֥ƥ˻ˤ͡ΰưˤˤäĤɤΤ褦̱²äƤơˤ轻̱뤤϶¸ˤĤơܺ٤Ϥ狼äƤʤľΥ֥ƥ̱Ǥä֥ȿ͡פˤĤƤ⡤ĤɤΤ褦褷ΤˤĤƽ⤢ꡤŪȤʤäƤ롥ʲǤϡ (3--5) (17--22) (7--9) ˰͵ơʽŪʵҤܤƤ
बߤΥ֥ƥ桼饷Φü˵サƤǸŤκפϡ81ǯΤΤȤƤ롥1ǯεдˤϡˤͥǥ륿ͤʸäͤꡤͤĺνĤߤĤĽ夤Ƥ7000--6000ǯˤʤȡϤΦȴڤΥ줿֥ƥǤ롥ǵ4000ǯ̤ܤϤޤꡤд롥κˤϡ٥ꥢȾ礢뤤̥եꥫߤ͡褷Ƥ褦д22--20ˤΦӡ͡ʤȤѤ줿ڴˤʤˤȸƤФνĤäƤơƼʸ⤿餷ӡͤϡ餯äƤȹͤ롥ȡإɽʸϵ18˱ɤκޤǤˤ羮͡ʽĤޤƤ褦
礦ɤκ2ǯˤϡΦΥץ̮ˡ˥ȿͤȸƤФŪνĤޤƤǯۤɤ衼åѡä沤첤ˤƳĥ6ˤϥ֥ƥˤ褷ƼʸôɤФơŴʸ⤿餷Ĥġ˽夯褦ˤʤäʤȿͤȤäƤѰʸäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ줿¿ͤ轻̱Ԥʸȸͭˤ䤫ʸŪΤʤƤȤȤ館ΤŬڤȤϴˤ䤫Ʊäǽ⤢ˡơ֥ƥ˼褷ƤȿͤΤʤǤ濴Ṳ̄ȤǸʬɤ٥륬ͤǤꡤ2ޤǤ˹٤ŴʸȯãƤ²ʬΩƤΥȿͤ1ȾФĤ뤳Ȥˤʤ֥ƥ̱ä
ľδʪ졡ꥹˡʾˡ١ҡӡ2015ǯ
̭ԡˡإꥹˡ١Ǽҡ1998ǯ
ؿ⥤ꥹˡ١Ͻн˼ҡ2002ǯ
ɤˤ륢ɸ줫Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ˤĤơ#2798. ̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) Ǽ夲ؤϸߤʹɸ (irish) ϤޤΤ˻ѤƤ롥ɸѤμ֤ˤĤơ (20--20) εҤվˤޤȤƤߤ褦
奢ɤǤΥߥ˥μήϱѸǤ
ɸΤߤäüԤ¸ߤʤ
Ū˥ɸѤΤϡ2%٤Ǥ
2011ǯιĴˤȥɸüԡʡ֥ɸ줬äüԡסˤ177ͤǡ3аʾο40.6%
ɶ¹ˡ8ˤϥɸ줬 (national language) Ǥ1ѸǤ뤳ȤƤʱѸ2Ѹ
ɸϡ¿ΥɿͤˤȤäƳعdzؤָǤ
̱²Ǥ륢ɸ뤳ȤϸؤλŻ˽ɬܤǤꡤ⤯ɾ
ɤϡ2010ǯ2030ǯޤǤΡ20ǯάפǥɸȱѸΥХǤ¤䤹ײΩƤƤ
ϤǤϥɸϡ֥ (Gaelic) ȾΤ졤ϰϡ֥륿ϥȡ (Gaeltacht) ȸƤФ
Ǹ˿줿륿ϥȤϡ濴˾ȤߤƤʤˤϥåȥɤΥϰޤˡÚdarás na Gaeltachta Υۡڡˤȡ"The Gaeltacht covers extensive parts of counties Donegal, Mayo, Galway and Kerry --- all along the western seaboard --- and also parts of counties Cork, Meath and Waterford." 롥ʲ˴ñϿޤƸƤʡ#774. ȸʬۡ ([2011-06-10-1]) Ͽޤ⻲ȡˡ

ɸˤγάˤĤƤϡBackground on the Irish Language εͭѡϢơɤˤˤĤơ#762. ꥶ٥Ūʥˬ ([2011-05-29-1])#2361. ǯɽ ([2015-10-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ
֥ƥ礬43ǯ410ǯޤǤΤޤλ۲֤졤Ǥ٥ƥ줬äƤȤ¤顤λѤƤƥñ줬μ礿ȤʤѸˤ⡤ĤäƤϤǤϤʤ뤫⤷ʤΥƥñ¿ȸüԤȤʤäơ˱Ѹˤ줿ΤǤϤʤȡºݤˤϤΤ褦ʾϵʤäBaugh and Cable (77) ˤȡ
It would be hardly too much to say that not five words outside of a few elements found in place-names can be really proved to owe their presence in English to the Roman occupation of Britain. It is probable that the use of Latin as a spoken language did not long survive the end of Roman rule in the island and that such vestiges as remained for a time were lost in the disorders that accompanied the Germanic invasions. There was thus no opportunity for direct contact between Latin and Old English in England, and such Latin words as could have found their way into English would have had to come in through Celtic transmission. The Celts, indeed, had adopted a considerable number of Latin words---more than 600 have been identified--- but the relations between the Celts and the English were such . . . that these words were not passed on.
Υȸˤ600ƥñ줬äƤȤΤϡΤʤäơűѸäΤϤä5ˤʤȤäƤ뤬Baugh and Cable (77--78) ƤΤϡceaster (< L castra "camp"), port (< L portus, porta "harbor, gate, town"), munt (< L mōns, montem "mountain"), torr (L turris "tower, rock"), wīc (< L vīcus "village") Ǥ롥Ǥ츻˰ΤΤ⤢ꡤȸͳǸűѸäƥѸγμ¤ȤϤʤʤ⤷ʤ¾̾ǤȤƤ street, wall, wine ʤɤäƤ뤬ˤ褽Τ褦ʥ롼ȤǸűѸäƥѸ찮ꤷʤ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1]) ʤɤǿ줿褦ˡѸˤˤƥƥñμѤȤȷϩϲ٤ä Baugh and Cable θƤ֤ȤΥƥñѤ1˴ؤƤϡ٤Τä˾ʤȸäƤBaugh and Cable (78) η
At best . . . the Latin influence of the First Period remains much the slightest of all the influences that Old English owed to contact with Roman civilization.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
#2473. եˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-03-1])#2474. ˤθס ([2016-02-04-1])#2477. Ѹˤߤ20ˡλ ([2016-02-07-1]) ǡեȱѸʤɤεˡˤĤƹͤϡεǤ⾯줿ե20ˡεˤ˴ؤǤ롥
եǤϡ10 (dix), 20 (vingt), 30 (trente), 40 (quarante), 50 (cinquante), 60 (soixante) ޤǤϳơΩ֤70 soixante-dix (60+10)80 quatre-vingts (4x20)90 quatre-vingt-dix (4x20+10) Ȥ䤳Ǥ롥ޤ6179ޤǤü8199ޤǤüϡ㤨79 soixante-dix-neuf (60+10+9) 99 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (80+10+9) Τ褦ˡؤ䤳üˤ衤80ɽ魯ɽˤ衤ظ20ñ̤Ȥͤʤ20ˡǤȤȤˤʤ롥եοηϤϡ10ˡ20ˡκߤȤߤʤȤǤ
嵭ϤޤǸɸեˤηϤεҤǤäơŪ˸ꤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤߤǤեѼϤаۤʤ뵭ˡ롥ޤˤ֤ȡ842ǯΡإȥ饹֡٤˻ϤޤǽΥե줫δ֡Ǥ20ˡ˴ŤˡѤƤ褦12ˤϡquatre-vins (80) 줿̥եΥǤ dis huit vins (360) ʤɤ礭ʿˤ20ˡѤƤ롥ǡƥͳ褹10ˡѤ setante, septante (70); oitante, uitante, octante (80); nonante (90) ʻѤƤȤդɬפǤ롥ʻѾ֤ϡ1539ǯΡ֥졼ᥳȥļװʹ߾ƤäλɬӤΤǤϤʤäԤδ֤ǵϤä褦17ˤϾQŪˤϼʤΤȻפ줽 septante, octante, nonante ϼΤƤ졤ԤΤΤˤۤ夤
ʩΥå졤٥륮Υե졤ΥեʤɼդѼǤϡΤ quatre-vingts Ѥ줿ΤΡ10ˡ˴Ť septante nonante soixante-dix quatre-vingt-dix ФƾɸŪʵˡȤ夷Ƥ롥ѼǤ septante, octante, nonante λѤˤĤơ (28) Douzat ζ̣ȯȤƼʸƤ롥֤οϥեΥեϰ衤٥륮Τ褦ʡäȤƥ첽졤δؿƩκǤ⾯ʤϰˤ夷Ƥʤ
ơե˸20ˡεˡΤ⤽εˤĤƤϤɤեˤΤۤܽᤫڤΤǤ뤫顤λ̤ʤФʤʤ (27) ϡХ졤֥ȥ졤ǥޡ20ˡεˡѻ뤳ȤҤ٤ǡΤ褦˵Ƥ롥
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡ20ˡϥեͭΤΤǤϤʤ衼åѤ˺ǤĤ븽ݤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ȤǤĶˤäơĸΥƥˤϤʤ20ˡեϤɤȤ줿Τquatre-vingts soixante-dix ϡȥ֥륯˥åפ12˽ФȤƤΤǤ뤬ºݤˤϤ꤫ʤˤΤܤäƤϤǤ롥εˤĤơؼԤΰոϤۤܰפƤ롥ͤꥢϤ˿ν̱²ȿͤ⤿餷ΤȤǤ롥Ĥ²ʬƤ̱²ˤϡΤ20ˡѤƤ²⤤ä˥륺ΥȿͤˤĤƤϡ˸ŤڤˤäƳǧƤȤΥꥢˤȿͤ˴ؤϻĤäƤʤ椨եͤǤ륬ޥͤ˥ȿͤ줬äȤڤ뤳ȤϺΤȤԲǽʤΤǤ롥ȵʳˤϡޥʸؼԤȤΤƤե G. Rohlfs ˤΥޥ⤬롥ȸƤФ줿Υޥͤϡ800ǯʩ˽פϤθϤϥǥʥȥǥޡǤäϡ911ǯ˥3Ȥδ֤Ǹ路ˤäơߥΥޥǥȸƤФƤϰ꽻Marcel Cohen ˤСΥޥǥΥɥĮ Bayeux ˤϡ12ޤǥǥޡ줬ĤäƤȤ꽻ΥΥޥͤϡ1066ǯ˥ꥹ˹ΤǤ뤬Ʊΰϥꥢȥꥢ˸饻ͤ뤷ƤˤΥޥߤߤꥢ䥷ꥢ20ˡߤ뤳ȤʸˡȤϻŦƤ롥ե20ˡɤ褿ˤĤơ⡤ΥޥΤɤȤˤ衤ϥեˤΤܤ뤳ȤǤꡤڤϺʤ褦Ǥ롥
֥եοˤĤơסʽصסʸϡˡ271995ǯ19--32ǡ
ʸ (ogham) ϡ衤륺롤ޥ硤ƥåȥɤΰ4ʹ˻ޤѤ줿20ʸʤ륢ե٥åʸηϤ1Ǥ롥ȥꥢʸʤ뤤ϥޥե٥åȡˤꥢͤμͳƤϤΥȸüԤäѷΤ餷ɤإꥹȶŤȼΥȡꥹȶȯã뤢ˤѤ³줿Ūˤϥ롼ʸ (runic) Ȥⲿ餫δطȤƤʡ#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1]) ʤɤȤ줿ˡʸȤ̾ϡ롼ʸäȤ륲ޥǥ (Odin) 륢ɿ (Ogma) ͳ褷λͺۤοͰƼԤǤƤ롥ʸǽɽƤϥȸΤۤԥȸ (Pictish) ⤢褦ΤƤ375ʾäΤ300ۤɤϥɤϤǸĤäƤ롥
ʸλСʤƸ¸Ƥʤ餯ںˤγѤ˹ߤĤ줿ñʴŪʼǤ롥ûʸϤˤ̺ĹɬפȤʤ뤿ᡤĹʸϽƤʤñ㤵ϤʸϵǤޤǻȤƤʸΤʤǡäȤ̯ʤΡ (207) ɾ֤ʸϡˤʤäƤĤ줿⡼륹ȤΰŹԤäȤäƤ褤褦˻פ (209) ȽҤ٤Ƥ (cf. #1805. Morse code ([2014-04-06-1]))
ʸνˤĤƤϽĤ˲͡뤬Encylopædia Britannica 1997 Ǥ "In many cases the ogham inscriptions run upward." ȤڤƤꡤ#2483. (4) ([2016-02-13-1]) ȴϢƶ̣
Comrie et al. (188) ꡤΥץ

Comrie et al. (189) ˤϡʸεˤĤưʲΤ褦ä
The origin of the script is uncertain. Some scholars have speculated that Ogham is based upon a secret finger-language of the Druidic priests, citing a medieval Irish manuscript in which such a finger-code is described. It has also been proposed that the script developed under the influence of the Latin or Greek alphabets and the Germanic runes .
ۤ˥ʸΥץϡOmniglot: Writing Systems & Language of the World Ogham alphabet ˤܤΤȡ
ʸסزɡʸ١˼1999
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.
Ѹ̾ˤĤƤϡtoponymy γƵǼ夲Ƥˤ֥ɤˤ륱ȸ̾ˤĤơ (pp. 191--209) ˴ŤơɤΥȸ̾ʬۤˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
5ȾꡤޥΥ͡͡塼ȿͤ꼡ǥ֥ƥ轻ΥȷϽ̱²̤ɤꡤ˥ɤȸƤФΰаޤϡ褯ΤƤ (#33. 塼ȿͤ̾Τˡ ([2009-05-31-1])#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1])#1013. ͤϤɤ֥ƥϤä ([2012-02-04-1])#2353. ʤͤϥɤΤ ([2015-10-06-1])) ޤԤαѸ줬ԤΥȸ줫ۤȤΩäüѤԤʤäȤ⡤褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ#1216. űѸΥȼѸ ([2012-08-25-1]) #1736. ꥹ̾ͳ ([2014-01-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̾ˤĤƤ㳰Ȥ٤ǤꡤȸǤȤɤ륤̾ϾʤʤȤ櫓ɤβˤĤƤϡ¿ȸϤ̾ͿƤ뤳ȤŪ˻ŦƤ (cf. #1188. ɤβ̾ Thames, Humber, Stour ([2012-07-28-1]))
ޥν̱²꽻ϡλ֤ơɤ줫ؿʹԤȹͤ뤬ϥȸ̾ʬۤȤ褯פ롥ʲϿޡp. 199ˤϡȸϤβ̾ʬۤˤꥤɵڤӥ륺4Ĥΰ˶ʬΤǤ롥Ⱦʬ Area I 顤Ⱦʬޤ Area IIƤϢܤ Area III 顤ǤŪʥ륺䥳뤫ʤ Area IV ޤǡȸϤβ̾ڤ̩̾٤ǻʤ롥

꽻ˤȥȸ̾ǻøϢŤȡΤ褦ˤʤArea I ϡ5--6˥ͤ䥵֥ͤƥ褷ܵϤȤΰǤꡤͽۤ褦ˤˤϳμ¤˥ȸϤȤ̾϶ˤƾʤܤ Area II ؤϡͤ6Ⱦˡͤ7˿ʽФΰǤϡArea I ٤֡Ӥʤɤ̾˥ȸϤ̾¿뤬Ѹ̾ȤӤˤʤʤ餤Ǥ롥ˡ7--8ˤơͤϡ¦ʤ Devonshire, Somerset, Dorset; Worcestershire, Shropshire; Lancashire, Westmoreland, Cumberland ʤɤ Area III ؤŸΰǤϡ֡ӤΤۤ¼졤ŪħŤ˥ȸǤä¿ѻ롥ͤ Area III ؤοʽФϡArea I ٤2ۤɤ٤줿λ֤κȸ̾Ǥǻøκˤ褯Ƥ롥ǸˡCornwall, Wales, Monmouthshire, Herefordshire ʤ Area IV ϡȷ轻̱ǸޤƧߤȤɤޤäΰǤꡤʤ顤ȸ̾Ū¿
Τ褦˷ˤ̾Ǥˤ줤ȿǤƤϾʤʤ⤦1ĤλȤơ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) Ȥ줿
ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ
4֤ˤ錄äƥ֥ƥƤͤϡ410ǯȤ٤֥ƥ礫űˤäޤ줿Ūˤꡤ֥ƥϥȽ̱²ؤ롥̱²Ūٱ٤ΦƤͤ͡ʤޥ̱²֥ƥ˸ƤӴȡषޥϥȷμߤƤȤꡤ쵤οƼԤȤʤä
ϡͤˤ֥ƥΡŪʽŪʵҤǤ롥Ǥϡͤδȿͤδ̤Ȥ¤ˤ狼䤹ޤƤ롥ۤ180žȤäƤ褯ȼäơμ礿Ѹ⡤ȷϽ줫ޥʤʤҤäƱѸˤظؤͤϡȿͤʤޤǤáΤ᤹뤤ʤɼؤŰŪɤäȤˤʤ롥
ۤɤޤǤδȤΤϡͤˤȤäơäޤǤƤ䤤ʤΤ褦ʴ顤ºݤˤϤʤ٥ͤȥȿͤͻ礬äΤǤϤʤʤɤεʤƤ⤤롥
Τ褦ʽŪʸФƤƤȤϤͤˤ륤ĸΨŪˤʤ줿Ȥϻ¤Τ褦ɸ˳ؤǤϤ뤬ʤѸˤˤƤפǤ롥Denison and Hogg (10) ϡ嵭ζʽŪʵҤ̤ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
But that is not quite enough to explain the rapidity of the Germanic settlement, which was far more a conquest of Britain, linguistically speaking, than the Norman Conquest 500 years later would be. What its speed suggests is that there must have been considerable population pressure in northwestern Europe at the time, perhaps partly because in the fifth century the average temperature was lower than it had been earlier and would again be later. Whatever the case may have been, this conquest saw an overwhelmingly rapid replacement or absorption of the existing Celtic linguistic community by the newly arrived Germanic speakers. There is now some genetic evidence for mass immigration to central English . . . , consistent with displacement of the male Celtic population by Anglo-Saxons but saying nothing about females. Before long Celtic speakers had been confined to the lands west of Offa's Dyke, to Cornwall, the northwest, and north of the Borders of Scotland. The gradual elimination of Celtic has continued remorselessly, albeit slowly, ever since. It may only have been with the coming of Christianity and the establishment of churches and abbeys that Anglo-Saxon England started to achieve the beginning of the types of political and social structure which we associate with later centuries.
ǯѸˤˤƥȸθŪƶФˤ褦ˤʤäƤΡŷŪʡץͤοϡΤ褦ʲˤؤ礭Ǥ롥¤ΤäβԤ롥
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
ǸɽˤŪ칽¤롥ʸˡѸǤСΩʬ칽ʸľ and 빽¤פФ褤Ѹ줫ѸˤѤ졤ߤǤ⥢ɱѸ䥹åȥɱѸ˸ä칽¤Kremola and Filppula Helsinki Corpus ѤƤι¤ˤˤĤƤΤŪ䤹ʸʲ˺ƷǤ뤳Ȥˤ褦
And thei herynge these thingis, wenten awei oon aftir anothir, and thei bigunnen fro the eldre men; and Jhesus dwelte aloone, and the womman stondynge in the myddil. (Wyclif, John 8, 9, circa 1380)
For we have dwelt ay with hir still And was neuer fro hir day nor nyght. Hir kepars haue we bene And sho ay in oure sight. (York Plays, 120, circa 1459)
& ȝif it is founde þat he be of good name & able þat þe companye may be worscheped by him, he schal be resceyued, & elles nouȝht; & he to make an oþ with his gode wil to fulfille þe poyntes in þe paper, þer whiles god ȝiueþ hym grace of estat & of power (Book of London English, 54, 1389)
. . . and presently fixing mine eyes vpon a Gentleman-like object, I looked on him, as if I would suruay something through him, and make him my perspectiue: and hee much musing at my gazing, and I much gazing at his musing, at las he crost the way . . . (All the Workes of John Taylor the Water Poet, 1630)
. . . and I say, of seventy or eighty Carps, [I] only found five or six in the said pond, and those very sick and lean, and . . . (The Compleat Angler, 1653--1676)
Which would be hard on us, and me a widow. (Mar. Edgeworth, Absentee, xi, 1812) ʢòŪˡ
and Ƴˤư줬礱Ƥꡤ졤ʬ졤ʬ졤ƻ졤̾졤ֻʤɤΤħǤ롥Ūˤϼˤˤи뤳ȤǤǽŪˤΩʬ칽ʸƱͤƱӾɽ魯ιʸ٤ѸǤϵǡѸǾȤϤ˼Ū칽¤Ǥäˤϰ㤤ʤKremola and Filppula (311, 315) ϡŪΩʬ칽ʸȹƤ뤬ȤľܤˤϴطʤȯãǤꡤäƥƥåʹʸȤʤطʤȹͤƤ롥
Ǥϡι¤εϤɤˤΤKremola and Filppula (315) ϡ줬ѤƤ륱ˤĤƤϡƥгդ칽ʸδͿ⤢뤫⤷ʤȾ⤷ƤΤΡʳΥˤĤƤϥȽб빽¤αƶƤ롥
The infinitival type, which at least in its non-exclamatory use is closer to coordination than the other types, may well derive from the Latin accusative with the infinitive . . . But the non-infinitival constructions (and the exclamatory infinitival patterns), although they too are often considered to have their origins in the Latin absolute constructions, could also stem from another source, viz. Celtic languages. Whereas the Latin models typically lack the overt subordinator, subordinating and-structures closely equivalent to the ones met in Middle English and Early Modern English are a well-attested feature of the neighbouring Celtic languages from their earliest stages on.
伫ȤϥȷϸʤΤǡKremola and Filppula (315--16) ˵Ƥťɸ졤楦륺졤奢ɸ줫ʸŬڤɾǤʤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡǤ⤳ι¤ɱѸ䥹åȥɱѸ̤˸뤳ȤŦƤ롥
ʤFilppula ϡѸ˥ȽδŪƶ (substratum_theory) ǧ褦ȤҤǤ롥#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
Kremola, Juhani and Markku Filppula. "Subordinating Uses of and in the History of English." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
#47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1]) ǺƵ̾ -self ν֤εõäεΤȤϰۤʤ⤤Ĥ롥Ĵ٤ȤŤʸǸߤϤɤΤ褦ɾƤΤ狼ʤȸбɽͿƤΤǤϤʤȤ⤬äȸαѸؤαƶƤ Preusler (187) ΰѤ롥
Im Altenglischen und noch überwiegend bei Shakespeare und in den heutigen Mundarten dient das einfache Personalpronomen als Reflexiv. Daneben kommt schon altenglisch Versärkung mit self vor, doch erst seit der ersten Hälfte des 13. Jh.s das Possessiv mit self. --- Das Kymrische kennt seit alters beides, my hun ich selbst neben fy hun mein selbst. Die Neigung zum Possessiv ist hier so stark, daß es sich in allen Personen durchgesetzt hat. --- Die Pluralformen zeigen auch den Plural von hun: ein hunain wir selbst usw.; im Englischen treten die Pluralformen erst seit der Mitte des 16. Jh.s auf.
Ǥϡ1, 2;Τ myself, yourself ʤɤ°ʷͳ뤫⤷ʤhimself ʤɤͿʷͥȤʤäаޤʤޤǸʬǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡѸʣˤ -(e)s yourselves themselves ФΤ16ˤƤ˥ȸδͿäȲꤹΤǤСʤλޤDZƶٱ䤷ΤȤ䤬롥εϡȸƶμꤶ¿ιܤ˶̤ꤲƤ뵿Ǥ롥
ܿȤ쳰ŪװǤϤʤŪɽŪȤƤϡmē selfum -> mī self -> myself βּ岽⤬롥رѸ츻ŵ٤ self ιѤ褦
OE self ̾ŪƻȤ̾̾źƤ롤ƻѲǤäȤͿʡгʤۼˤο;̾줬ƵŪѤȤźơhim selfum Τ褦ʷ뤳Ȥ¿ä12Cˤʤ self- θϡ餯ȴ褦ˤʤä̡æη䤬 HIMSELF Τ褦˰ˤʤꡤ God self ȤäȤ God himself Ȥ褦ˤʤä mē selfum, þē selfum ȯޤä mī self, þī self Ȥʤꡤ self ̾ȴ mi self, þi self (MYSELF, THYSELF) ȹͤ롥ʣ -selves (cf. OE wē selfe we ourselves) ȤʤΤ⡤self ̤̾Τ褦Ѳ褦ˤʤä̤Ǥ롥
Preusler, Walther. "Keltischer Einfluß im Englischen." Indogermanische Forschungen 56 (1938): 178--91.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ε#1735. ʥ̾ͳ ([2014-01-26-1]) ³ơϥꥹν (county, shire) ̾εˤĤơޤϡäϿޤǤOrdnance Survey - Outline maps ꤷ1972--1996ǯε콣̾äϿޤǤ롥ޤåƳ (65KB) 뤤ʤ (260KB)뤤PDF (243KB) Ȥʤɤ

ʲν̾ͳϡCrystal (143) ˤȤŤWestern Isles, Highland, Central, Borders ʤɡΤΤϾάƤ롥ʤ饱Ƚͳ褹뽣̾¿
| Avon | "river" |
| Bedford | "Beda's ford" |
| Berkshire | "county of the wood of Barroc" ("hilly place") |
| Buckingham | "riverside land of Bucca's people" |
| Cambridge | "bridge over the river Granta" |
| Cheshire | "county of Chester" (Roman "fort") |
| Cleveland | "hilly land" |
| Clwyd | "hurdle" (? on river) |
| Cornwall | "(territory of) Britons of the Cornovii" ("promontory people") |
| Cumbria | "territory of the Welsh" |
| Derby | "village where there are deer" |
| Devon | "(territory of) the Dumnonii" ("the deep ones", probably miners) |
| Dorset | "(territory of the) settlers around Dorn" ("Dorchester") |
| Dumfries and Galloway | "woodland stronghold"; "(territory of) the stranger-Gaels" |
| Durham | "island with a hill" |
| Dyfed | "(territory of) the Demetae" |
| Essex | "(territory of) the East Saxons" |
| Fife | "territory of Vip" (?) |
| Glamorgan | "(Prince) Morgan's shore" |
| Gloucester | "(Roman) fort at Glevum" ("bright place") |
| Grampian | unknown origin |
| Gwent | "favoured place" |
| Gwynedd | "(territory of) Cunedda" (5th-century leader) |
| Hampshire | "county of Southampton" ("southern home farm") |
| Hereford and Worcester | "army ford"; "(Roman) fort of the Wigora" |
| Hertford | "hart ford" |
| Humberside | "side of the good river" |
| Kent | "land on the border" (?) |
| Lancashire | "(Roman) fort on the Lune" ("health-giving river") |
| Leicester | "(Roman) fort of the Ligore people" |
| Lincoln | "(Roman) colony at Lindo" ("lake place") |
| London | "(territory of) Londinos" ("the bold one") (?) |
| Lothian | "(territory of) Leudonus" |
| Man | "land of Mananan" (an Irish god) |
| Manchester | "(Roman) fort at Mamucium" |
| Merseyside | "(side of the) boundary river" |
| Norfolk | "northern people" |
| Northampton | "northern home farm" |
| Northumberland | "land of those dwelling north of the Humber" |
| Nottingham | "homestead of Snot's people" |
| Orkney | "whale island" (?) (After J. Field, 1980) |
| Oxford | "ford used by oxen" |
| Powys | "provincial place" |
| Scilly | unknown origin |
| Shetland | "hilt land" |
| Shropshire | "county of Shrewsbury" ("fortified place of the scrubland region") |
| Somerset | "(territory of the) settlers around Somerton" ("summer dwelling") |
| Stafford | "ford beside a landing-place" |
| Strathclyde | "valley of the Clyde" (the "cleansing one") |
| Suffolk | "southern people" |
| Surrey | "southern district" |
| Sussex | "(territory of) the South Saxons" |
| Tayside | "silent river" or "powerful river" |
| Tyne and Wear | "water, river"; "river" |
| Warwick | "dwellings by a weir" |
| Wight | "place of the division" (of the sea) (?) |
| Wiltshire | "county around Wilton" ("farm on the river Wylie") |
| Yorkshire | "place of Eburos" |
Ѳ벾ΰĤˡظƶ (substratum_theory) 롥ԤԤθݤˡȤθħäȯħˤϢƤ椯Ȥǡ¦θ˸ѲȤͤǤ롥ѸˤȴŪ˴ϢȤǤϡˡ§ޤ First Germanic Consonant Shift 䡤Second Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤΤˡβ⤬Ф뤳Ȥ¿#416. Second Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤä ([2010-06-17-1]) #650. ˥ȥˡ§ ([2011-02-06-1]) #1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤ ([2012-05-22-1]) ʤɤǿ줿̤Ǥ롥
βκμߤϡ¿ξ硤ؤʤƤˤĤƤμƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥ä˸θѲˤˤϡμߤ˸롥㤨Сˡ§˼СƶͿƤȤظ줬ʤΤȤǤ鴰ʰפƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ˤ줬ȸäλƤ⡤θѲľܤǤΤΥȸѼθηϤ뤳ȤפˡѲڤܤȹִͤظפԹɤ褦˻Ωƾ夲뤳ȤĤǤǽʤΤǤ롥θħžܤȤݼΤϸ콬ʬǤΤƤ뤬ζŪʸѲľƤϤ뤳Ȥ
Jespersen Bloomfield ⡤Ʊ˲ŪΩäƤ롥ȽδĴϡȤƤѲȡؤδͿꤵƤ̱²ȤŪ뤤Ūɬ礷ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰǤ롥̱²ꡤ̤ȤƸؤʹԤƤޤˤλ֤ȾˤơθѲäȤȤǤСظƶϾʤȤ⸡ڤͤѲؤλ֤äƤꡤѲ뤲ŪʬۤŪʬۤȰפʤΤǤСʬظƶʤåȤϾʤʤ롥ष̤θõä褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
ظƶԤˤϡʥ˥βǽΤȤ⤻ظ㤨Хȸˤαƶ͡ʻ˴Ф褦ȼĥԤ⤤롥Jespersen ϤΤ褦ʹͤȿ롥
I must content myself with taking exception to the principle that the effect of the ethnic substratum may show itself several generations after the speech substitution took place. If Keltic ever had 'a finger in the pie,' it must have been immediately on the taking over of the new language. An influence exerted in such a time of transition may have far-reaching after-effects, like anything else in history, but this is not the same thing as asserting that a similar modification of the language may take place after the lapse of some centuries as an effect of the same cause. (200)
Jespersen μĥϡظƶˤϳ (atavism) ϤʤȤĥ (201) ƱݤȽBloomfield Ǥⷫ깭Ƥ롥
The substratum theory attributes sound-change to transference of language: a community which adopts a new language will speak it imperfectly and with the phonetics of its mother-tongue. . . . [I]t is important to see that the substratum theory can account for changes only during the time when the language is spoken by persons who have acquired it as a second language. There is no sense in the mystical version of the substratum theory, which attributes changes, say, in modern Germanic languages, to a "Celtic substratum" --- that is, to the fact that many centuries ago, some adult Celtic-speakers acquired Germanic speech. Moreover, the Celtic speech which preceded Germanic in southern Germany, the Netherlands, and England, was itself an invading language: the theory directs us back into time, from "race" to "race," to account for vague "tendencies" that manifest themselves in the actual historical occurrence of sound-change. (386)
ǯѸˤ夬äƤƤ륱ȸαʸˡؤαƶȤ⡤ظƶΰ֤ª뤫⤷ʤǤȤСʤȤŪˤϡ嵭ȽƤϤޤ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) #1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) ȡ
ظƶ⤬ƤѲȤƤϡJespersen (192--98) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
äդˤƤѲŪݼŪʽդȿǤ줺ˡδѻԤܤ˸ƤʤȤǽϡʸؾ塤뤳ȤΤǤʤΤǤ롥㤨С줬νդȿǤƤʤȤäơäդȤѤƤ⤷ʤȤǽǤOED νǯΰ˴ؤ뿵ʤɤϻʹ롥ΤʿǤϤ뤬ޤ˿䤷ʤȡʸ˳ǧʤǡʤ뤳Ȥ⡤äդǤϤ⤷ʤǤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤޤϢȤơվǡȤ礭Ѳä褦˸ˡϽդڤؤ˵븫ѲˤбäդǤϡޤѲ˿ʹԤƤϤȤ롥
Ѹ쥪βǤ⡤ˡ¤ѤƤ롥Poussa ϡ14ˤ Samuels νդʬǤ Type II Type III ǡڤؤϡбäդεѲΤǤϤʤȤդ˸ʤ̲äդˤƤϡKnut 衤쥪벽 koiné ³ƤϤȹͤƤ롥ơType III оϡ14Ūʥեϰ̤βȡѸϰ̤θưŤ줿ѸɸಽĬήȿǤΤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
. . . if we take the view that the English speech of London had, since the time of Knut, been a continuum of regional and social varieties of which the Midland koiné was one, then it is easier to explain the changes in the written language [from Type II to Type III] as jerky adjustments to a gradual rise in social status of the spoken Midland variety. (80)
褦ʵϡǯ褦ˤʤäƤȸαѸ˵ڤܤƶˤĤƤʹ㤨С[2011-03-17-1]ε#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶפȡˡűѸɸաLate West-Saxon Schriftsprache ߤäƤޤäƤΤΡűѸѸäդˤΥȸŪǤޤޤƤϤȤѸ줬եΤӤѸʹߤˡ褦䤯äդդξ¤ȿǤ褦ˤʤꡤǤ˥ȸαƶƤ do-periphrasis ʹԷʸ塤Ƴǧ褦ˤʤäΤ롥
εϡʸؤˤƼֻܸѤƤ scribal error show-through Ȥäޤ餺äդƩƸƤޤ褦ʽλ̵뤷Ƥ褦˻פ롥̻ʹ֤Ǥ롥˺ݤơäդȤȤʤɤǤǻפ鷺äդϪ褷ƤޤΤȤΤǤϤʤ
äդ١դߤäƤȤΤϻ¤սڤؤˤäơ礭ʸѲä褦˸ȤΤˤդ˸ʤȤǤäդǤϵäƤ⤷ʤ䵯äƤ˰㤤ʤȡѶŪƤƤ褤ͳˤϤʤʤƤѸ쥪βȶǯΥȸƶδ֤˻褦Ǥ롥
Poussa, Patricia. "The Evolution of Early Standard English: The Creolization Hypothesis." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14 (1982): 69--85.
##1223,1249,1250,1251 εǡBailey and Maroldt ˤäƻϤ줿Ѹ쥪βƤBailey and Maroldt ȽƤФäʸˤϼŪʹͻ⤢뤳ȤդäƤ
[2012-09-28-1]ε#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3)פ (5) Ǽ夲ֱѸȥեȤδ֤ʿԴطѻܡ (Bailey and Maroldt 51--52) ֥եαƶܡפΥꥹȤȤªСʩܿθƤƤȤͭѤ⤷ʤ[2012-09-01-1]ε#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫פǾҲ𤷤褦ˡGörlach ϡʲΤۤȤɤιܤ˰۵ĤˤƤȤϤʤˤΰ̣
A. Anglo-Saxon elements in French functions:
1) the -līce deadjectival adverb-formative;
2) the use of wh-interrogatives as relative pronouns; cf. French qu-interrogatives and relatives;
3) progressive formations and other tense/aspect/diathesis formations;
4) prepositions of the pattern exemplified by outside of, or Anglo-Saxon prepositions in French uses;
5) French-like uses of the pronoun cases;
6) the cleft-sentence formation;
7) case functions of the of-"genitive" and the to-"dative";
8) second-person informal/formal distinction in forms of address;
9) Middle English calques that got lost later; e.g. the which;
10) analytical comparison.
B. French-influenced developments, the first of which is essentially universal:
1) loss of inflections, especially case and gender distinctions;
2) word order, especially after negative elements; but not the order of adjectives.
C. French elements:
1) vocabulary --- quantitatively as well as qualitatively very considerable;
2) a huge part of English derivational morphology;
3) most phonomorphological rules;
4) certain sounds; e.g. initial [v dž] and the diphthong [ɔ].
ޤޤǤޤʹȤΤʤȸ줢뤤ϸťΥɸ줫αƶβǽȤơθڤܤαޤäΤդäƤ"The fact that clear [l] as well as non-aspirated [p t k] are widespread in the North could be due to either Keltic or Nordic influence" (25).
Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
5˥֥ͤƥ塤̱Ǥ륱ȿͤϤʤŪƶ뤳ȤȤʤäűѸˤ륱ȸαƶκǤΤϡ̾Ǥ롥[2012-07-28-1]ε#1188. ɤβ̾ Thames, Humber, Stourפǥ̾ˤĤƤοΤȤƥȤ̾¿ĤäƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤
̾뤤ϰ̾ȤơBarr (cf. Welsh bar = "top", "summit"), Bernicia, Bredon, Brockhall, Brockholes (brocc = "badger"), Bryn Mawr, Cornwall, Creech, Cumberland, Cumbria, Deira, Duncombe (cumb = "a deep valley"), Exeter, Gloucester, Holcombe, Huntspill, Kent, Lichfield, Pendle (cf. Welsh pen= "top"), Pylle (pill = "a tidal creek"), Salisbury, Torcross, Torhill, Torr (torr = "high rock, peak"), Torhill, Winchcombe, Winchester, Worcester ˤϡΤ뤤ϸΰˤƥȸ etymon ޤޤƤ롥Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Dover, Wye ʤɤβ̾⥱ȸǤ롥
̾ΤСȸ줫μѤ϶ϾǤ롥ass, binn (basket, crib), bratt (cloak), brocc (brock or badger), crag (a high steep rough mass of rock), cumb (valley), dun (dark colored), luh (lake), torr (outcropping or projecting rock, peak) ʤɤθϡͤȿͤȤṲ̄ܿƱѸؼΤǡancor (hermit), cine (a gathering of parchment leaves), clugge (bell), cross, cursian (to curse), drȳ (magician), gabolrind (compass), mind (diadem), stær (history) ʤɤθϡɤ붵դˤ륱ȷϥꥹȶڤ̤ƱѸ˼ޤ줿
˵Τ18ФűѸ˼Ѥ줿ñϤ褽夵Ƥ롥̤ˤѤʤޤޤƤꡤȼѸ¸ߴ狼
ʾ塤Baugh and Cable (75--77) ȤƼɮ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
θ츻ǤϡɸΤ褦ʥɤμפʲ̾ϡȷϤθͳ褹ȤƤ5˥ͤɤϤäƤȤˡβ̾轻ΥȿͤѤȤKitson (36) ˤȡ̾ϥȸθؤ alteuropäisch "Old European" ̤Ȥ롥
ˤϡHumber 12ήƤꡤThames ֤β̾¿ (ex. T(h)ame, Teme, Team, Tamar, Tavy) Φ衼åѤܤƤ⡤ϤꡤΤ褦̾νĤʬۤƤ롥̾ؼԤΤǤϡ̾衼å˷֤뤳ȤϾQΰǤꡤθ츻ζ븻ȤƤ alteuropäisch ʤ줬ꤵƤ롥
Kitson (38) ˤС̾ΤʤǤפʲ̾ϤȤ櫓ݼŪǤꡤ̱²ˤäִ뤳Ȥʤ塹ѤƤ椯ʸȯԲķǤȸ뤬ʹˤȤäƺǹ٤νǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤɤοʹֽĤޤǽ̾Ϳ٤оݤö̾ĤƤޤСۤɤưŤʤ¤ꡤ̱²ԤܽԤؤ⤽ΤޤѾ뤳Ȥ¿
. . . it seems to hold pretty generally that of all classes of place-names, main river-names are the most resistant to change. In taking over a substantial body of river-names from their predecessors the Anglo-Saxons exhibited behaviour typical of immigrant populations worldwide, as Mississippi and Ohio bear witness. Yet the attitude of Anglo-Saxons to Celts, at least among their ideological leaders, at least by the end of the settlement period, was of not borrowing anything (or at least not admitting they had borrowed it). For Celts, who were certainly not autochthonous in Britain, and who are not known to have developed any colonialist ideology stronger than Vae Victis!, to have taken over no names at all from their predecessors would be preposterous. (Kitson 38)
츻ΤǤʤ֥ƥ̾ϡФХȸ쵯ȼ롥ΤʤˤϡޤǥȸͳǤꡤŪˤԸ (alteuropäisch) ͳ褹Ȥߤʤ٤Τ¿ΤǤϤʤäȤ⡤εΤˤ alteuropäisch Τä餫ˤʤФʤʤ
ʤKitson ϡ̾ݼ̾ؤˤ "uniformitarian principle" (38) ȾΤƤ롥ʸΥȥ˴ޤޤƤ "Linguistic Theory" ϡ "uniformitarian principle" ȤδϢUniformitarian Principle ưˤˤĤƤϡ[2010-11-04-1][2012-07-26-1]εȡ
Kitson, Peter. "Notes on Place-Name Material and Linguistic Theory." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 35--55.
[2011-06-10-1], [2011-06-14-1]εǥȽꤢϡȽΤʤǻ¾λȤʤäƤ륳 (Cornish) ȥޥ (Manx) Ҳ𤹤롥
Cornish ϡߡȥѥΰ Cornish pasty ǤΤƤ륤ɤκ Cornwall äƤ Brythonic (P-Celtic) ϤθǤ롥Cornish θŤʸ¿ϸ¸Ƥʤ14ȾΤΤȤ8000ԤĶ뱤ʸĤäƤ롥16פλ Cornish οȱѸοƩϤޤꡤ1777ǯˡϿƤǸü Dolly Pentreath ˴ʤäȤǻȤʤä[2011-06-10-1]ΥȸɤηޤǼȤꡤߥեΥ֥륿˥äƤ֥ȥ (Breton) ȺǤᤤǤ롥
"revived Cornish", "pseudo-Cornish", "Cornic" ȤΤ褷 Cornish Ǥʹ롥 ϡ20˥ζڰͭ͡ Cornish ͰŪ褵ΤǡºŪʸǤϤʤħŪʸȤ٤ʸˡ伭ȯԤƤꡤǤ Breton Welsh ǸäʤɤλߤʤƤ롥Price ɾϼ긷McArthur 265 ¹ˡ
It is rather as if one were to attempt in our present state of knowledge to create a form of spoken English on the basis of the fifteenth-century York mystery plays and very little else.
Ethnologue: Cornish ˤС2003ǯοפǿɴͤüԤȤ뤬Ǥ Cornish Ϥ "revived Cornish" ؤƤ롥
ˡManx ϥå峤 (the Irish Sea) ⤫֥ޥ (the Isle of Man) äƤ Goidelic (Q-Celtic) ϤθǤ롥ǸŤʸϡ1610ǯε (The Book of Common Prayer) Ǥ롥Manx 4˥ɤΰܽԤˤäƻޤ줿ȹͤ졤10--13ˤϥθ Old Norse ˤä˸Ū˱ƶ18ޤǤϥޥμפʸäʹߤϱѸοƩʤǸü Ned Mandrell 1974ǯ˴ʤꡤߤǤ1ȤƤϻȤʤäƤ롥Cornish ξƱ褦ˡManx οͰŪ¸αĤߤϤʤƤ뤬ħŪʰ̣礤ĶΤǤϤʤ
̾ϡ֥ޥθפ̣ ON manskr ME Manisk(e) ȤäΤǡθҲž ( metathesis ) Manx ȤʤäEthnologue: Manx ȡ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Price, Glanville. The Languages of Britain. London: Arnold, 1984.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
[2011-06-10-1]ε֥ȸʬۡפǥȽʬϿޤȷޤηޤǤϾܺ٤ʶʬѤƤ[2009-06-17-1]ΰޤ˼ƤŪʶʬˤСꥹ濴Ȥ륱Ƚ礭 Brythonic Goidelic 췲Ȥʬʲȡˡ

Brythonic 췲 Goidelic 췲ϡ줾̾ P-Celtic Q-Celtic ȤƤФ롥ζʬϡĸ *kw ԤǤ /p/ ȯŸԤǤϤΤޤѤ줿ʤ߿ /k/ ȯŸ˻¤˴Ť/kw/ /p/ ؤѲϰ츫˻פ뤬ĴŪˤ /w/ α߿չƱĺ /k/ ˺Ѥξĺ /p/ ص夷롥
̵ͭȤΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ƱβѲϰ²¾θɤǤƤ롥㤨Сĸǡֵפɽ魯 *gwōus θƬҲϥޥɤؤ /k/ ȤꡤѸ cow, ɥĸ Kuh ʤɤ˻ĤäƤ뤬¾θɤǤξ /b/ ؤѲθ̤ϥƥ bōs, ꥷ boûs ʤɤ˳ǧ롥եƥ줫ѸؼѤ줿 beef bovine ϡŪ cow ƱǤ롥ʡرѸ츻ŵ(pp. 1666--67) Ρֿθ츻ȸθ츻פȡ
P-Celtic ɽ Welsh Q-Celtic ɽ Irish Ʊ ( cognate ) ǸӤƤߤ褦ʲɽϡPrice (17) ˴Ť Fennell (30) ޤȤӤƸΤǤ롥
| Welsh (Brythonic = P-Celtic) | Irish (Goidelic = Q-Celtic) | meaning |
|---|---|---|
| pwy | cé | "who" |
| pedwar | ceathair | "four" |
| pen | ceann | "head" |
| pair | ċoire | "cauldron" |
| pryd | cruth | "appearance" |
[2011-04-12-1]εBritannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡפǾҲ𤷤²νɤʬϿޤǤϡȸɤΤΤ礱ƤõƤ⸫ʤäΤǡ (19) ͤˡޤʥȸʬϿޤƤߤ
*
ȸʬϿޤȸƤΤϡMan Manx Cornwall Cornish ϻ¾夹Ǥ˻ȤʤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥1ǯ˥衼åΦγϤʬۤƤȤ륱ȽϡǤϥ衼åѤնǤ the British Isles Brittany (see [2011-05-01-1]) Ǻ١¸³Ƥ롥
(148) ȤȸɤηޤƤߤηޤϡ[2009-06-17-1]ǷǤޤΰʤȸɤοޡʽʬˡˤȤϼ㴳ۤʤ롥ϡǯθοŸȿǤ̤Ǥ롥

ꥹΥȽѤˤĤƤϡEthnologue Languages of Ireland Ͽޤ⻲ȡ
إȤο̮١̼ҡ2007ǯ
Celt 䤽 Celtic θƬҲˤ /k/ /s/ 2̤ȯ롥ܸǤ̱²̾ȤƤΡ֥ȡפ夷Ƥ뤬ѸǤɤ줬롥
̱²ˤϸŤCelt ̱²̾ȤƱѸäƤΤϰƳ٤16ȾФǤ롥奮ꥷͤϥ ( the Gauls ) ؤ Κελτοί ȸƤӡͤ Celtæ ȸƤǤͤϡ֥ƥˤȷϥ֥ȥ ( the Britons ) ؤΤˤϤθȤʤä褦Ǥ롥
ơθϥե Celte Ȥ줿եǤϥ֥륿˥ ( Brittany; see [2011-05-01-1] ) Υȿͤ䥱ȸؤƤȷطˤ륤ꥹ˽ޤȿͤ䥱ȸΰ̾ΤȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäơΥեѸ Celt ȤƱѸ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ѸǤϥ֥륿˥ΥȿͤؤƤե˲ Pezron ظ奱̱²ˡ٤α (1706) ʹߤ˰̾ΤȤƤΡ֥ȡפθϤޤäƤ롥ƻ Celtic ۤƱаޤǤ롥
θƬҲȯꥷƥβȤƤ /k/ եβȤƤ /s/ Ǥ롥ֻ Kelt(ic) Ǥ /k/ ȯ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤΰֻϤޤǤ롥ǤϡOED Ǥ /sɛlt, kɛlt/ ȤʤäƤ뤬μפʳؽԱѱѼǤ /kɛlt, sɛlt/ ȽžƤ롥ǤŪȤ⤤ OALD8 Ǥϡ/kɛlt/ ƤʤLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ˤȡξҲʬۤʣʤ褦Ǥ롥

̱²ˤˤϰŪ /k/ ̾䥹åȥɱѸȤƤ /s/ ѤȳФƤ̤ꤽǤ롥Scotland Glasgow ܵϤȤ륵å Celtic Football Club ϡŵŪ /s/ ȤȤˤʤ
ʸ嵭2019/07/25(Thu)Ĺˤϡ֥åפȸƤǤ Წ ݡˡإȤܡ١Ź2000ǯp. 22
The Northern Personal Pronoun Rule (NPPR) ϡѸ Scotland Ȥιնᤫ饤عäȤֵ§Ǥ롥ϡLaing and Lass (26--27) ˤ The Northern Present Tense Rule ȸƤФƤΤƱǤ롥3;ʣ̾ "they" ܤ븽߷ưˤäưۤʤ뤬̾ -s -eth ˤ졤 -en, -e, -ø θȤ§Ǥ롥ε§ϡѸˤ The Wash ̤ΥǤ褽ΩƤꡤƱνޤǤˤϡ̳Ūʵ§ǤϤʤΤ1ĤȤƥɥؤãƤ ( Wright 147 )
Wright ˤϡ14θ Rosarium theologie ȤƼ㤬Ƥ롥
whiche is giffen to al sentis or holy men, þat cleueþ togeder in charite, weyþer þei knowe þam bodily or noȝt (qtd in Wright 147 as from Rosarium theologie)
ֻǼǽ cleueþ ̾3;ʣ knowe þei Τ³Ƥ뤿 NPPR ŬѤ -e ȤäƤ롥
ơΥưθ߷ϤɤΤ褦˶ޤ뤫ȤСο;Τˤ餺 -s Τ§Ǥ ( ex. I walks, you walks, Betty walks, we walks, Betty and Shirley walks ) 3;ʣˤĤƤϡ̾ they ѤȤˤΤ they walk ̵ˤʤΤħޤѸ NPPR ΰ仺Ǥ롥
NPPR ˴ؤƶ̣Τϡֵ§ȸȤܿ˵ΤȵƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ȸƶĥ̾ͤ McWhorter 롥McWhorter (48--51) ϡ NPPR θƾΤǤ Northern Subject Rule ˤϡWelsh Cornish ȤäȽư§ʿŪʴطˤȻŦ롥Welsh Ǥϡ"she learned" "Betty and Shirley learned" Ϥ줾 dysgodd hi, dysgodd Betty a Shirley Ȥʤ궦̤ -odd Ȥ뤬"they learned" dysgon nhw Τ褦˰ۤʤ -on ȤȤ(1) ޥϤƤ⥤ NPPR Τ褦˴̯ʵ§äƤ¾˸ʤȡ(2) ɤδؤˤ륱ȽʿŪֵ§ǧ뤳ȡ2ͤ碌 NPPR ϶λʪȤϹͤ줺ȸȤθܿˤ̤ǧᤶʤȤǤ롥McWhorter ¾ˤѸˤˤ do-periphrasis ʹԷʸȯãȸαƶȸƤ롥
ϥȸΤʤΤǶŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸǤϸ߷˴ؤ뵬§Ǥˤ⤫餺McWhorter Welsh äƤӤƤΤääޤɤԤν̸ǥȥǥŪĴҤǤ뤳ȤϤʬ뤬ɤޤdzؽŪɾǤ뤫ϵǤ롥ʸˡΤĤħطʤˤϡ̤˱Ѹ˸ԤƤʾ˼սȤܿͿƤ˰㤤ʤȤӤǰϡ伫ȤιͤȰפƤꡤ⤷ɤळȤϤǤԤθѲ "why" ˤǽϤ䤦뤵ʹ "why" ˤʤѸ˸θؤȽʤΤª顤ä˲ɤ
[2009-08-31-1]εǾ줿褦ˡظȤƤΥȸ줬ʸˡͿƶˤĤƤϡǯĵ褦ˤʤäƤ褦Ǥ롥
Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.
McWhorter, John. Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue: The Untold History of English. New York: Penguin, 2008.
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