle the tunes ðæt wel þu myhtes faren all a dæis fare sculdest thu neure finden man in tune sittende ne land tiled. Ƥ뤬ʸĤƤϡŤʸ Koziol (173) ڤƤ롥
Die Bedeutung des thou in Sprichwörtern und allgemeinen Regeln kommt einem »man« zumindest sehr nahe; es wendet sich nicht an einen bestimmten Menschen, sondern an jeden. Im Neuenglischen ist ja der entsprechende Gebrauch von you (oder they) sehr häufig. Daß früher thou die gleiche allgemeine Bedeutung haben konnte, geht aus Stellen wie der folgenden aus der Sachsenchronik 1137 hervor: hi . . . brendon alle the tunes, đ wel þu myhtes faren al a dæis fare, sculdest thu neure finden man in tune sittende. N. Bøgholm führt außer diesem noch ein Beispiel aus altenglischer Zeit an. Das OED verzeichnet diesen Gebrauch nicht.
ΰѤˤС˸űѸ줫㤬ꤽȤȤ2;̾ؤ̿;ΤؤˡγĥϸŪˤǤϤʤäȤǤϤʤƱĥ˻˵äƤȤǽ餢ʸŪˤϡ㤬Ĥɤʸڤ줿ΤȤȤˤʤ롥ƱˡεȯãϻĤ뤬ߤ̤Ѥ2;̾;Τɽ魯ˡ٤ѤäȤƤűѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤǤ˳ǧ줿Ȥ¤ˡˤĹȸŪΰüߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
H. Koziol, "Die Anredeform bei Chaucer." Englische Studien 75 (1942): 170--74.
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1]) ǡKoch and Oesterreicher ͭ̾ʡֶᤤȤСפȡֱȤСפΥǥҲ𤷤ϡѰ (register) ˴Ϣơäդդʤɤä (medium) ȡʹˡӥ塼ʤɤäξ (field of discourse) ȤߤˤɤΤ褦ϢưƤ뤫1ĤΥǥǤʻѰˤĤƤϡ#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ˸ˤڵȴϢơ#2001. ˸ˤǡ ([2014-10-19-1]) Ǥ⡤äΤȾʤ뤤ϥˤδطɽ魯ΤȤơJucker ˤޤ
Ϥ⤦1ĻѤ Svartvik and Leech (200) ˤ "A spectrum of usage linking speech with writing" Ƴ褦
'Typical speech'
Face-to face conversation
Telephone conversation
Personal letters
Interviews
Spontaneous speeches
Romantic fiction
Prepared speeches (such as lectures)
Mystery and adventure fiction
Professional letters
News broadcasts
Science fiction
Newspaper editorials
Biographies
Newspaper reporting
Academic writing
Official documents
'Typical writing'
ɸϡĹ餯ˤʤäƤ뵿Ǥ롥Ѹ̿ʸǤ̾̾ you ά롥ؼоݤΤˤꡤĴΤ you 뤳ȤϤˤ衤ŵŪˤϾάΤ롼Ǥ롥ϸűѸǤѸǤƱ
Ūˤ͡ʹͤ̿ʸǼ̾䤦ȡʿʸȤŪʶ̤ȤȤ뤫⤷ʤϡ̿2;ñľˡ߷Ʊ֤ĤȤȤϢʤűѸǤ2;ñФƤϡ̿ľˡ߷ϰۤʤΤ̤ǤꡤŪ˶̤ƤˡǤϤɤΤ褦˰ƤΤǰʤ顤ϲʹˤΤʤ
Ūʵ⤢㤨С᤹̿оݤ2;ΤǤ뤳ȤϼǤ뤫顤̿ʸˤƼ߲ɬפʤȤǽ⤷ʤҲδϡ (125) ϡֱѸϼդĤάʤ̿ʸλϾά롥μʤ̿ᤵ줿ͤˤάʸˡϡݥ饤ȥͥȥƥΤȤ褦פȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϣơϡ̿ʸʳǤ you ǤϤʤ̿;̾ one ѤϤ뤫ǫǤȤҤ٤Ƥꡤ̿ʸǤμά negative politeness δΤŪʰ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
ݥ饤ȥͥˤϡѸζŪˤȤɤޤäƤȤߤʤ٤⤷ʤȤΤϡѸǤϡ̾ź̿ʸΤۤǫäȤŦ뤫Fennell (165) ۩". . . in Early Modern English constructions such as Go you, Take thou were possible and appear to have been more polite than imperatives without pronouns."
Ѹ̿Ȥ٤˴Ϣݥ饤ȥͥȥƥȤƤϡI pray you, Prithee, I do require that, I do beseech you, so please your lordship, I entreat you, If you will give me leave ʤ͡ʤΤ¸ߤϢʤ please 17ݥ饤ȥͥΰռ͡ȿǤ줿λˡषդ̿ʸΥȥƥ1ĤȤƵǽǽȤȤ϶̣嵭ˤϡ褯Ƥ⸽ѸμάŪˤȤɤޤꡤ̻ŪͭϤ⤿ʤ
ˤĤƤϡͤƤ
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) εʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸȤ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ
I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.
ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.
macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥
Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
Grice ζĴθ (cooperative_principle) ȲŪް (implicature) ˤĤơ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1])#1133. Ĵθι ([2012-06-03-1])#1134. ĴθˤȤ ([2012-06-04-1])#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ ([2014-10-02-1]) ʤɤεˤƤGrice ϸ˳̿⤿餷θθοŸˤ礭ʱƶڤܤʤǤ⿷饤 (Neo-Gricean) ˤȯŸܤͤ롥
饤ɤ Laurence R. Horn ϡGrice ε4Ĥθ (Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner) 2ĤθؤȺQ[uantity]-principle R[elation]-principle ȤǤ롥ξ꼰ϡʲ̤Ǥ (Huang 38 )
Horn's Q- and R-principles
a. The Q-principle
Make your contribution sufficient;
Say as much as you can (given the R-principle)
b. The R-principle
Make your contribution necessary;
Say no more than you must (given the Q-principle)
Q-principle Ϥ¿ξ褦Ȥ븶ǤꡤR-principle Ϥ꾯ʤǺѤޤ褦Ȥ븶Ǥ롥δϡäθȤξΤ礤ˤۤʤʤˤϸѤˤ "most effective, least effort" λۤȿǤƤꡤѤηкŪʸǤ른åפˡ§Zipf's Lawcf. #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])ˤȤط롥Huang (39--40) ۩
Viewing the Q- and R-principles as mere instantiations of Zipfian economy . . ., Horn explicitly identified the Q-principle ('a hearer-oriented economy for the maximization of informational content') with Zipf's Auditor's Economy (the Force of Diversification) and the R-principle ('a speaker-oriented economy for the minimization of linguistic form') with Zipf's Speaker's Economy (the Force of Unification).
ợѲɽŪʼȤơ̲ (generalization) ü첽 (specialization) 롥줾ζϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ǵ̤Ǥꡤ֤ʤǤϡ̣ΰ̲ü첽饤ɤθΩ줫顤줾 R-principle Q-principle бΤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤܤ
줬̣ΰ̲Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮¿ʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤Ͼʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ΰ̲ȤϾ̤ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡɬǾ¤ξͿФ褤Ȥ R-principleʤä¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ
ǡ줬̣ü첽Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮Ͼʤʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤礭ʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ü첽ȤϾ̤礭ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡǤ¿ξͿ褦Ȥ Q-principleʤʹ¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ (Luján 293--95)
Τ褦ʤȤ館ϡ̣ѲˤĤƸΩ줫ǤǽƤ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
ƾθ (address term) ϡɸȤƥݥ饤ȥͥ٤Ĵ뵡ǽʹִطεΥĴ뵡ǽäƤ롥ƾθϡ#1564. face ([2013-08-08-1]) εǤ줿褦ˡ̻ (face) ºŤά1ĤǤ⤢롥
ƾθˤ͡ʤΤ뤬礭ʬ negative face ؤλظַɾη (derefential type) positive face ؤλظζְη (familiar type) ŪʡΩ (neutral type) 3郎롥ݥ饤ȥͥɸ¤٤ȡRaumolin-Brunberg Ȥ̾ (80) ˤȤꡤΤ褦˿Ǥ롥

鱦ؤߤƤȡɾηˤ Sir Τ褦ʷɾ (honorific) Mr. Smith Τ褦ʸ̾ʤɤ롥Ωˤ woman ʤɤ (generic) captain ʤɤο̾ (occupational) 롥ηˤ Smith Τ褦̾ (surname) John Τ褦̾ (first name)friend Τ褦ͧ (familiariser)uncle ʤɤο² (kinship term)dear ʤɤΰ (endearment) 롥
ФбѸˤϷɸ줬ʤȤ뤬ܸηɸηϤбΤʤǤꡤ#1034. ѸˤɰդŪʡ ([2012-02-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦˱ѸʤԶɽ˭٤¸ߤ롥嵭αѸθƾθ⡤ɸϢ³ΤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤ̯ʷɰդʹִطȤǽˤƤ롥ѸǤܸʾ˸ƾθäˤ˿뤬ϱѸ줬ܸȤϰۤʤάˤäƥݥ饤ȥͥƤȤȤˤۤʤʤ
ǯ˸Ω줫顤Ѹθƾθʬ̻ۤŪܤʤɤ椵ƤƤ롥̻ŪӸ䶦ŪоȸʤɡΤơޤǤ롥Ϣ뵭ȤƤϡaddress_term title ȡ
̾ ҡֽѸˡħס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ77--104ǡ
ݥ饤ȥͥνפƻΩƤȤơ#1564. face ([2013-08-08-1]) ȤǰŻ뤵Ƥface work εǤϡ̻Ҥ١face-threatening act (FTA) ܤ졤͡˸椵褦ˤʤäƤ
FTA ˤϡ(1) positive face Ρ(2) negative face Ρ(3) ξΤ롥(1) ˤԻȽסΤʤɡ(2) ˤϽ̿ᡤᡤơٹʤɡ(3) ˤǡҤʤɤ롥ϼȤʹ̻Ҥ٤ä꼫̻ҤΤ⤢롥㤨С줿ꡤհդɽꡤȤ٤ϡä̻Ҥ˴ؤ٤Ǥ롥
͡ FTA 롤뤤Ϥθ̤¤餲뤿ˡ͡ʸŪŪάѤĤǤ롥Huang (117) ˷ǺܤƤ "Brown and Levinson's (1987: 60) set of FTA-avoiding strategies" οޤϡάʬषΤǤ롥Ѥޤ

̻Ҥǽ⤤٤ǤФۤɡ¤餲뤿ˤǺάᤵ롥οޤǤС˹ԤйԤ̻ۤҤٹ礤⤯¤餲뤿ά٤ˤʤ롥Сˤ5άǤⵤΤάȤʤꡤˤ1άǤ֤äܤάṲ̄Ͼ
ͧͤ˹ֵΡȤߤƤ餤Ȥꤷ褦οޤά1?5бΤϡ㤨мΤ褦ʸǤHuang 118)
1. On record, without redress, baldly:
Lend me your lecture notes.
2. On record, with positive politeness redress:
How about letting me have a look at your lecture notes?
3. On record, with negative politeness redress:
Could you please lend me your lecture notes?
4. Off record:
I didn't take any notes for the last lecture.
5. Don't perform the FTA:
[John silently looks at Mary's lecture notes.]
15˸äơ̻Ҥݤĸ̤ι⤤Τǫɽ٤ȤʤäƤΤ狼ŪˡŪɽ٤ۤFTA ¤餲̤롥դΤϡά1ɬά2ʹߤ٤ƥݥ饤ȤǤϤʤȤϸڤʤȤɤˤϡषά3Τ褦ɽϤ褽褽ά2䡤Ȥˤά1Ǥ顤դ路ɽȤʤ롥Τ褦ʾǤϡषꤢ餵ޤ᤹Ȥά˾ޤΤȤʤ롥
ͤƤߤȡͤȿͤήƤȤˤϡĤǤߤFTAԤäƤ롤Ĥޤ̻ҤƤȤäƤǤϤʤȤȤϡή߳ˤ뤿FTA롤뤤¤餲ά⡤ŸƤȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦άϤȤ˼Ԥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬¿ξ礽ʤΤǤꡤȤȤ˸ή߳ήƤ椯Τ褦ʿʹ֤ɤʣʹưȾ̵ռ˹ԤƤȤȤϡä٤ȤǤ롥FTAάפȤϤʤȤͥƥָߤ face ϡ (face-saving act or FSA?) ȤȤ館Сο͡αĤߤݥƥ˴롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Ѥθˤơʹäȯȯäȼ̣Ūʰ̣ξˡƥ (context) ʤɤȤŪʰ̣ղäơΤȤƤΰ̣İȹͤƤ롥ƥȻȤΤۤˤⶨĴθ§ްդʤɼθŪ黻˰͵ựΤȤ館ƤΤꤵ뤬ǤϥƥȤŪʤäơμʬषƤ
쿹 (13--15) ˤСȯäȼƥ (context) 뤤Ͼ (situation) ˤ4Ĥ̤Ȥ
(1) ȯþ (utterance situation) 뤤ʪŪ (physical environment) ȯäԤƤ֡ꡥüԤưۤʤɤΥΥСХ롦ߥ˥㤨СȯäƤΤīդˤ Good morning. Good evening. ǰ夨ɬפȯäƤ˱ here there λؼоݤѰۤ롥ޤʪʤ I'll pour. ȸȤʪŪ餫ʤΤǡưŪά뤳ȤǽǤ롥
(2) þ (discourse situation) ä夹ȯäϢ³ΤǤꡤήΤʤ٤ब롥ȯäȤ̾Ƥꡤά줿䤦褦ʤȡޤɸ (discourse marker) ä餫δطǷƯǡþҴǤ롥
(3) ǧξ (cognitive environment) ˤĤƤäꡤʹξƤξΤɤʬߤδ֤ǶͭƤ뤫ȤäȤ˴ؤǧξס쿹p. 14ˡʤɤι٤ʸŪѤǤϡФʹˤɴʻŵŪμ˭٤˵롥㤨СäΤʤǰ츫ؼоݤΤʤ she Ѥ줿硤֤ǺäƤؤƤǽ롥
(4) ҲŪ (social environment) ƾθ (address term) ɸޤݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness) ɽϡäʹμҲŪʴط狼äƤʤС뤳ȤǤʤ
ȯäϤǰ̣ŪƽäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿ͤ˭٤ʥƥȤϤȤƸŪˤϤƤ롥ˤ⼨θŪϤȤ櫓ľܤ˴ͿΤľ (deixis) ɽ;λؼ줬ŵ㤨 this ȤؼƤϡȯþþǧξΤ줫ȤʤǤʤѸ thou ϡȯþҲŪθˤǤʤ
쿹 ְ̣ΥƥȰ¸סظ١翮סԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ13--32ǡ
ɸ2Ĥθؤʬϡ20Ⱦ鸽ߤˤĹƤΰǤ롥2Ĥϸߤ˴ϢȤ¿㤨зɸ T/V distinction ϤȤݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness)ƾθ (address term)ȯù (speech act) ȤäϡҲؤȸδؿǤ롥ξԤߤ˾Ƥ뤳դΰľܤ˻ؤƾΤϤʤߥҲءߺѤμҲءҲʤɤȸƤФʬμϰϤȽŤʤȤ礭
ˤȡ̸ϸѸؤȼҲʬ롥ԤθѸؤˤϼҲŪǤԤμҲˤϤ줬ǻǤꡤ餬ܵδؿǤҲؤȸΥե롥ʬ˽СȤäƤ⡤˼ҲȲ餫Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤȤˤʤ롥Ĥۤ (10) ͿƤΰ̸ʬޤƷǤ롥
̸
ʸˡ Ѹ Ҳ μҲء
ط ط
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ǯΤ˸ΤʤǰäƤǰ1Ĥˡּ (periphery) 롥μϳŪƤ褤ΤˤȯäξüʬȤȤ館Ƥȯäκü LP (left periphery)ü RP (right periphery) ȸƤФ졤ŪˤȤ櫓פʵǽ̤ݥȤ롥εǽȤϡŪˤϡñľΰտޤ롤ؤΥݥ饤ȥͥޤθžóϤʤɤι٤ޤޤʾ, p. 16ˡ
˸μ礿ؿǤɸ (discourse_marker) ϡΤ˼˸뤳Ȥ¿ɸŪˤϡȯä (bracket an utterance) ǽͭȤ뤬˸뤳ȤϡŪŬäƤȹͤ롥LP RP ξ¦鶴߹褦ˤơ֤פȤϡ줫ΤߤѤ뤳Ȥºݤˤ¿褦Ǥ롥
ǤϡLP ǤϤɤΤ褦ɸ¾ɽѤ뷹Τ뤤ϤɤΤ褦ʸŪǽ̤뤳Ȥ¿ΤޤRP ǤϤɤʤΤޤ̸Ūˤߤ硤"form-function-periphery mapping" ʾp. 17ˤδطˤĤƲ餫ϤޤܤƤʤޤǤθʬäƤȤϤĤ롥 (17--20) ꡤ3Ҳ𤷤褦
(1) LP ˤϡ³礿ʬ뤿ǧŪȤͿ֤䤹ηȤϡɸѸ if ⡤ɥĸ wenn ⡤ܱڥڥʬȥԥå--ȹ¤ΥȥԥåʬʤɤǤ롥ä꤬Ȥ˲餫ȤƤξȤȤ館롥
(2) LP RP ξý (turn-taking) ˴ؤäƤ롥äΤȤˤơȯäΥХȥäϡLP ˤýäȤꡤХȥϤȤˤ RP ˤý뤳Ȥ롥
(3) LP ˤϡ줫ԤüԤι٤Ǥ뤫Τ餻뵡ǽ롥СLP ֤ɸηϡäιٹ¤ (action structure) ʤ̤ɥĸüԤ줫Ҥ٤褦ȤȿаոΤ餻 obwohl 䡤ܸüԤäγϤ֤Ǥפʤɤ°롥
(1), (2), (3) Ϥ줾ϰۤʤ뤬ȯäפȤŪǽ̤Ƥ롥ǡ(1), (2), (3) ̸ĤθŪǽȤϡ줾줬ߤ˾Ϣ³ΤΤ褦ˤפ롥㤨СѸ Excuse me, but . . . ܸΡ֤ߤޤפ LP ˸졤(1) (3) ʤ (2) ⡩ˤεǽƱ˲̤ƤȹͤʤּפȤϡ⤷ǰƤ
ŵҡɸʸˡᤰȡּפȤͤס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ3--27ǡ
#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1])#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1])#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1])#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡʸˡθ椬ʤˤĤơʸˡΤΤΤȤ館ѲƤŪʡֶȡŪֹȤ̤롥ʲTraugott (59--61) ˽äƾҲ𤹤롥
ֶˤСʸˡȤϽ̾ (reduction) Ǥ롥θϼȤƷŪʴΤΤǤꡤʸˡȤϹ¤ȷν̾Ѱ (scope) ν̾ư¸طääƤħŤȤ롥θ Meillet ̤ꡤƥʬŪ dare habes ޥṲ̄ؤѲʤɤŵȤ롥§ʸˡΤǤС֤빽ʸޤΰ궯Ū¸طĤ褦ˤʤŪѲפȤȤˤʤTraugott 60)
ǽŪʴȤ櫓ŪʴʸˡߤäƤˤäơʸˡȤϤषĥ (extension) ǤȤͤޤäƤ3ΥƥȳĥƤ롥1ĤϥŪĥǤꡤ㤨 be going to ?뤿˹Ԥˤ̤ɽưˤʤäˤƤϡʸˡˤĤƸ³ưμबäȤΤƤ롥ֹԤפȤɺ (bleaching) 뤳Ȥˤꡤlike think ʤɤưȤ⼫ͳ˶뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤä2ܤϷŪĥǤ롥ؼ줬괧ʸˡ硤ǽϼŪΰ֤ΤŪǤꡤ֤֡ɽˤޤdzĥΤʸˡβʤǤΤȤ¿3ܤϰ̣ŪĥǤ롥ʸˡФϡ֤ȤȤ¿¿ǽˤʤ뤳Ȥ¿㤨Сư can ϡΤäƤפȤưΰ̣ȯǤǽϡġǽʤɤ¿¿ǽȯã˻ä
嵭Ρֶʸˡȡֹʸˡϡ줾ȿФƤ褦Ǥʤ顤¤ƱɽǤ롥ԤϷŪʴԤϵǽŪʴܤƤȤ㤤ˤʤ̣ɺ (bleaching) 뤤æ̣ (desemanticization) ˤĤƤ⡤濴˹ͤн̾ (reduction) ȤȤ館뤬ǿ˳ŪǥŪʰ̣ʻꡤʡϢʤɡˤ濴˹ͤгĥ (extension) ȤȤ館롥Ūʰ̣γȤϡСּ³ (procedural) ˡγǤꡤˤȯäϤΤɬפȤʤο任뤳ȤǽȤʤȤǡŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤۤʤʤˤơʸˡȸӤĤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ǯʸˡѲּѲʤɤѸ䳵ǰΩƤ줾줬ߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤϤޤ餫ˤƤʤʬŪ˽Ťʤ礦ȤϤ狼äƤƤꡤ碌ƤȤˤꡤŪʰ̣Ѳʤ뤤ϸѲˤβˤĤʤΤǤϤʤȤԤ롥
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs ˡʡˡʸˡȡʴ֡˼Ѳס˸硡Υߥ˥١ʹ ԡ̾ ҡ ŵҡˡˡ罤ۡ2011ǯ59--70ǡ
˸ǤϡμήɸؤϼŪȤߤʤ褦꤬ɽΩġɸ (discourse marker) (interjection) (insert) ȸƤФ⡤ǯˤ狼˵ӸӤ褦ˤʤäѸ˸Ǥ⡤well please um 褦䤯ޤȤ˰褦ˤʤä
θˤ͡ʬλꡤ줷ƾΤʤᤷ˻ͽǻȤƤѸƤߤȡ"discourse marker" "interjection" Τۤˤ "discourse particle", "mystery particle", "implicit anchoring device" ʤ͡Ǥ (Jucker and Taavitsainen 55) θηϲ褦ȤߤΰĤ Jucker and Taavitsainen (56) ˤ "Inserts and pragmatic noise" οޤ롥ԹǾѤΤʲ˼

οޤˤ "Inserts", "Pragmatic noise", "Discourse markers", "Primary interjections", "Secondary interjections", "Words", "Vocalisations" ʤɤѸ줬ФƤꡤ줾ζܤۣ˼Ƥ뤬 Jucker and Taavitsainen θŪʽǽץȥŪˤߤƤ뤫Ǥ롥
ޤޤ礭ʬ롥ޤΤ褽¦ Inserts ϡ¾ʻεǽͭƤΤ¿¼Ūʰ̣ƤͭƤ롥Ф뱦¦ Pragmatic noise ϡ¾ʻεǽ⤿¼Ūʰ̣ǡäѤŪпŪòȤ롥ơ¦ Inserts ǤץȥŪ Inserts Ǥ뺸ü Discourse markers ȡŪʱ Interjections ʬ롥 Interjections ⡤ƱȤ¾ʻˤⶡ뤫ݤˤä Secondary interjections Primary interjections ʬ롥ΤȤƺؤΥǡνΤɽƤΤ狼ʤüˤ Ha ha he he ʤɤ Vocalisations Ȥ褦Τʤθꤵ줿ɽߤ롥
interjections 3ʬƤYuk! ouch! ʤɤδŪ (emotive) ʤΡaha!, Oh!, Well! ʤɤǧŪ (cognitive) ʤΤϹ碌ɽŪ (expressive) ʴȸƤФ롥ˡʹ˶Ưؼꡤդ¥ꡤưǽŪ (conative) ʴȤ shh!, eh?, hey!, ho!, Look! 롥Ǹ˸Ū (phatic) ʴȤơŤǤĤ mhm!, uh-huh! ʤɤ̤ (Jucker and Taavitsainen 57--58)
ϸѸˤʬǤϤ뤬Ѹ˸ˤ⤪褽ΤޤƤϤޤŪʶʬ
Jucker, Andreas H. and Irma Taavitsainen. English Historical Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
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