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semantic_change - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-29 18:54

2016-08-03 Wed

#2655. PCפμԤ [political_correctness][language_change][prescriptivism][gender_difference][semantic_change][language_planning][speed_of_change]

Ū˸ʸ ("politically correct" language reform) ϡ1970ǯʹߡѸ͡ʵƤӡºݤ˿͡θոѤƤβ "political_correctness" Ȥɽ˼깤ĤƤơ21äƤϡ̤Ĥɽ蘆ʤȸ򤵤ۤɤޤǤˤʤäƤƤ롥"PC" ȤѸϰ̣ΰ (semantic pejoration) ФȤȤǤꡤθפؤϤؼΤȤƤǤϤʤޤ˿м̵ѤʸոؤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤޤäѸȤƤϡ˴ؤ¤ꡤ"nonsexist language reform" ȤɽѤƤΤ⤷ʤ
"PC" ޤоݤˤޤ侮줿Τϡ¿ο͡βפΡָפ˸ջ򴶤Ǥꡤθܴ٤˼ͳ򶼤򴶤Curzan (114) ϡPCפ㤯ɾƤ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơطʤ򼡤Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥

Politically correct language and the efforts to promote it are regularly ridiculed in the public arena. Fabricated language reforms such as personhole cover for manhole cover and vertically challenged for short are held up as symptomatic of the movement's excesses. I call these fabricated because I have never actually heard any advocate of nonsexist language reform seriously propose personhole cover or anyone proposing any kind of language reform make a serious case for vertically challenged. Yet they can show up side by side with more common, even at this point mainstream reforms such as Native American for Indian, African American for Black. If Urban Dictionary provides a snapshot of attitudes about the term political correctness, the term's negative connotations have gone beyond silly and unnecessary and now include manipulative, harmful, and silencing. The first definition in Urban Dictionary in Fall 2012 (which means it had the best ratio of thumbs up to thumbs down) read: "Organized Orwellian intolerance and stupidity, disguised as compassionate liberalism." It goes on to note: "Political correctness is most well known as an institutional excuse for the harassment and exclusion of people with differing political views." Subsequent definitions link politically correct language to censorship and "the death of comedy."


PCפιޤˤäƸո˴ؤƲѤäȤСʸ礬ޤ줿ȤȰʾˡĿͤΤ褦ʸո֤Ȥ԰٤ΤΤṲ̄ˤޤʤʤäȤȤ󤲤롥졹θѤˤơPC term non-PC term ΤѤ뤫ȤϤ򴶤ʤˤʤäƤޤäĿͤΩ򼨤ˡ򼺤äƤޤäȤäƤ褤Curzan (115) ۩"Politically correct language efforts force speakers to confront the fact that words are not neutral conveyors of intended meaning; words in and of themselves carry information about speaker attitudes and much more. Politically correct language asks speakers to use care in avoiding bias in their language choices and to respect the preferences of underrepresented groups in terms of the language used to refer to them."
ʾηаޤPCפμҲŪɾäƤΤϻ¤Ѳ뤤ϸѤѲȤ餤СƿͰŪѲˤ⤫餺οǯΤƤʻȤ롥̤ˡˡβפäβפʤɸ˴ؤտŪʲϡƵǤ롥ʤǤϡ褽͡δ֤˲פٻʷϵƤ롥¦餫ηǥХååפɿ魯뤳ȤǡפʤǤΤǤ롥ŪפϡʤȤŪʽ񤭸դȤ쥸ˤʬŪǤϤȤոû֤ǿ͡θոѤƤΤȼΤϡܤĥ̤ɾƤ褤Τ⤷ʤCurzan (116) ⤳®٤ˤĤơ"The speed with which some politically responsive language efforts have changed Modern English usage is remarkable." ɾƤ롥

Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-06-16-1]

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2016-06-22 Wed

#2613. ؤˤ벻ħΰ֤Ť (4) [phonaesthesia][sound_symbolism][word_formation][semantic_change][etymology][blend]

ɸ4 (cf. [2012-10-17-1], [2015-05-28-1])[2016-06-14-1]) Samuels ϡphonaesthesia Ȥݤ켫ȡѲ1ȤƽפǤǤϤʤ̼θѲβˤͿȹͤƤ롥ʲΤ褦ˡ֤̣ؤδͿƿˤ׸ȽҤ٤Ƥ (Samuels 48)

   (a) a word changes in form because its existing meaning suggests the inclusion of a phonaestheme, or the substitution of a different one;
   (b) a word changes in meaning because its existing form fits the new meaning better, i.e. its form thereby gains in motivation;
   (c) a new word arises from a combination of both (a) and (b).


(a) ζȤ Samuels ε󤲤ƤΤdrag, fag, flag, lag, nag, sag Τ褦 phonaestheme -ag /-ag/ ĸ췲Ǥ롥Τʤ flag, lag, sag ˤĤƤϡΤƤ츻Ϥ /g/ ǤϤʤ /k/ äƤ롥˾Τ줫ʳ /k/ /g/ ִ줿Ȥ򼨺뤬ϲѲη̤ǤϤʤ phonaestheme -ag αƶˤΤ̣Ǥ (analogy) ȤäƤ褤פǤ礭Ǥ꾮 phonaestheme Ȥñ̤εˤðۤǤ롥ۤˡդɽ魯Τ˻ҲŤͤ "expressive gemination" ⡤(a) Υפ˶ᤤ
(b) ȤƤϡcl- br- ĤĤθΰ̣ phonaestheme ΤĴްաʤ줾 "clinging, coagulation" "vehemence" ۤɡˤ˶ŤĤѲƤäҲ𤵤Ƥ (Samuels 55--56)

 earlier meaninglater meaning
CLOGfasten wood to (1398)encumber by adhesion (1526)
CLASPfasten (1386), enfold (1447)grip by hand, clasp (1583)
BRAZENof brass (OE)impudent (1573)
BRISTLEstand up stiff (1480)become indignant (1549)
BROILburn (1375)get angry (1561)


(c) ȤƤϡflurry θ츻ιͻ (Samuels 62) ñϡ餯 hurry Ȥ줬ΤȤʤäƤꡤƬҲ h phonaestheme fl- ˤ֤줿Τȿ仡Ƥ롥ȤȡϹ̣Ǻ (blend) ΰȹͤ졤smog, brunch, trudge ʤɤˤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
嵭ΤʤˤϡФи츻ԾܤȤΤޤޤƤ뤬phonaesthesia ̣ѲθȤǧ뤳Ȥˤꡤ츻꤬褵륱ʤʤΤǤϤʤ
Ǥ礭Ǥ꾮ñ̤ȤƤ phonaestheme ȤͤˤϴؿäƤ롥ǯ9˸Ƭȯɽ "From Paragogic Segments to a Stylistic Morpheme: A Functional Shift of Final /st/ in Function Words Such As Betwixt and Amongst (cf. #2325. ICOME9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-08-1])) 䡤"Betwixt and Between: The Ebb and Flow of Their Historical Variants" ꤹĴ betwixt amongst /-st/ ޤ phonaestheme ǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥

Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Betwixt and Between: The Ebb and Flow of Their Historical Variants." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 114 (2014): 17--36.

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2016-05-15 Sun

#2575. Ѳΰ [unidirectionality][language_change][grammaticalisation][bleaching][semantic_change][cognitive_linguistics][conversion][clitic]

ɸˤĤƤϡȤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ή (drift) Ȥδطˤ unidirectionality γƵǰäƤϡԡԡ (227) 򻲾ȤơʸˡȴϢƵƤѲñˤĤơŪ򤪤餤ԤˤСΤ褦ˤ롥

ʸˡ ȤϡŪǤδĶǷ֤Ȥ졤ʸˡŪʵǽ̤ǤؤѲʸˡŪʵǽŪʤΡ㡧ֻˤ餵˷ŪʤΡ㡧ܼˤؿʤळȤؤʸˡΥץʤʤŪ > Ū > ŪǡˤդؤϿʤޤʤȤñפβȸ


㤨Сmeans Ȥ̾ޤ by means of ʤɽ魯ʸˡŪǤˤʤ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ǤʸˡŪǤǤ with 㤨 "tool" ΰդ̾ȯŸ뤳ȤϤʤȤˤʤ롥ifs, ands, buts ʤɤ³줬̾첽Ƥ뤷ְߴפΰ̣ư down ֻͳǤꡤȿ餷ΡĤޤæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ⸫롥
ʸΩ줫ΡΤ褦ʡֵפФȿȤơʸˡȤιʸǹͤ٤ΤǤȤĥ롥㤨С̤ɽ魯 be going to ϡgo ñȤʸˡ櫓ǤϤʤbe to ȼäιʸΤʤʸˡΤȹͤ롥ifs, down ʤɤϡñȯʻž (conversion) ˤΤ褦äưؤȿȤߤʤȤϤǤʤ롥ޤѲΥץŪǤ뤫ݤȤǤ be going to ifs ϰۤʤäƤꡤƱɶǤʤΤȤ⡥
Ǥ⡤ȿȸƤ٤ϵ¸ߤ롥°ʤɽ魯޸ä -es -'s Ȥܸ (clitic) ѲϡŪǤŪǤؤѲǤꡤؤȿȤʤ (cf. #819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1])#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])#1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]))
βϡѲΤߤʤ餺ŤκƷܻؤӸؤ䡤θλѤ餫ˤ褦Ȥ쵯θˤƤʴߤġΤᡤȿ㤿æʸˡθݤȹ碌ơǮ깭Ƥ롥

סԡˡؿԡǧθإɻŵ١ҡ2013ǯ

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2016-05-08 Sun

#2568. dead metaphor (1) [metaphor][rhetoric][cognitive_linguistics][terminology][semantics][semantic_change][etymology]

metaphor ȤƻϤޤä˻ȤŤƾȤʤꡤϤ metaphor Ȥƴʤʤä褦ɽϡ"dead metaphor" ʻ᥿եˤȸƤФ롥ִεӡפܡפȤȤΡֵӡפܡפϡοʹ֡ʤ뤤ưʪˤΤ̤ؤΤžѤǤȤФϴǤ롥ŪˤϡŪʸۤΩ̤θȤ򤵤ƤȻפ롥Ѹ the legs of a table the foot of the mountain ƱͤĤƤȤ metaphor ȤƵǽƤΤȤȤ˿ (fading) 뤤æ᥿ե (demetaphorization) ФơвΤȤġp. 127ˡ
Υ᥿եϴˡֻǤפ櫓ǤϤʤդ⤷ʤεӤȿʹ֤εӤȤϥ᡼ȤưפˤĤʤ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫äȡֻǤȤơpupil 롥θθθϡ̡ƸפƷ˱Ǥ뼫ʬҶΤ褦˸ȤžơƷפθΰ̣ŪʤĤʤϸߤǤϸ츻ؼԤǤʤ¤ꡤռˤϤΤܤ餺Ūˤ̤ñȤ򤵤Ƥ롥ȤϡǤˤۤܡֻǤפȤäƤ褤
ֻǤ٤κϤ졤μ dead metaphor ϸƤ롥#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) 󤷤褦ˡȤñ̤ǹͤƤ⡤θ츻ҤȤС¿θΰ̣ dead metaphor Ȥ¸ߤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥advert, comprehend ʤɡǤ¿ΥƥͳθϡѸؤμѤʤ줿ǡǤ˶Ū dead metaphor Ǥꡤֻ᥿ե͢ʡסġp. 127ˤȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥

ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-26-1] [2016-05-09-1]

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2016-01-28 Thu

#2467. 륵ޥ, ressentiment, resentment [french][loan_word][latin][semantic_change][etymology]

ܸΡ֥륵ޥפϡե󥹸 ressentiment μѸǤ롥긵ˤäظѸδμ (2004) ˤСֺߡʰʢΩפäळȡϤͤ٤ԤФ롤ߡﺹ̼Ԥκ̼ԤФ롤ۼԤλۼԤФǰפȤ롥ˡƻη (1887) Ѥθ Max Scheler Max Weber ȯŸǰ
ե󥹸 ressentiment ˤϡֺߡ庨亨פΤۤˡǤ뤬ִ뤳ȡˡդǰפȤ⤢뤫顤ŤɬͥƥʴΤߤ˷ӤĤ줿櫓ǤϤʤȤˤʤäư ressentir δŪʸֶפǤꡤressentir de l'amitié pour qn. ?ͧФˤʤɡݥƥʶ򼨤㤬롥
ΥեñϡѸ resent(ment) б롥ߡԤδŪʸϡԲ˻פʰ롤פۤɤǤꡤ̾ݥƥɽȶ뤳ȤϤʤ츻Ūˤ re- + sentir ʬ򤵤졤θϡַ֤롨פǤ뤫顤ͥƥʸؤθϸȯΤϤǤ롥ºݡ17̾ resentment ե󥹸줫ѸؼѤƤȤ18--19˻ޤǡݥƥʴȤƤΡִաפθԤʤƤƻդ resenting God's favours ʿβФƴդΰդȡˤˤĤƸäƤȤǤꡤޤ OED Ǥ resentment, n. θ5ѵˤȤ "Grateful appreciation or acknowledgement (of a service, kindness, etc.); a feeling or expression of gratitude. Obs." ǧ롥
䤬ƸͥƥФäƤߤΡʰפθ̾ΤΤȤ夷åץ꡼ (533) ϡθΰ̣ΰ (semantic pejoration) ˤĤơֿʹ֤ϰȤ򵭲뷹ŪˤĤΤǡִפǤäˡԲ˴פ̣褦ˤʤäפȤƤ롥åץ꡼ƱͤȤ retaliate 󤲤Ƥ롥ƥ talis ʻˤޤǤ뤳Ȥ顤ϡֻ褦ʤȤ򤹤롤ƱΤ֤פäδȹưʡܤˤܤסˤɽ魯롤֤פؤò

硼 T. åץ꡼ ƻ ϻ إåץ꡼Ѹ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ

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2015-11-28 Sat

#2406. metonymy [metonymy][metaphor][terminology][semantics][semantic_change][rhetoric][cognitive_linguistics]

#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) ǥ᥿ե (metaphor) ˤĤƲ⤷Фȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ˤĤƤϡƽǿʤ⡤⤹뵡񤬤ʤäΤǡLuján (291--92) ʤɤ˵ʤ餳ǾҲ𤷤
ŪʽؤǤϡִȡפȤΤƤǯǧθؤ̣ǤϲʸΤޤޡ֥ȥ˥ߡפȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹϡꥷ metōnimía (change of name) ̤롥ʽŪܤС᥿ե2 (similarity) ˴ŤΤФơȥ˥ߡ2 (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ롥᥿եǤϡ2Ϥ줾ۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ƥ뤬餫ˤäξԤФ롥ȥ˥ߡǤϡ2ƱΥɥᥤ°ƤꡤDz餫ˤäξԤФ롥̩˶̤ǤΤȤŪʵ⤢ΤΡ̤ϤǤ褤 (cf. #2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]))
ȥ˥ߡܼʤˤϡ͡ʼब롥ʬΡä (synecdoche) ȸƤФˡƴơʪʡ֤ȽȤˤʪȷ̤ʤɡ餫ͭŪʴطС٤ƥȥ˥ߡμȤʤ롥äợѰۤѲˤơܶʲǤ롥֤䤫ʨƤפȤȤΡ֤䤫פƴƴ˴ޤޤֿפ̣롥glass ֥饹פȤؤκǤǤʤǤ֥饹פ̣롥ƥ sexta (sixth (hour)) Ϥ֤ɽ路ƤΥڥȯŸ siesta Ϥλ֤ˤȤ̣褦ˤʤäֱĮפ Capitol Hill Ͼ̾줾ּ괱šפȡƹIJפ̣롥µǨ餹פȤ֤ϵ㤯Ȥ԰٤η̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ顤ֵ㤯פ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads Ȥˤơ beads ϡֵפ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ֿ̡פΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäϡʪˡ§˴Ť̴طʸˤ˶¸λ˻ޤǡ餫ͭŪʴطΩȤǡϰϤ
Saeed (365--66) ꡤѸ줫ŵṲ̄˵󤲤褦

PART FOR WHOLE (synecdoche): All hands on deck.
WHOLE FOR PART (synecdoche): Brazil won the world cup.
CONTAINER FOR CONTENT: I don't drink more than two bottles.
MATERIAL FOR OBJECT: She needs a glass.
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT: I'll buy you that Rembrandt.
PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Downing Street has made no comment.
INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE: The Senate isn't happy with this bill.
PLACE FOR EVENT: Hiroshima changed our view of war.
CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: All the hospitals are on strike.
CAUSE FOR EFFECT: His native tongue is Hausa.

Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2015-10-28 Wed

#2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) [semantics][semantic_change][semantic_borrowing][anglo-norman][french][lexicology][false_friend][methodology][borrowing][law_french]

ε ([2015-10-27-1]) ˰³Ѹ˸ Anglo-French κɾˤĤƤꡥRothwell ϡѸäѸʸθˤơAnglo-French äȽŻ뤷ʤФʤʤ⤹롥ƻȤƤ MED θ³ˤڤ֤ʤɡѸʸؼԤ˰ռפĥ٤֤ⷫ롥ե󥹸äΡּѡ (borrowing) ȤǰˤѳפäƤꡤİͤ롥ĤʸϤѤ

The MED reveals on virtually every page the massive and conventional sense and that in literally thousands of cases forms and meanings were adopted (not 'borrowed') into English from Insular, as opposed to Continental, French. The relationship of Anglo-French with Middle English was one of merger, not of borrowing, as a direct result of the bilingualism of the literate classes in mediaeval England. (174)

The linguistic situation in mediaeval England . . . produced . . . a transfer based on the fact that generations of educated Englishmen passed daily from English into French and back again in the course of their work. Very many of the French terms they used had been developing semantically on English soil since 1066, were absorbed quite naturally with all their semantic values into the native English of those who used them and then continued to evolve in their new environment of Middle English. This is a very long way from the traditional idea of 'linguistic borrowing'. (179--80)

[I]n England . . . the social status of French meant that it was used extensively in preference to English for written records of all kinds from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. As a result, given that English was the native language of the majority of those who wrote this form of French, many hundreds of words would have been in daily use in spoken English for generations without necessarily being committed to parchment or paper, the people who used them being bilingual in varying degrees, but using only one of their two vernaculars --- French --- to set down in writing their decisions, judgements, transactions, etc., for posterity. (185)


εǤ bachelor Ρȿפθ apparel Ρְפθ󤲤⤦1 Anglo-French DzǤȤơRothwell (184) ε󤲤Ƥ rape Ȥ夲褦MED ˤȡֶפΰ̣Ǥ rāpe (n.(2)) ϡѸǤ1425ǯ㤬ФǤ롥ΦΥե󥹸ǤϤθϸʤΤAnglo-French Ǥ rap ȤƤθˤ13ʸڤ롥

[A]s early as c. 1289 rape is defined in the French of the English lawyers as the forcible abduction of a woman; in c. 1292 the law defines it, again in French, as male violence against a woman's body. Therefore, for well over a century before the first attestation of 'rape' in Middle English, the law of England, expressed in French but executed by English justices, had been using these definitions throughout English society. rape is an Anglo-French term not found on the Continent. Admittedly, the Latin rapum is found even earlier than the French, but it was the widespread use of French in the actual pleading and detailed written accounts --- as distinct from the brief formal Latin record --- of cases in the English course of law from the second half of the thirteenth century onwards that has resulted in so very many English legal terms like rape having a French look about them. . . . As far as rape is concerned, there never was, in fact, a 'semantic vacuum' . . . .


Rothwell (184) ϡۤˤ larceny Ϥ¿ˡΧѸ˻褦ʾƤϤޤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ѸθäθˤĤơޤޤ٤Ȥ¿ĤƤ褦

Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-04-1] [2015-12-18-1]

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2015-10-27 Tue

#2374. Anglo-French Ȥ (1) [semantics][semantic_change][semantic_borrowing][anglo-norman][french][lexicology][false_friend][methodology]

Ѹǡȿפ1ĤȤƤ bachelor ˴ؤợδ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1])#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1])#1969. ΰ̣ʬʬϤ ([2014-09-17-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ13˥ե󥹸줫Ѥ줿θϡּ㤤Ρԡפạ̈žơȿפȯŸȤ롥
OED bachelor, n. θ4aˤȡǤνФ Chaucer Merchant's Tale (c1386) Ǥꡤl. 34 "Bacheleris haue often peyne and wo." ȸ롥MED bachelēr (n.) θ1(b)ˤȡʲ̤ꡤ14ˤޤ̤롥"c1325(c1300) Glo.Chron.A (Clg A.11) 701: Mi leue doȝter .. Ich þe wole marie wel .. To þe nobloste bachiler þat þin herte wile to stonde.
嵭ΰ̣Ѳϡбե󥹸ñ bachelier ˤʤäȤ졤ߤǤϱʩδ֤ "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") δطȤʤäƤ롥Τ褦ˡΰ̣ѲŪ˱ѸȼȯãȹͤƤȤRothwell (175) ϡѸȼȯãˡAnglo-French ȤĤʤΥ饯о줵ơԤڤ

Chaucer's use of this common Old French term in the Modern English sense of 'unmarried man' has no parallel in literature on the Continent, but is found in Anglo-French by the first quarter of the thirteenth century in The Song of Dermot and the Earl and again in the Liber Custumarum in the early fourteenth century. It is a pointer to the fact that the development of modern English, at least as far as the lexis and syntax are concerned, cannot be adequately researched without taking into account the whole corpus of Anglo-French.


The Anglo-Norman Dictionary Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡbacheler θ2Ȥ "unmarried man" ꡤ嵭νŵȤȤ˳Τ㤬󤲤Ƥ롥ѸȼȯãǤϤʤޤƤΦΥե󥹸ȯãǤʤ¤ Anglo-French ˤȯãǤꡤ줬Ѹˤܿ줿ˤʤȤʤȤñǤϤ뤬ܤڤ褦ʷǤ롥ְפθıѸ apparel ȡ⤿ʤե󥹸 appareil false friends Ʊͤ Anglo-French ͳȤȤ
Rothwell ʸǤϡAnglo-French ȤפȤˤꡤѸä˴ؤ¿λ¤餫ˤʤꡤ꤬褹뤳Ȥ⤵롥Ѹ˸Ǥ⡤ե󥹸ȤФޤѥɸŪʥե󥹸Ѽפ⤫١Ȥƥե󥹼ѸʤɤΤäAnglo-French ȤѼɾ뤳Ȥˤäơ̤ȤƤѸ˾¿꤬򤫤ǽȡRothwell ⤯Rothwell ΤΥ󥹤ϡ#2349. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1]) ǻȤʸǤӤƤꡤȯŪǤ롥

Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-12-18-1] [2015-10-28-1]

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2015-09-16 Wed

#2333. a lot of [semantic_change][grammaticalisation][etymology][agreement][determiner][reanalysis][syntax]

914դǡa lot of ɤơ¿Ρפ̣褦ˤʤäΤȤ򤤤ϡѸˤ˸ؤδϡ̣ѲʸˡȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ʲˤȤʤ̾ lot θŪ񤤤̻ŪѲάҤ褦
OED 츻ŵˤȡѸ lot Ρ֤פθϡűѸ hlot (allotment, choice, share) ˤΤܤ롥켫Τϥޥĸ *χlutam ˤΤܤꡤŪˤϰĸθ촴 *kleu- (hook) ˵ġ¾ΥޥˤƱ줬ߤ졤ޥ󥹽ؤѤƤ롥֡ʤΤΡ˾ޡפ̣ȹͤ졤ƥ clāvis (key), clāvus (nail) ȤδϢŦƤ롥
ơűѸΡ֤פθ˻ϤޤꡤˤäƷʤ⻺ΡʬۡסơֳơפθѸ parking lot ־ˤϡϤγƤȤȤǤ롥Ǥ뤫ֱ̿פθѸΤΤǤ롥
Ѹä16ȾФˤϡΡַʡפθȯãʤˤθѤȤʤˡʤȤСߡƥåڡѡ1ǯʬܥɥȾǯʬʤɡʤΰ컳뤳Ȥ¬Ǥ褦ˡƱΤΡְ컳ȡפȤ17ȾФߤǤ⡤˽Фʪؤ Lot 46: six chairs ʤɤɽѤ롥ƱʪͤΡֽġ췲 (group, set) ۤɤθȯŸ The first lot of visitors has/have arrived. / I have several lots of essays to mark this weekend. / What do you lot want? (informal) ʤɤ㤬ǧ롥
Ťֳơפθˤ衤ֽġ췲פθˤ衤a lot of [noun] ηѤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤϼǤ롥ޤlot ˡä˷Τΰ̣򤳤᤿͡ʷƻ줬ź졤an interesting lot of people a lazy lot (of people) Τ褦ɽƤ1800ǯˤϡa great lot of a large lot of ʤɿ̤礭ɽ魯ƻ줬Ĥ졤餯줬Ȥʤäơ19ˤϷƻʤ a lot oflots of ñΤǡ¿Ρ¿̤Ρפɽ魯ˡȯãߡ¿Ρפΰ̣Ƕˤܶ a lot of ϡ̤ꡤʤ꿷ɽǤ롥
a lot of [noun] lots of [noun] μϡ衤Ūˤ lot(s) ΤϤˤΰפȽǤˡ᤯ [noun] ȤȤ館Ƥ褦ߤǤϡa lot of lots of many much Ʊͤ˸ (determiner) 뤤Ͽ̻ (quantifier) ȲᤵƤ (Quirk et al. 264) ΤȤϡȤ alot of ֤줿ꡤa ά lot of ʤɤɽ뤳ȤǧǤ롥
Ʊ褦ˡʬɽ魯 of ޤ礬ȤƺʬϤ졤ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤơa number of a majority of ʤɤ롥a [noun_1] of [noun_2] η򼨤ɽˤơ [noun_1] [noun_2] ؤȰܹԤѲ̤ƤƤ뤳Ȥ狼 (Denison 121)
lot ΰ̣ѲˤĤƤϡRoom (169) ⻲Ȥ줿

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.

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2015-07-24 Fri

#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ [loan_word][french][lexicology][register][taboo][semantic_change][lexical_stratification]

ѸˤϡѸȥե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸ줬Ѱ㤨ƶ¸롤äع¤Ȥ٤Τ롥̤ˡäŪŪ̱ŪάȤľܤäʤɤħѸϳŪŪʸŪʼΩ褽褽ȤäġλѰΩˤĤƤϡOrr εҤŪΤǤ롥

For two hundred years and more, things intellectual, things pertaining to the spirit, were symbolized by words that had a flavour of remoteness, of higher courtliness, words redolent of the school rather than of the home, words that often had by their side humbler synonyms, humbler, yet used to express the things that are closer to our hearts as human beings, as children and parents, lovers and workers. (Orr, John. Words and Sounds in English and French. Oxford: Blackwell, 1953. p. 42 qtd. in Ullmann 146)


ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ω˴Ϣ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1]) ۤ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
줬㤯Ѹ줬⤤ȤѰʬۤ¿θåڥƤϤޤ뤳Ȥϻ¤طžƤ褦˸ڥʤǤϤʤ㤨СUllmann (147) ϡΥڥ󤲤Ƥ롥ǽ2ȤΥڥˤĤƤϡJespersen (93) ⿨Ƥ롥

Native wordForeign word
dalevalley
deedaction
foeenemy
meedreward
to heedto take notice of


Υڥˤơ̤ʴްդʤŪѤΤϡ¦μѸη¦ηϡषʸŪŪǤꡤ٤Ū㤤Ȼפ롥ͽۤȿ뤳Τ褦ʵžʬۤϡŪޤǤϤȤϤʤΤ
1ĤˤϡΥڥǤϡ٤㤵Ѱζ䤷̤ˡѸ줬Ⱦִ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤΤۤäƤдѤȤʤäƤ⤪ʤäѰ¤äꡤ˸ꤵʤɤǽŪˤϼŪ˻¸˻äΤǤΰϤ̣ü첽 (specialization) 뤤Ͻ̾ (narrowing) λȤäƤ褤
ơΤ褦ˤĤäϡˤΡִľܤä¤ȯĤˤζŪʴްդӤӤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤϤʤ󥰥̱²Ȥ򤢤ƤСˤϡΤ褦̱²ۤ䶫ӤΤ褦ʤΤΤ줬ʤΤ̤ʤΤˤȤʸŪŪʶäѤ˻äƤ롥
˶ŪʴްդղäơˤäƤϥ֡˶ᤤϤͭ˻äΤȤơbloody (cf. sanguinary), blooming (cf. flourishing), devilish (cf. diabolical), hell (cf. inferno), popish (cf. papal) ʤɤ (Ullmann 147) ⡤dale foe ʤɤƱͤˡǤ˲ƻѰ褬줿ΤȲǤ롥

Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.

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2015-07-23 Thu

#2278. ̣ۣ [semantics][polysemy][hyponymy][semantic_change][family_resemblance]

̣ۣ (semantic vagueness) ϡ̣Ѳˤƽפʰ̣ġۣ椵ȤϡȤϤäꤷʤפȤǡŪʸǤŪ˰ƤWittgenstein (1889--1951) äỌ̇̄ˤեǥʥʲ²Ū (family resemblance) Ŧư衤षˤפͭѤǤǤȹͤ褦ˤʤä (cf. #1964. ץȥ ([2014-09-12-1])) ۣȤäƤ⤤Ĥμब롥Waldron (146--48) ˽ä4Ĥʬष褦

(1) ambiguity. ̣2İʾ褬ꡤΤ줬տޤƤ뤫Ǥʤ硥ϡबɬŪˤ¿ (polysemy) η̤Ȥ롥He gave me a ring. ˤ ring ʤɸŪ ambiguity ⤢СFlying planes can be dangerous. Τ褦Ū ambiguity ⤢롥

(2) generality. Ū뤤Ūʸ줬ѤȤºݤˤɤ٤ΰ뤤տޤƤΤʾ礬롥㤨Сsome, often, likely, soon, huge Ȥä硤Ūˤϳơɤۤɤ٤ʤΤޤthing, act, case, fact, way, matter ʤɤŪʸǤϡºݤ˲ؼƤΤȽǤǤʤȤ롥ΰ̣Ǥۣϡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) Ǥߤǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ξ岼طȴϢ롥

(3) variation. θ̩üԤδ֤ɤƤ硥㤨Сhonour Ȥϲjustice, wicked, fair, culture, education, conservative, democratic ȤϲǤ뤫ˤĤƤϡĿͤˤäưոۤʤ롥ݸ˹븽ݡ

(4) indeterminacy. ؼоݤζܤϤäꤷʤ硥㤨Сshoulder, neck, lip ʤΤ̤ϰϤϳơɤɤޤǤʤΤmorning, afternoon, evening Τζ̤ϲʤΤؼоݼΤʪŪϰϤΤƤʤ뤤Τɬפä˴ʤǤ롥

(1) ϰ̣Ѳη̤ȤƤ¿˴Ť(2), (3), (4) ¿߽Ф̣ѲμȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥդۣ椵¿̣ѲߴطʣǤ롥

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

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2015-06-29 Mon

#2254. ̣Ѳ [history_of_linguistics][semantic_change][semantic][rhetoric][causation][cognitive_linguistics]

ϢWaldron ˰͵򤷤ựѲε񤤤ƤƱ Waldron (115--16) 򻲾Ȥơ19ʹߤΰ̣Ѳˤ򿶤֤äƤߤ
Ūʰ̣Ѳϡ19ƬΥɥĤ˵äӸؤиѲ椵Ϥ᤿ΤƱؼԤϸŵŪʥȥåѸˤ̣Ѳ򵭽ҤǤǽ˵ŤŪʸդΤ (figures of speech) ̻Ūʰ̣Ѳ˵ĤΤǤ롥㤨С̣Ѳʬबsynecdoche, metonymy, metaphor ʤɤΥȥåѸ˴ŤƤʤʤɤ̣Ѳˤ볫ޤˤδطεŤˤäȤͤȡ򺣡ŵŪȥåỌ̇̄ѲδطǧθؤΩ줫Ƥܤ򽸤Ƥϡ˶̣ (cf. #2191. ȥåΤޤȤ ([2015-04-27-1]))
ȥåѸˤ̣ѲʬफϤޤꡤ19ˤŪʬȯạ̃ǸˤޤǺ³Ƥ Extension, Restriction, Transfer 3ʬˡǤ롥ŪΤ1894ǯ R. Thomas ˤʬǡʲΤ褦˿޼Ǥ (Waldron 115)

I Change within the same conceptual sphere
     (a) Species pro genere
     (b) Genus pro specie
II Change through transfer to another conceptual sphere
     (a) Through subjective correspondence (metaphor)
     (b) Through objective correspondence (metonymy)


20ȡޤǤΤ褦ʰ̣Ѳʬ⡤̣ѲθʿŪҲŪŪˤؤȴؿܤạ̈Ѳ˼Ҳˤδ褦ˤʤꡤʳصѤȯŸҲƻѲƼ쥸ʤɤ̣Ѳ˵ڤܤƤƶ褦ˤʤä
̣Ѳ˴ؤ20ɽŪȤ Stern, Ullmann, Waldron 󤲤뤬̣Ѳʬ丶ϡ褽пԤ줿Ȥ뤫⤷ʤǯϡ嵭Τ褦ʸŵŪʰ̣ѲæѤơǧθءʸˡ桤ʤɤ鼨̣Ѳ椬ޤƤĤĤ롥
̣ΤθˤˤĤƤϡ#1686. Ụ̄άˡ ([2013-12-08-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

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2015-06-28 Sun

#2253. ̣ѲθΤʤ񤷤 [causation][semantic_change][methodology][language_change][history_of_linguistics][language_change][link]

2֤ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1])#2252. Waldron ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-28-1]) ǰѡȤ Waldron ϡStern Ullmann ʤɤμפԸƧޤʤ顤̣ѲθˤĤƤƤ롥ˤĤƤβ餫οƶդäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ뤳Ȥʤ񤷤ΤȤ᥿ˤĤơ˻ͤˤʤŸƤ롥

   We have now considered a number of factors which may contribute to change of meaning and it is not difficult to see why so many different schemes of semantic change have been proposed over the last 150 years and why there is so little agreement among scholars as to the correct classification of the phenomena. For behind every change of meaning there lies a chain of causation which can be analysed at a number of different levels --- e.g. material, social, psychological, logical --- and at each level we should get a different answer to the question 'Why did this word change its meaning?' The position of a statistician analysing (let us suppose) the causes of death in a certain community would be somewhat similar, unless he decided beforehand what sort of causes he was going to pay attention to. For at one level of analysis, every death might presumably be regarded as a case of heart stopped beating; at different levels of analysis such categories as drowning, overwork, carbon-monoxide poisoning, typhoid, and smoke-polluted atmosphere might all be acceptable as causes; but there would be no guarantee that each death would fit into one and only one aetiological category, unless the causes were all analysed at more or less the same level. The doctor who has to insert a cause of death on a death certificate uses one of a set of terms which classify the causes on a fairly consistent level of medical diagnosis; and in matters of such complexity no system of classification for causes is serviceable unless consistency of level is observed. This, of course, is a consequence of the indeterminateness of our concept of cause: every event has many different causes.
   It is quite futile, therefore, for us to attempt to distinguish which sense-changes are due to linguistic causes and which to non-linguistic causes, or which are due to material causes and which to social causes; while it would perhaps be an exaggeration to contend that any change of meaning could be regarded as the consequence, immediate or remote, of any of the recognized causes, the various causal schemes undoubtedly show a good deal of overlapping.


̣Ѳθθ򡤿ͤλεˤʤ館Ǥ롥ʬϤΥ٥뤬͡ˤꤦʾ塤Ф븶ΤΤ¿¿ͤǤꡤޤФиߤ˽ŤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɬŪ multiple causation ꤻ򤨤ʤȤˤʤ롥
ΤȤϡ̣ѲθˤȤɤޤ餺Ѳ̤θˤĤƤ⤤ػˤˤƤ⡤ѲθͳưŤʤõ뤳ȡˤˤĤƤϴࡹε롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ cat:language_change causation γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿Ǥ⡤Ȥ櫓طΤȤưʲ󤲤Ƥ (##442,1123,1173,1282,1549,1582,1584,1986,2123,2143,2151,2161)

#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1])

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-30-1] [2015-06-28-1]

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2015-06-27 Sat

#2252. Waldron ˤ̣Ѳʬ [semantic_change][semantics][folk_etymology]

ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1]) κǸǡUllmann ηŪʬˤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƚ٤ĤʤǡWaldron Ϥʤ󤺤οޤ B II "Transfers of senses" 2ġPopular etymology Ellipsis 夲ơ餬ʰ̣ѲǤϤʤȽŪ˻ŦƤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2175. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1])#2177. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ (2) ([2015-04-13-1]) ǿƤ뤬 Waldron (138) θդˤͤƤߤ褦

To confine our attention in the first instance to the fourfold division which is the heart of the scheme, we may feel some uneasiness at the inequality of these four categories in consideration of the exact correlation of their descriptions. This is not a question of their relative importance or frequency of occurrence but (again) of the level of analysis at which they emerge. Specifically, it seems possible to describe transfers based on sense-similarity and sense-contiguity as in themselves kinds of semantic change, whereas name-similarity and name-contiguity appear rather changes of form which are potential causes of a variety of types of change of meaning. To say that so-and-so is a case of metonymy or metaphor is far more informative as to the nature of the change of meaning than is the case with popular etymology or ellipsis. The former changes always result, by definition, in a word's acquisition of a complete new sense, while the result in the case of popular etymology is more often a peripheral modification of the word's original sense (as in the change from shamefast to shamefaced) and in the case of ellipsis a kind of telescoping of meaning, so that the remaining part of the expression has the meaning of the whole. In neither case is the result as clear cut and invariable as metonymy and metaphor.


Waldron ϡB II ˴ؤƤΤ褦Ƚäǡ򳰤Ƽΰ̣Ѳʬ󼨤B III "Composite changes" A B I ʤʬˡǤ롥Waldron ϡA "Shift" Stern ήʬǤ adequation substitution ˤ褽ˤȸƤӡB I (a) "Metaphoric Transfer"B I (b) "Metonymic Transfer" ȸƤ޼ȰʲΤ褦ʬȤʤ롥

                         Shift
Change of Meaning                        Metaphoric Transfer
                         Transfer 
                                                 Metonymic Transfer

ǡܥ֥ˤ Stern ([2014-06-13-1]), Ullmann ([2015-06-26-1]), Waldron ˤŵŪʰ̣Ѳʬ3HƤȤˤʤ롥##1873,2251,2252 оȤ줿

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-06-26 Fri

#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ [semantic_change][semantics]

#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Stern ˤ̣ѲʬߤƱ餤ƶϤΤ̣ѲʬȤơUllmann ΤΤ롥ʬ Ullmann 8 "Change of Meaning" (193--235) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤬 Waldron (136) üŪˤޤȤƤƤΤǡ򼨤

A. Semantic changes due to linguistic conservatism
B. Semantic changes due to linguistic innovation
     I. Transfers of names:
          (a) Through similarity between the senses;
          (b) Through contiguity between the senses.
     II. Transfers of senses:
          (a) Through similarity between the names;
          (b) Through contiguity between the names.
     III. Composite changes.


A "linguistic conservatism" ȤΤϸ򾷤̾դ (see Waldron, pp. 138--39)Stern ΰ̣Ѳ෿ǤȤ adequation substitution ˤ褽롥λؼоݡʤˤŪѲˤĤ졤θΰ̣ѲƤؤ (ex. ship, atom, scholasticism) B "linguistic innovation" ϡ̣ (sense) ̾ (name) Ωˡ (similarity) (contiguity) Ωݤ碌ŪηϤؤȲ̶ʬƤ롥
Ȥ櫓 Ullmann δؿ B I II ˤȤȤǡWaldron (137) Ϥ2ĤʬˤĤơľŪ򤷤䤹褦ˡʲΤ褦ʿޤˤޤȤƤ롥

             (a)                    (b)
          Similarity             Contiguity
------------------------------------------------
I.      between senses:       between senses:
        Metaphor              Metonymy            ---> Name-Transfer
------------------------------------------------
II.     between names:        between names:
        Popular Etymology     Ellipsis            ---> Sense-Transfer
------------------------------------------------

Ullmann ʬϡǤäꤷƤΤǤФ⤢ϤɾˤĤƤϡεǡ

Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.
Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-28-1] [2015-06-27-1]

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2015-05-18 Mon

#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ [onomastics][personal_name][sign][semantic_change][semantics][semiotics][arbitrariness][saussure]

ܼͭ̾ŪʵǽϡʪĿͤꤹ뤳Ȥˤ롥ΤȤ˰ϤʤΤˤ John Smith ڰϺϤ󤤤뤫⤷ʤξ줽ξǤϡʪꤹΤ John Smith ڰϺȤ̾ǽʬʤȤۤȤɤǤ롥ͭ̾κǤϡidentification Ǥ롥
ͭ̾ˤϡεǽ̤ŪȴϢοտ路ħĤ롥Ω (100--08) ϡˤƸͭ̾줬˰Ƥˤ򳵴Ѥʤ顤ͭ̾ħȤưʲ4ۤɤ˿Ƥ롥

(1) ͭ̾ϰ̳ǰȤƤΥ˥ե⤿ʪĿͤľŪ˻ؼ롥ʤ˥ե (signifié) ʤ˥ե (signifiant)ʥ˥եǤ롥
(2) ͭ̾ԲǽǤ롥
(3) ͭ̾ϸΤʤˤ볰θƤ롥
(4) ͭ̾ϰ̣εǤ롥

(1) ϡüŪ˸иͭ̾ˤϰ̣ʤȤȤ̾ΤäƤ褦ʾħǽ礤ƤȤȤǤ롥ǡؼоݤΤǤ롥ؼоݤꤹΤͭ̾Ǥ뤫顤ΤʤΤǤ롥̣뤤ϥ˥ե⤿ˡؼоݤľܤ˻ؤȤǤȤΤͭ̾κǤΩäħȤ#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) οޤǤСդľܤǷФ褦ʥ᡼
(2) ʲħ⡤(1) ήФΤǤ롥(2) θͭ̾Բǽϡͭ̾ˤȤỌ̇̄ʥ˥եˤʤǤ롥ȤΤϡ˥եϡʤۤȤɡƱ˥ե󤬸ˤäưۤʤ褦2ĤεɤδϢŤǤ롥äơ˥եʤͭ̾ˤϡȤ̵Ǥ롥̾ Smith ϡ결סڤϡڡפǤ뤫顤̣ȵ뤳ȤǤ̾ȤѤȤ˰̣ϰռ뤳ȤϤʤ¾ؤˤäơ̾̣äȤϤʤ
(3) ϡͭ̾줬ʶʤǤˤ⤫餺塼ξ褦ʺۤηϤȤƤθηϤˤϤޤ֤ŤʤȤҤ٤ΤǤ롥줬ηϤǤȤȤϡäǤС¾θȤμȤựŪʴطˤŪ¸ߤˤʤȤȤǤ롥㤨СˡפȤ̾ϡֽפȤ̾Ȥΰ̣ˤƸηΰ֤ƤΤǤꡤդޤǤ롥ηϤϡȤựˤΩܸȤƤΤȤͭ̾ϰ̣⤿ʤΤǤ뤫顤ȤựΩӤηϤˤȤ߹ޤ줨ʤͭ̾ϡŪʰ̣ͳˡľܤ˳λؼоݤ򼨤Ȥǡˤʤ⳰ȤϢΤǤ롥ͭ̾Ȥϡ塼ŪʸηϤΤʤΤʰ֤Ť⤿ʤȥФȥΤζ֤ˤðۤ¸ߤǤ롥
(4) ϵŪǶ̣ŦǤ롥ͭ̾ϡΤ˥˥եϤ⤿ʤ˥եäƤʾ塤Ū˵κۤݤäƤ롥ȾȤǤƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤʤȤ⵭θǤϤΤ褦ˤߤȡͭ̾ˤϰεȤʤ٤餫Υ˥ե褦ȤϤƯΤʤΤǤϤʤȤ⵿Ƥ롥ͭ̾Υ˥եб륷˥ե̵Ǥ뤫餳η٤餫Υ˥ե鲡󤻤Ƥ롤ȤͤǤ롥ϡ̣ (signifiance) βˤۤʤʤΩ (104--05) ϡͭ̾ΰ̣ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ʸʸ˵ϲؤƤˡ

˶̣Τϡˤͭ̾Ǥ롥̾θ줬˰̣ˤäƽƤΤˤợ⤿ʤҶʥ˥եӤǤͭ̾ϡζ᥷˥եᤶƲ󤻤ƤΤΤޤޤʾǰˤȤ館졤ǥΥ٥Ǥϵդ¿ƤޤĤޤꡤͭ̾ϥ󥰤Υ٥ǥ˥ե⤿ʤ椨ˡΤΥե󥿥ޤ졤ƱˤߤˤȤʤäƥե󥿥ƤΤǤ롥


#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1])#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ʤɤǡ̾θͭ̾첽ϰ̵̣ﲽȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤȼöͭ̾ˤʤȡ٤ϰ̣Ŷ褦Ȥͭﲽ˸ưȤȤͭﲽ̵ﲽΤαʱΥפ鷺ˤʤ
Ω (100) ϡָͭ̾Ȥʻ򤤤뤫ϡ줾θ⤫Ӥ餻ƤޤФǤȤäƤ褤פȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Ω 󡦻 ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ

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2015-04-26 Sun

#2190. μޤäո [intensifier][semantic_change]

ܥ֥ǤϡոˤĤ intensifier γƵǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) Ǥϡո줬Ū˼ȸƤѤƤˤĤѸˤˤ붯ոȯãζεǤ󤷤ϡŪѤƤѸǤ⤢٤褯Ѥ붯󤲤μθðؤǫͿƤΤϡWilliams (191--92) Ǥ롥ʲΤ줾ˤĤơθ餤ˤƶĴΰ̣ȯãΤθϺǤϤɤٴ뤫ˤĤ䤦ƤߤƤۤ

 IntensifierExample PhraseEarlier Meaning
1.abominablyabominably tired(excite disgust)
2.amazinglyamazingly dull(cause to lose wits)
3.astonishinglyastonishingly minor(stun with a blow)
4.awfullyawfully unimpressive(cause dread or awe)
5.confoundedconfounded happy(bring to perdition)
6.damneddamned pleased(doomed)
7.dreadfullydreadfully small(excite dread or awe)
8.enormouslyenormously good(abnormally evil)
9.excessivelyexcessively happy(go beyond just limits)
10.extraordinarilyextraordinarily normal(beyond the ordinary)
11.extravagantlyextravagantly unambitious(wander beyond bounds)
12.extremelyextremely limited(uttermost)
13.fabulouslyfabulously cheap(fabled)
14.fantasticallyfantastically real(exist in imagination)
15.fullfull weary(complete)
16.frightfullyfrightfully boring(full of horror)
17.grandlygrandly expensive(great)
18.greatlygreatly exhausted(great)
19.hideouslyhideously expensive(excite terror)
20.horriblyhorribly expensive(excite horror)
21.horridlyhorridly embarrassed(excite horror)
22.hugelyhugely amused(immense)
23.immenselyimmensely unimportant(large beyond measure)
24.immoderatelyimmoderately hungry(beyond limits)
25.incrediblyincredibly real(not to be believed)
26.intenselyintensely tired(stretched)
27.magnificentlymagnificently pleased(greatness of achievement)
28.marvelouslymarvelously stupid(miraculous)
29.might(il)ymighty weak(power)
30.monstrouslymonstrously excited(deviating from natural)
31.outrageouslyoutrageously ordinary(exceeding limits)
32.perfectlyperfectly stupid(complete in all senses)
33.prettypretty ugly(firm, nice, proper)
34.powerfulpowerful tired(force,influence)
35.reallyreally imaginative(objective existence)
36.rightright foolish(what is good)
37.simplysimply confusing(without complication)
38.sore(ly)sore(ly) afraid(cause pain)
39.stupendouslystupendously alert(struck senseless)
40.tremendouslytremendously calm(excite trembling)
41.terriblyterribly pleased(excite terror)
42.terrificallyterrifically happy(excite terror)
43.vastlyvastly insignificant(of great dimensions)
44.veryvery false(true, real)
45.violentlyviolently opposed(producing injury)
46.wonderfullywonderfully boring(causing astonishment)
47.wondrouslywondrously tedious(causing astonishment)


Ǹ¿ϡդѤȤˤϡƤ뤫ʤȤޤäƤϤꥹȤˤϤʤ㤨 f--king chaste Ȥɽ f--king θͤỌ̇̄Ū̷⤷Ƥ뤬ºݤ¯ѤΤϡθ줬Ǥ˸ۤȤɼäƤ뤫Ǥ롥˽ɤäƤΤϡåϤΤߤǤ롥

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-25-1] [2018-02-16-1]

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2015-04-23 Thu

#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ [metaphor][synaesthesia][semantic_change][semantics][etymology][rhetoric][unidirectionality][terminology]

դΤ (figure of speech) ΤʤǤ⡤ԤȤΤ (metaphor) Ǥ롥ưʪǤʤΤ˰ػҤΡ֤פȤȤǤʤΤ˿͵μؤơ֥פȤȤʤƤߤ櫓ǤϤʤΤˡִŤȤȤȤѤƤ롥ɽޤ˸ŤƾȤʤäȤˤϡȤκѤۤȤɴʤʤꡤ᥿ե (dead metaphor) ȸƤФ롥ܸˤѸˤ᥿եդƤꡤΰ̣᥿եǤȤޤǸʤۤɤ
metaphor ˤƤϡӤδȤʤ source ӤŬѤ target 2ĤɬפǤ롥ػҤΰǤСsource Ͽʹ֤ưʪεӤǤꡤtarget ϰػҤλ٤ʬǤ롥ʪΤΡȶΤΤǤǡsource target 2Ĥΰۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ȥ롥2Ĥϸߤ˴طΤʤΩɥᥤ֤פʤΤβˤäΤ٤ΤΡפȤ塤ǽζ̹ˤꡤξɥᥤ֤˶ͤ롥Τ褦ˡmetaphor ˤɬ餫 (similarity) 롥
#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) 򤿤󶡤Ƥ줿 Williams ϡmetaphor ˭٤ͿƤƤ (184--85) ʲθäϡ츫Ȥ metaphor ȰռʤΤФθŪȯŸޤǤ롥줾ˤĤơ source Dz target ʤΤ2ĤΥɥᥤϤ줾첿ϤȤʤäƤ붦̹ϲõäƤ餤᥿ե˶ᤤΡ˺ƤȤܤΤˤĤƤϡθȤθ줾첿ˤĤƥҥȤͿƤʤä f. ȤΤϸɽ魯ˤΤǡȤʤθ줿

1. abstract (f. draw away from)
2. advert (f. turn to)
3. affirm (f. make firm)
4. analysis (f. separate into parts)
5. animal (You animal!)
6. bright (a bright idea)
7. bitter (sharp to the taste: He is a bitter person)
8. brow (the brow of a hill)
9. bewitch (a bewitching aroma)
10. bat (You old bat!)
11. bread (I have no bread to spend)
12. blast (We had a blast at the party)
13. blow up (He blew up in anger)
14. cold (She was cold to me)
15. cool (Cool it,man)
16. conceive (f. to catch)
17. conclude (f. to enclose)
18. concrete (f. to grow together)
19. connect (f. to tie together)
20. cut (She cut me dead)
21. crane (the derrick that resembles the bird)
22. compose (f. to put together)
23. comprehend (f. seize)
24. cat (She's a cat)
25. dig (I dig that idea)
26. deep (deep thoughts)
27. dark (I'm in the dark on that)
28. define (f. place limits on)
29. depend (f. hang from)
30. dog (You dog!)
31. dirty (a dirty mind)
32. dough (money)
33. drip (He's a drip)
34. drag (This class is a drag)
35. eye (the eye of a hurricane)
36. exist (f. stand out)
37. explain (f. make flat)
38. enthrall (f. to make a slave of)
39. foot (foot of a mountain)
40. fuzzy (I'm fuzzy headed)
41. finger (a finger of land)
42. fascinate (f. enchant by witchcraft)
43. flat (a flat note)
44. get (I don't get it)
45. grasp (I grasped the concept)
46. guts (He has a lot of guts)
47. groove (I'm in the groove)
48. gas (It was a gasser)
49. grab (How does the idea grab you?)
50. high (He got high on dope)
51. hang (He's always hung up)
52. heavy (I had a heavy time)
53. hot (a hot idea)
54. heart (the heart of the problem)
55. head (head of the line)
56. hands (hands of the clock)
57. home (drive the point home)
58. jazz (f. sexual activity)
59. jive (I don't dig this jive)
60. intelligent (f. bring together)
61. keen (f. intelligent)
62. load (a load off my mind)
63. long (a long lime)
64. loud (a loud color)
65. lip (lip of the glass)
66. lamb (She's a lamb)
67. mouth (mouth of a cave)
68. mouse (You're a mouse)
69. milk (He milked the job dry)
70. pagan (f. civilian, in distinction to Christians, who called themselves soldiers of Christ)
71. pig (You pig)
72. quiet (a quiet color)
73. rip-off (It was a big rip-off)
74. rough (a rough voice)
75. ribs (the ribs of a ship)
76. report (f. to carry back)
77. result (f. to spring back)
78. shallow (shallow ideas)
79. soft (a soft wind)
80. sharp (a sharp dresser)
81. smooth (a smooth operator)
82. solve (f. to break up)
83. spirit (f. breath)
84. snake (You snake!)
85. straight (He's a straight guy)
86. square (He's a square)
87. split (Let's split)
88. turn on (He turns me on)
89. trip (It was a bad (drug) trip)
90. thick (a voice thick with anger)
91. thin (a thin sound)
92. tongue (a tongue of land)
93. translate (f. carry across)
94. warm (a warm color)
95. wrestle (I wrestled with the problem)
96. wild (a wild idea)


ƥͳθ줬¿ޤޤƤ뤬̤¿ǤʤƥѸϡαѸǤϡʸŵƥˤƤ˸ȤѤ⡤ŪȯŸѤ뤳ȤΤۤ¿Τ̤ưʪɽ魯Ȥ source Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ (synaesthesia) λ¿ޤŪʸ¯Ūʶ⾯ʤʤ
Τ褦ȤˤϤħ졤̸Ūˤ⹭ѻ뤳Ȥ顤̣ѲΰŪ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1])#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) ʤɤε򻲾ȡ

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.

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2015-04-14 Tue

#2178. 饤ɸΩ줫ߤ̣ΰ̲ü첽 [semantic_change][pragmatics][cooperative_principle][implicature][zipfs_law][information_theory][hyponymy]

Grice ζĴθ (cooperative_principle) ȲŪް (implicature) ˤĤơ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1])#1133. Ĵθι ([2012-06-03-1])#1134. ĴθˤȤ ([2012-06-04-1])#1976. ŪްդȤ¾͡ʴްա ([2014-09-24-1])#1984. ŪްդỌ̇̄Ѳ ([2014-10-02-1]) ʤɤεˤƤGrice ϸ˳̿⤿餷θθοŸˤ礭ʱƶڤܤʤǤ⿷饤 (Neo-Gricean) ˤȯŸܤͤ롥
饤ɤ򸣰 Laurence R. Horn ϡGrice ε󤲤4Ĥθ (Quality, Quantity, Relation, Manner) 2ĤθؤȺQ[uantity]-principle R[elation]-principle ȤǤ롥ξ꼰ϡʲ̤Ǥ (Huang 38 )

Horn's Q- and R-principles
a. The Q-principle
Make your contribution sufficient;
Say as much as you can (given the R-principle)
b. The R-principle
Make your contribution necessary;
Say no more than you must (given the Q-principle)


Q-principle Ϥ¿ξ󶡤褦Ȥ븶ǤꡤR-principle Ϥ꾯ʤǺѤޤ褦Ȥ븶Ǥ롥δϡäθȤξΤ᤮礤ˤۤʤʤˤϸѤˤ "most effective, least effort" λۤȿǤƤꡤѤηкŪʸǤ른åפˡ§Zipf's Lawcf. #1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])ˤȤ⿼ط롥Huang (39--40) ۩

Viewing the Q- and R-principles as mere instantiations of Zipfian economy . . ., Horn explicitly identified the Q-principle ('a hearer-oriented economy for the maximization of informational content') with Zipf's Auditor's Economy (the Force of Diversification) and the R-principle ('a speaker-oriented economy for the minimization of linguistic form') with Zipf's Speaker's Economy (the Force of Unification).


ợѲɽŪʼȤơ̲ (generalization) ü첽 (specialization) 롥줾ζϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ǵ󤲤̤Ǥꡤ֤ʤǤϡ̣ΰ̲ü첽饤ɤθΩ줫顤줾 R-principle Q-principle бΤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤܤ
줬̣ΰ̲Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮¿ʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤Ͼʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ΰ̲ȤϾ̤ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡɬ׺Ǿ¤ξͿФ褤Ȥ R-principleʤä¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ
ǡ줬̣ü첽Фȡ줬Ѥʸ̮Ͼʤʤ뤬Ūˤθξ̤礭ʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ̣ü첽ȤϾ̤礭ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȡβϡǤ¿ξͿ褦Ȥ Q-principleʤʹ¦ηкѤˤäưŤƤ˰㤤ʤ (Luján 293--95)
Τ褦ʤȤ館ϡ̣Ѳ෿ˤĤƸΩ줫Ǥǽ򼨤Ƥ롥

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.

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2015-04-13 Mon

#2177. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ (2) [semantic_change][semantics][folk_etymology][prediction_of_language_change][onomasiology]

#2175. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1]) ε­McMahon (184--86) ϡ̣Ѳ򰷤ϤǡϤŪʰ̣Ѳ෿⤷ʤ⡤ФȽ򷫤깭Ƥ롥εȽŤʤƤ¿McMahon εʹƤߤ褦
ޤŪʰ̣Ѳ෿ˤƤϡ̲ (generalization)ü첽 (specialization) (pejoration)ɲ (amelioration) Τۤ᥿ե (metaphor)ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy)ά (ellipsis)ָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ʤɤΥפФж̤뤬Ǹ2Ĥϸ̩ˤϰ̣ѲμǤϤʤ̣ˤŪ˱ƶڤܤ֤ѲȤ٤ΤǤꡤŪʰ̣ˤ̣ѲˤʤС semasiological Ȥ onomasiological ʴ˴ؤΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) ǤȽŪ
ˡʣΰ̣Ѳμब¸뤳ȤǤ롥㤨Сָ̱츻ȤƤФм夲븽Ѹ belfry (bell-tower) Ǥϡ (bell) ˤäƾϰɽ "pars pro toto" Υȥ˥ߡʤ뤤 (synecdoche)ˤѤƤ롥ΰ̣Ѳʬष褦ȤСָ̱츻Ǥ⤢ꡤĥȥ˥ߡǤ⤢ȤȤˤʤꡤȤȤ෿ϳ餵Ф෿ǤϤʤȤϪ褷Ƥ롥ΤȤϤޤ̣Ѳθᥫ˥बˤʣǤ뤳ȡͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥
Ǹˡ󤲤Ƥ෿ˤꤢ̣Ѳμब󤲿Ԥ줿櫓ǤϤʤ礱Ƥ롥äȤ̣ѲμǤ䤷ƤФ褤ȤΤǤʤ⤽෿Ȥ뤳ȤǤΤȤϤ롥
ɤΤȤ෿ιۤ񤷤Τϡ(1) ̣ѲҲʸ򻲾ȤʤеҡǤʤȤ¿(2) Ե§ͽ¬ԲǽǤꡤ(3) Ụ̄ŪפʶŪʤɤˤޤ夤˵褦˻פ롥

McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-27-1]

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