#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤꡤѸˤϡʣθ줬ڤؤߤ줿츫Ȥ12ȤۤʺΤ褦˻פ뤬ʸṲ̣̄аտŪ code-switching ǤäȤ狼롥ѸˤηŪȤ⤤뤳Τ褦 code-switching ϡΤߤʤ餺ʸޤۤȤɤΥ˴ѻ롥㤨СWright ϡ"medical writings, other scientific texts, legal texts, administrative texts, sermons, other religious prose texts, literary prose, poems, drama, accounts, inventories, rule-books and letters" (148) Ƥ롥Wright (148--49) ϻʸζȤưʲ2ĤƤ롥
1. Religious prose text in English and Latin: sermon (early fifteenth century)
Domini gouernouris most eciam be merciful in punchyng. Oportet ipsos attendere quod of stakis and stodis qui deberent stare in ista vinea quedam sunt smoþe and lightlich wul boo, quedam sunt so stif and so ful of warris quod homo schal to-cleue hom cicium quam planare.
(The lord's governors must also be merciful in punishing. They should take notice of the stakes and supports that should stand in this vineyard, some are smooth and will easily bend, others are so stiff and so full of obstinacy that a man will split them sooner than straighten them out.)
2. Letter in English and Anglo-Norman: from R. Kingston to King Henry IV (1403)
Tresexcellent, trespuissant, et tresredoute Seignour, autrement say a present nieez. Jeo prie a la benoit trinite que vous ottroie bone vie ove tresentier sauntee a treslonge durre, and sende yowe sone to ows in helþ and prosperitee; for in god fey, I hope to almighty god that, yef ye come youre owne persone, ye schulle haue the victorie of alle youre enemyes.
(Most excellent, mighty and revered Sir, otherwise I know nothing at present. I pray to the blessed trinity to grant you a good life with the fullest health of the longest duration, and send you soon to us in health and prosperity; for in good faith, I hope to almighty God that, if you come yourself, you shall have a victory over all your enemies.)
code-switching Ǥϡäʽˤϸڤؤ뤳ȤˤꡤҲŪ뤤ϸŪʸ̤տޤƤȤȤˤ롥Wright (149) ۩
It has often been assumed that texts which show code-switching are indicative of an ill-educated scribe, who did not know the other languages fully. However, studies on present-day code-switching show that, on the contrary, the speakers usually have a full grasp of both languages, but choose to switch for social and discourse-pragmatic reasons. Similarly, it can frequently be demonstrated that the scribe of a code-switched text did in fact command the grammar and vocabulary of all the languages used, but that he chose to combine them. At present, we are not fully sensitive to the discourse-pragmatic reasons for medieval code-switching, and it is one of the things to which the present-day reader of a medieval text is deaf. (149)
嵭Τ褦˸Ťνդ˸ code-switching ΰտޤɤ뤳ȤϺˤ뤬ξˤ "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ϤƲäΤ code-switching ˤꡤҥȤ뤫⤷ʤ
Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.
3֤ε ([2013-05-22-1], [2013-05-23-1], [2013-05-24-1]) ǡFerguson diglossia 夲Ƥdiglossia ȤҲŪɾˤĤ¿褬깭ƤεΤȤơɤΥʥߥåʸͤǡνפʴͿƤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
εǿ줿̤ꡤFerguson ȤϤβŪʸ diglossia Ʊ2ѼʻѾȶۤʤ2ˤĤƤϰʤȡʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
. . . no attempt is made in this paper to examine the analogous situation where two distinct (related or unrelated) languages are used side by side throughout a speech community, each with a clearly defined role. (325, fn. 2)
2ʤ뤤Ϥʾθˤδ֤ˤ "the analogous situation" ϳΤ˸졤Ferguson ¿ƤϤޤ롥ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡɤˤѸ졤ե졤ƥ triglossia Ǥ롥ʲǤϡFerguson diglossia ʸ˰͵ɤ triglossia 褦Ȥݤ˹θ٤2ĤŦ1Ĥϡ#1486. diglossia ФȽ ([2013-05-23-1]) Ǥ줿 diglossia Ťưꡤ⤦1ĤϡѼ (H) Ѽ (L) ήѸǤ롥
Ferguson ϡ§Ȥ diglossia ŪʡꤷȤȤ館
It might be supposed that diglossia is highly unstable, tending to change into a more stable language situation. This is not so. Diglossia typically persists at least several centuries, and evidence in some cases seems to show that it can last well over a thousand years. (332)
ŪǧȽΤȤȤʤäΤFerguson diglossia ɤΤ褦ɤΤ褦˲Τ줦뤫ȤưŪ¦̵̤뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤϻŦƤɬפ롥
Diglossia is likely to come into being when the following three conditions hold in a given speech community: (1) There is a sizable body of literature in a language closely related to (or even identical with) the natural language of the community, and this literature embodies, whether as source (e.g. divine revelation) or reinforcement, some of the fundamental values of the community. (2) Literacy in the community is limited to a small elite. (3) A suitable period of time, on the order of several centuries, passes from the establishment of (1) and (2). (338)
Diglossia seems to be accepted and not regarded as a "problem" by the community in which it is in force, until certain trends appear in the community. These include trends toward (a) more widespread literacy (whether for economic, ideological or other reasons), (b) broader communication among different regional and social segments of the community (e.g. for economic, administrative, military, or ideological reasons), (c) desire for a full-fledged standard "national" language as an attribute of autonomy or of sovereignty. (338)
. . . we must remind ourselves that the situation may remain stable for long periods of time. But if the trends mentioned above do appear and become strong, change may take place. (339)
1ΰѤ3ϡɤˤơ˥ƥե줬Ѹ̤ѼȤ夷Ȥ triglossia ˤĤƤȲ뤳ȤǤ롥2ΰѤ3ϡѸˤơʥƥ̤Ȥơ˱Ѹȥե diglossia ˲ΤƤ椯Ⱦ˸ڤƤɤ롥
ˡѸˤѸȤδϢǤϡFerguson ʸ鼨ŪʰѤ2ĵ褦
. . . a striking feature of diglossia is the existence of many paired items, one H one L, referring to fairly common concepts frequently used in both H and L, where the range of meaning of the two items is roughly the same, and the use of one or the other immediately stamps the utterance or written sequence as H or L. (334)
. . . the formal-informal dimension in languages like English is a continuum in which the boundary between the two items in different pairs may not come at the same point, e.g. illumination, purchase, and children are not fully parallel in their formal-informal range of use. (334)
2ĤΰѤ碌ɤȡѡʸˤ˴ؤ붽̣꤬롥diglossia ˤСѼʥեˤȲѼʱѸˤϡҲŪˤĬܤΤ褦Τ˶̤롥ϡ§ȤơĬܤϢ³ܤȤưȤǤȤȤǤ롥Ȥdiglossia ȤҲŪüѤȤʤͳƱѸäΤʤⲽȡillumination ? light purchase ? buy ʤɤ register ˤ岼طϳΤ˻ۤ줳뤬ĬܤιϸġΩڥˤäưۤʤ롥ʩΩڥʤäΤ¤٤Ȥregister ξ岼طɽ魯ĬܤϡҲŪ diglossia ĬܤۤΤ˰ܤʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤȤϡdiglossia monoglossia ؤȲΤƤ椯Ȥdiglossia ¸ߤҲŪʾ岼طmonoglossia θäˤäѤŪⲽ¸ȤȤ̣ΤǤϤʤ
Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) ǡѸΥɤˤ diglossia ȤƸڤؤνդ˥ƥե줬ؤäդ˱Ѹ줬ѤȤλȤʬΤʸǤ롥3줬ؤäƤΤ triglossia ȸƤ֤ΤΤ⤷ʤ
diglossia ȤǰѸǽƳΤϡҲؼ Ferguson Ǥ롥Ferguson (336) ˤѤ褦
DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.
ˤȤꡤFerguson diglossia 12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طȰ֤ŤƤȤơŵӥӥ졤ɸɥĸȥɥĸ졤襮ꥷ̱ꥷ ([2013-04-20-1]ε#1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡפȡˡեȥϥ쥪4
diglossia γǰˡ12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طˤȤɤޤ餺ۤʤ2줫ʤ岼طޤ diglossia γǥ뤬 Fishman ˤäƼȡ碌ƹ褦ˤʤäѸΥɤˤ diglossia ϡγ diglossia ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŵŪ diglossia ˤƤϡⶵֵ⡤ǥʸؤˤƾѼ (high variety) Ѥ졤ϫƯԤ侤ȤؤλؼФǤβá̱Ūʥ饸ȡ̡衤̱¯ʸؤˤƲѼ (low variety) ѤȤ롥⤷üԤλȤʬ餺դ路ʤǤդ路ʤѼѤȡˤϰ´Τߤʤ餺ˤäƤϴ롥ɤˤƤδ˯Chaucer äѼǤѸǡϾѼʬäʸؤΤǤ롥Wardhaugh (86) ϡChaucer diglossia ˤˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
You do not use an H variety in circumstances calling for an L variety, e.g., for addressing a servant; nor do you usually use an L variety when an H is called for, e.g., for writing a 'serious' work of literature. You may indeed do the latter, but it may be a risky endeavor; it is the kind of thing that Chaucer did for the English of his day, and it requires a certain willingness, on the part of both the writer and others, to break away from a diglossic situation by extending the L variety into functions normally associated only with the H. For about three centuries after the Norman Conquest of 1066, English and Norman French coexisted in England in a diglossic situation with Norman French the H variety and English the L. However, gradually the L variety assumed more and more functions associated with the H so that by Chaucer's time it had become possible to use the L variety for a major literary work.
Τˤ Chaucer Ϥ diglossia ˤäȤϡChaucer λޤǤˡdiglossia ˤ줦ޤǤ˱Ѹ줬̱ĤĤäΤ
ʤdiglossia ˴ؤƤϡ1960--90ǯˤ3000ʸ蘆줿ȤسȤƤϲŪʳǰäȤʥp. 31ˡ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.
륤ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ
Ѹνˤϡ"macaronic lyric" ȸƤФΤ롥macaronic ȤϡOALD7 ڤ "(technical) relating to language, especially in poetry, that includes words and expressions from another language" ȤꡤֳƼκä¯ΤΡפʤɤ̣롥macaronic lyric ϡΥɤˤŪˤϱѸ줬Ǥϥե줬Ǥϥƥ줬ʿŪ˹ԤʤƤ¿ѤξߤȤ˱ǤФʸغʤǤ롥ȤơGreentree (396) ˰ѤƤޥꥢؤλΤ1ʹ Brown 26--27 ˴ŤˡϡѸȥƥ줬ؤ13 macaronic lyric Ǥ롥
Of on that is so fayr and bright
velud maris stella
Brighter than the day-is light
parens & puella
Ic crie to the, thou se to me,
Leuedy, preye thi sone for me
tam pia,
that ic mote come to the
maria
츫ñʤѺߤΤؤܻˤ⸫뤬Greentree Ϥޥꥢؤο̩ʰʱѸˤˤȸʤʿġʥƥˤˤȤ̯ΥХȿǤΤȤɾ롥ʤѸȵŪʥƥθؤϡΤޤ13쿮ĤħŪʿ̩ȷɰդκɽ魯ȤҲؤ bilingual code-switching ʸؤؤαѤȤ
2ϡGreentree (395--96) ˰ѤƤ De amico ad amicam ̾դ줿֥쥿αȡResponcio ̾դ줿ؤǤ롥Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ줬ܤޤ뤷ؤ롥
A celuy que pluys eyme en mounde
Of alle tho that I have found
Carissima
Saluz ottreye amour,
With grace and joye alle honoure
Dulcissima
A soun treschere et special
Fer and her and overal
In mundo,
Que soy ou saltz et gré
With mouth, word and herte free
Jocundo
ǤϡѸDZΤʤɽ졤եǴŪǵŪʰҤ٤졤ƥǷٶδʷˤƹߤʥե졼ޤƤ롥
伫Ȥˤϡ macaronic lyric äʸ̤Ŭڤ̣臘ȤǤʤդȾʬθͷӤȹ⤤ʸȤζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤǤʤbilingual ǤϤʤԤ code-switching εˤΤƱ褦ʤΤ⤷ʤ㤨ܸǤҤ餬ʡʡʤɤ뤳Ȥʷϵΰ㤤ɽ魯ƤߤȡѸ macaronic lyric ˾ܶǤʵ⤹롥Greentree (396) ϼΤ褦ɾäƤ롥
Fluent harmony is an enjoyable and consistent characteristic of the macaronic lyrics. They seem paradoxically unforced, moving easily between languages in common use, to exploit particular characteristics for effect.
ʤȯŸ뤳Ȥˤʤ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ϡ̣Ǥ macaronic lyric Ʊ褦ѺΤषƥ줫֤ʸΤɽۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Greentree, Rosemary. "Lyric." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 387--405.
Brown, Carleton, ed. English Lyrics of the XIIIth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1832.
##1223,1249,1250 εǡѸ쥪Ȥ벾ȽŪ˸Ƥ褽ηϤĤƤΤʾ˴ؿƤΤϡʤβ⤬졤ʣθԤ˻ٻ줿ΤȤطʤǤ롥
Baily and Maroldt 1970ǯʹߡ쥪츦椬ˤʤꡤȤ櫓ʲҲؤ礭ʻɷͿƤȤϡְ㤤ʤͿƤ롥
ʲȤδطǤСBaily and Maroldt ϡʪȤ˲ФƤ롥
One of the authors has for more than a half-dozen years been contending that internal language-change will result only in new subsystems, while creolization is required for the creation of a new system, i.e. a new node on a family tree. Each node on a family tree therefore has to have, like humans, at least two parents. (22)
ϡӸؤǤΩƤ the family tree model ιǤ⤢ꡤƱΤ⤦ĤηǤ⤢롥ȯۼΤŪʤΤˤ襯쥪븦ʪǤ뤳Ȥϵʤ
ˡθؤȤ⤤ҲؤȯŸȤδطǤϡκ¤˺ǤᤤҿΤǤѸҲŪˤĹ餯Ƹߤ⺬դ줿쥪Ʊ뤵뤳ȤˤäơԤϸŪʿĥ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤθդ줿ͥ뤤ΥϡޤǼҲŪʲʹѤȿǤǤꡤ줽켫ΤͥϤʤʿʤΤȤåԤϤβ̤ưŤƤΤǤϤʤ
ϡΤ褦ʲΥǥȤǤ⤤褦ưطʤˤΤǤϤʤꤷʤ Bailey and Maroldt ɤǤΤ褦ꤷʤȡ[2012-09-27-1]ε#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2)פǤڤ褦ˡԤѸɤƤ creolisation λʪ˻Ωƾ夲餷ͳ狼ʤΥʵФʤ⡤ֱѸ쥪פ䤷Ȥۤطʤˤϡ̣ɿŪŪʥǥΤǤϤʤȡ
ȤʸκǸǡϸڤ줿षդäΤcreolisation εʤȤȤƤαѸλΤäΤǤ롥ˤسȤɤߤŤä
A closing word on the value of creolization will not be amiss. Just as the evolution of plants and animals became vastly more adaptive, once sexual reproduction became a reality --- because then the propagation of mutations through crossing of strains became feasible --- so creolization enables languages to adapt themselves to new communicative needs in a much less restricted way than is otherwise open to most languages. Thus creolization has the same adaptive and survival value for languages as sexual cross-breeding has for the world of plants or animals. The flexibility and adaptability which have made English so valuable as a world-wide medium of communication are no doubt due to its long history of creolization. (53)
[2012-04-14-1]ε#1083. ʤѸȤʤä (2)פǼ夲 Bragg αѸ˴Ѥ⻲ȡ
Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) ڤӡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
ΤäȤʤä Bailey and Maroldt ϡѸȥեȤκˤ륯쥪첽¿ȽӤƤɤǤߤͤùߤɤܤǡʸ֤ˤʤäγϤۤꤵƤȤäƤ褤ȽɬפʤȤ⤤˷깭ƤꡤϤǤ⤷ΤǤĤԥååפ롥
(1) Ѹϡá졦̣ ("semantax"!) ("phonetology"!)֤ΤˤƤ⡤ʤȤ40%ϺʪǤ (21) ʸäϤ褤ȤƤ졦̣֤κ٤ϤɤΤ褦¬Τ
(2) "In the instability created by the second, or minor, French creolization is to be seen the origin of the Great Vowel Shift, which, more than anything else, created modern English" (31). Ʊʸ˴ϢڤۤˤʤΤǡʸ̣ƤΤۤȤǤ롥
(3) "The Anglo-Saxon suffix -līċe (ME -ly), which has a functional counterpart in French -ment, is hardly an example of the reduction of inflections! This is in accord with the assumption of creolization" (33). 1ʸȡ1ʸ2ʸΰ̴ط
(4) Ѹȥե̾ζηϤϻƤꡤưפͻ¤[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספǤ줿̤ꡤʣ -es ˴ؤ¤ꡤξľŪʴطϤʤȹͤƤ롥Hotta 154, 268 [Note 66] ȡ
(5) ʸΤ̤ơѸȥեȤδ֤ʿԴطѻ (pp. 51--52) ƱǤ뤬椨ΰ仺ǤʤΩʿȯãǤʤġμѤǤʤҤäƱʩΥ쥪벽ȤդƤޤäƤ롥ȤƤϼüᤤǤƻˤʤƤġθ椬㤯
ȤƤμüᤵȤȤǤСϢۤΤܸ졦ߡ쥯쥪ξ֤Ӹؤ˴ŤطμΩ˼ԤξΥ쥪ԤǤϸ̩ʲбɬפȤ줺ޤʺȤȤդ뤫
쥪벽λǤøʰݤ뤿ˤϡ쥪θ漫ΤäϤɬפ롥줫ƥ쥪벽ɤ
Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
[2012-09-01-1]ε#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫פǡBailey and Maroldt ˤ˱Ѹ쥪Ф Görlach η㤷ȿѤѸ쥪ϡBailey and Maroldt Τߤʤ餺Poussa ʤɤʣɿԤ߽ФƤγϡBrandy Ryan ˤȡˡ
Bailey and Maroldt ڤ Poussa ͤľäƤߤξԤȤˡޤǽεΩġϡ餫ͳǡѸɤƤ creolisation λʪ˻Ωƾ夲餷ʸ "creolisation" "(strong) influence from another language" ɤؤ̤뤳Ȥ顤ɤΤȤ¾줫αƶ٤ɤ뤫ɤνѸѤɽ뤫Ȥ˴ؤ˹Ԥ夯褦˻פ롥"influence" ȤŪѸˡ"creolisation" ȤŪʡ loaded ѸѤɬפɤˤΤޤݤ߹ʤ
μεƤ֤ΤϡڵԺߤλΡʼҲ˸ŪɤΤ褦˺ƷѸΤɤΤ褦¤ľȤѸ˵Ҥ˴ؤ꤬뤫Ǥ롥¸θФĩ濫뤤ĩȯǤȤǸʪȤƤϳڤΤȤƤϺǽ餫þƤȸ虜ʤ
㤨СPoussa ϡűѸȸťΥɸȤ creole Ƥ뤬ηϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
It is argued that the fundamental changes which took place between standard literary OE and Chancery Standard English: loss of grammatical gender, extreme simplification of inflexions and borrowing of form-words and common lexical words, may be ascribed to a creolization with Old Scandinavian during the OE period. The Midland creole dialect could have stabilized as a spoken lingua franca in the reign of Knut. Its non-appearance in literature was due initially to the prestige of the OE literary standard. (84)
Görlach ˵Ƥ褦ˡʸˡξüȶޤñ㲽ϡťΥɸδͿλ夫μȯãüȯƤꡤťΥɸȤܿˤ®줿ȤϳΤޤǼϩαĹǤ롥ܸäμѤˤĤƤϡ[2012-07-23-1]ε#1183. ťΥɸαƶɾܻؤơפǿ줿꤬ؤ롥creolisation ˤϴܸäִդΤǤꡤܸäִС creolisation ʤΤȤĤȤƤ褦˻פ롥Knut եȤƤο creole 侩Ȥɾcreole ʸȿǤʤäͳˤǼͤ롥ʸ̤ϳΤ˾ʤThe Peterborough Chronicle Continuations Τ褦ˡűѸ줫ѸؤθѲϢ³ڵ뤫
⡤쥪ˤĤǤʤΤϡ̾"creol(isation)" ȤϤޤǰۤʤä2֤δطˤĤƸ뤳ȤʤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥űѸȸťΥɸΤ褦ʷŪˤŪˤȤ⤤٤ƱΤ礦ˤϡcreolisation Ȥϲ̣Τcreole creolisation θˤơФħŤʤʤ¤ꡤѸѤϡθܿ»ͤƤޤΤǤϤʤ
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Poussa, Patricia. "The Evolution of Early Standard English: The Creolization Hypothesis." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14 (1982): 69--85.
Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
[2012-09-03-1]ε#1225. եѸʬۤðפǸڤ Lutz ʸˡɸθøؤɽƤűѸѤƤˡΧѸ줬ѸʹߡʸѸ³ˤбեѸˤ֤줿ȤǤ롥ŪǤϤʤִͤͻҤ褯ʬɽǤ롥ʲ˺Ƹ褦 (149)
| OE | ModE | |
| dōm | -- | judgment |
| dōmærn , dōmhūs | -- | court-house |
| dōmlic | -- | judicial |
| dēma , dēmere | -- | judge |
| dēman | -- | to judge |
| fordēman | -- | to condemn |
| fordēmend | -- | accuser |
| betihtlian | -- | to accuse, charge |
| gebodian , gemeldian | -- | to denounce, inform |
| andsacian , onsecgan | -- | to renounce, abjure |
| gefriþian | -- | to afford sanctuary |
| mānswaru , āþbryce | -- | perjury |
| mānswara | -- | perjurer |
| mānswerian | -- | to perjure oneself |
| (ge)scyld , scyldignes | -- | guilt |
| scyldig | -- | guilty, liable |
| scyldlēas | -- | guiltless |
| āþ | > | oath |
| þēof | > | thief |
| þeofþ | > | theft |
| morþ, morþor + OF murdre | > | murder |
. . . the particularly large share of French in the basic vocabulary of Modern Standard English cannot be attributed to its cultural appeal alone but results from forced linguistic contact exerted by the speakers of the language of a conquering power on that of the conquered population. Ordinary borrowing, guided by the wish to acquire new things and concepts and, together with them, the appropriate foreign terms, could not have led to such an extreme effect on the basic vocabulary of the recipient language.
Ϣơ#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1]) #1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) ȡޤˡΧˤեˤĤơ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ȡ#433. Law French ȱѹϡ ([2010-07-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
Lutz, Angelika. "When did English Begin?" Sounds, Words, Texts and Change. Ed. Teresa Fanego, Belén Méndez-Naya, and Elena Seoane. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2002. 145--71.
ε#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) ǻȤ Görlach ʸϡBailey and Maroldt ˤѸϥ쥪ǤפȤʲФȿȤƽ줿ΤǤ롥ѸϸűѸȸťΥɸ줢뤤ϥեȤκˤäޤ줿Ȥ뤳βϡ쥪Ǥ롥줬Դ֤ǰפʤ¤ꡤӤǤ롥;Ϥʤ餫˥쥪ȤǧƤ줫鸲ħ⤭Ħˤ˴Ťƥ쥪ߤȤΤQŪʼΤ褦˻פ뤬Bailey and Maroldt ǤϡμǰƬ֤Ƥʤ褦˻פ롥
Görlach (341) ϡťΥɸȤκˤѸ쥯쥪Ǵꤹ롥ŵŪʥ쥪Ȥϰۤʤꡤ(1) ̾ˤȳʤäƤ餺(2) ̾ˤƿäƤ餺(3) ưˤƿ;θȻɸäƤ餺(4) ư֤äƤ餺(5) ֤Ƥʤ
ˡ餯ԥκǤ⸲ħȤ⤤٤ "the drastic break" (341) ѸˤˤϴѻʤȤSranan Ϥ鷺20ǯۤɤǰꤷ[2010-06-05-1]ε#404. Suriname ˤȸפȡˡΥ쥪ȤäƤ褤ȯλиƤ롥
ťΥɸȤκˤѸ쥯쥪⤬Τ褦˺ʤΤǤ뤫顤եȤΥ쥪䡤Ǥ롥εǤ⾯줿褦ˡGörlach (338) ϡեαѸؤʸˡŪʱƶϡ쥪βǽˡ⤽⺳٤Ǥ뤳ȤƤ롥
Influence of French on inflections and, by and large, on syntactical structures cannot be proved, but appears unlikely from what we know about bilingualism in Middle English times. Middle English is a typical case of a language of low prestige, predominantly used in spoken form and split into a great number of dialects that had to assimilate the cultural (and in this case) mainly lexical impact of the 'high' language.
Τ褦ʹͤ Görlach ˤȤäơѸ쥪ȤϤޤ˼줬ΤβϸߤǤϤۤȤɼƤʤBrinton and Arnovick (297--98) Thomason and Kaufman (309) ƱȽƤ롥Ѹ˸ˤƤ⥯쥪츦ˤƤ⡤ĤλɷȤʤäȤϳΤǤ롥
Bailey, Charles James N. and Karl Maroldt. "The French Lineage of English." Langues en contact --- Pidgins --- Creoles --- Languages in contact. Ed. Jürgen M. Meisel. Tübingen: Narr, 1977. 21--51.
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) ³ơѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥΰǤ#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]) Ǥ57줫ʤñʰBaugh and Cable (185) Ȥơ⤦Ĺ123ΰȤŪǤϤʤץˤʤ
Ѹˤϡƥ14--15濴ɴۤɤѤ줿Ȥ롥طԤؼԤ̤ơäդäΤ⤢뤬ȤʸäΤǤ롥ƥ줫Ѹؤ˺ݤƸѤȤطʤꡤWycliffe ȤμդˤŵBartholomew Anglicus ˤ De Proprietatibus Rerum Trevisa ݤˤɴΥƥ줬äȤ㤬 (Baugh and Cable 184)
abject, actor, adjacent, adoption, allegory, ambitious, ceremony, client, comet, conflict, conspiracy, contempt, conviction, custody, depression, desk, dial, diaphragm, digit, distract, equal, equator, equivalent, exclude, executor, explanation, formal, frustrate, genius, gesture, gloria, hepatic, history, homicide, immune, impediment, implement, implication, incarnate, include, incredible, incubus, incumbent, index, individual, infancy, inferior, infinite, innate, innumerable, intellect, intercept, interrupt, item, juniper, lapidary, lector, legal, legitimate, library, limbo, lucrative, lunatic, magnify, malefactor, mechanical, mediator, minor, missal, moderate, necessary, nervous, notary, ornate, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, project, promote, prosecute, prosody, pulpit, quiet, rational, recipe, reject, remit, reprehend, requiem, rosary, saliva, scribe, script, scripture, scrutiny, secular, solar, solitary, spacious, stupor, subdivide, subjugate, submit, subordinate, subscribe, substitute, summary, superabundance, supplicate, suppress, temperate, temporal, testify, testimony, tincture, tract, tradition, tributary, ulcer, zenith, zephyr
ʤֻǼϡѸٽ̤1000̰ٸǤFrequency Sorter ˡƥѸ˰ճȿȶ¦̤뤳Ȥ狼
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Ѹ˥ե줫Ѥ줿ñꥹȤϤɤαѸ˳ˤǺܤƤ뤬ܥ֥Ǥؤ˻ȤǤ褦˰ġäƤߤ
եѸδʰץǡ١Baugh and Cable (169--74, 177) ˴Ťƺ̣¾δ9ĤΥƥʬ (Miscellany; Fashion, Meals, and Social Life; Art, Learning, Medicine; Government and Administration; Law; Army and Navy; Christian Church; 15th-Century Literary Words; Phrases) 954Ĥθ礫ʤǡǼƥȥե顤ƥȤ10˼ФΤʲΥꥹȤǤ롥ΥꥹȤ˰ʤС
please, curious, scandal, approach, faggot, push, fierce, double, purify, carpenter
train, pullet, mustard, sugar, enamel, mackerel, sole, fashion, jollity, russet
pulse, color, cloister, pen, pillar, ceiling, base, lattice, cellar, sulphur
rebel, retinue, reign, duchess, allegiance, treaty, nobility, court, tax, statute
mainpernor, arson, judge, property, culpable, amerce, convict, bounds, innocent, legacy
arm, array, arms, soldier, chieftain, portcullis, havoc, brandish, stratagem, combat
incense, faith, abbey, passion, immortality, cardinal, friar, legate, virtue, convent
ingenious, appellation, destitution, harangue, prolongation, furtive, sumptuous, combustion, diversify, representation
according to, to hold one's peace, without fail, in vain, on the point of, subject to, to make believe, by heart, at large, to draw near
ѸˤեѸϡfrench loan_word ʤɤ¿εǰäƤäѸ˥եѸ줬̤˼Ѥ줿аޤȤμѤ®٤ˤĤơ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ڤӡ#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) ǵҤѤ®٤Ǥߤȡ13Ӥեѻˤ1ĤžȤʤäƤ뤬ǤϥեѤˤĤƲɤۤʤäƤΤBaugh and Cable (168--69) ˤꡤ줾λħ⤷褦
ΥޥȤ1250ǯޤǤΥեѸϡ(1) 褽900ȿʤ(2) Anglo-Norman βħ(3) ήο͡²Ȥ̤ܿΤ褦ˤʤäáȤ櫓̳ʸء˴Ϣä¿ȤƤϡbaron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel, juggler, largess; story, rime, lay, douzepers ʤɡ
1250ǯʹߤΥեѸħϼ̤ꡥ(1) 1250--1400ǯȯޤ1ȾΤ˱ѸˤˤեѸ4䤬ήʤѸ˸¤1Ķ줬ѸήߡΤ75%ߤˤޤǻĤ (Baugh and Cable 178) (2) ե¿ʤȤⴷƤή餬Ѹڤؤ (language shift) ݤ˻Ȥܤθä¿ϡѸθäǤɽǤʤǰФƥեѤȤ⤢äѸν٤㤤˥եѤȤȤ⤢äƤեˤѸȤ³ȤȤ⤢ä(3) ŪˤˡΧήԡʪҲ衤ݽѡ䡤ؤʬθä¿Τ褦ʶʬޤʤۤɤ˰Ūܶʸä¿ѤƤ롥
С1250ǯȤλϡïɤΤ褦ưǥեѤȤˤоŪǤȤȤBaugh and Cable (169) ϡ䤫Ƥ롥
In general we may say that in the earlier Middle English period the French words introduced into English were such as people speaking one language often learn from those speaking another; in the century and a half following 1250, when all classes were speaking or learning to speak English, they were also such words as people who had been accustomed to speak French would carry over with them into the language of their adoption. Only in this way can we understand the nature and extent of the French importations in this period.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸեϱѸθäƶڤܤޤֻˤƤαƶڤܤ֤ʤʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ礭ʤ
Ѹ˵äʸˡѲΤΤϡƿä̾졤ƻ졤̾졤ưζηϤϡξüʿѤˤάʤ줿ʸˡϤʤʤä礬SVOظ경ƤäΤ褦ʸˡѲ˥ե줬ľܤ˴ͿȤȤϤʤ
ˡɽ (idiom) ˡȤạ̈ǤǡեαƶʤβǽˤĤŦ뤳ȤϤǤ (Baugh and Cable, p. 167 15ȡˡե줬Ѹäʬ˵ڤܤƶȤ٤٤ʤΤȤơեαѸؤľŪʱƶ϶ϾǤ롥
ŪʱƶȤȤǤС[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפǼ夲եĴʤФʤʤեαʸˡؤαƶϡޤפȸθĤĬή߳˿ʹԤ뤿μҲŪˤ롥Baugh and Cable (167) ɾѤ롥
It is important to emphasize that . . . changes which affected the grammatical structure of English after the Norman Conquest were not the result of contact with the French language. Certain idioms and syntactic usages that appear in Middle English are clearly the result of such contact. But the decay of inflections and the confusion of forms that constitute the truly significant development in Middle English grammar are the result of the Norman Conquest only insofar as that event brought about conditions favorable to such changes. By removing the authority that a standard variety of English would have, the Norman Conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked. Beyond this it is not considered a factor in syntactic changes.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
1066ǯΥΥޥȤ餪褽1ȾλϡΥޥīӸ³Υץͥåī (Plantagenet) ν롥λϡΤϥե²Ǥ륤ɤβɤषեڤݻȳ忴äλ奤ɲȵ²θѤȡθѤǤФŪưϡѸˤͤݤˤյѸϥե٤ǤȤѤϡѸνդʤ뤤³ˤͶǼͳãʸѲ¥Ȥˤʤä[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפȡˡ
ǡθϼԤ˥եʸˤŻ뤷Ū˥ɡʱѸˤڻ뤷Ƥڵߤʤ롥12ΥɲΥեʸˤؤλľܡܤ˼¤Baugh and Cable (116--22) ˽äơ4ۤ褦
Henry I ϡ1100--35ǯ֤Τ17ǯ;եDzᤴΤȤ顤եŻλ餫Ǥ롥ϱѸǽϤϤäȤ롥
Henry II ϡ1154--89ǯĹ֤3ʬ2եDzᤴʤʤ Eleanor of Aquitaine ϡʥ˥եʸؤΥѥȥǤꡤѸϲʤä
Richard I ϡ1189--99ǯ֤ΤۤοɤںߤʤäѸѤȤϤʤȤߤʤƤ褤
1087--1100ǯ William II1135--54ǯ Stephen1199--1216ǯ John ˤĤƤϡѸäǽϤäϤ狼ʤ
Henry I 15Ⱦ Edward IV ˻ޤǤΥɲϡïͤȤƥɤǺʤʤä
12ΥɲˤϡơֱѸϡפϤʤäȸβȤϥɤˤƤäȤŪʽĤǤäȤդ٤Ǥ (Baugh and Cable 118, fn. 21) ̤㤱㤤ۤɡֱѸϡפʿŪ˾徺ȹͤ롥ѸΥɷαѸѤˤĤƤϡ#131. Ѹפε ([2009-09-05-1]) ǤƤΤǡȡ
ʤ13ˤʤäơ߰1216--72ǯ Henry III Ϥ餯ѸǤȻפ졤λ Edward I ʺ߰1272--1307ǯˤ̾Ū˱ѸȤäƤȸ (Baugh and Cable 137) Edward III Richard II ʤ14β⡤Ѹ (Baugh and Cable 148)
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ΥޥȰʸ塤ɤˤʩ2 (bilingualism) ȤʤäȤϡѸˤˤƼפǤʺϥƥѤˤĤƤϿʤˡѸΤߤñ (monolingualism) äȤˡǡȤƥեѤδȤȤϤɤȤ¿ѤȤˤޤߤΤʤԤˤȤäƤϡΤ⤷ʤѸˤμȤǤդФȡҲ𤷤ΤǤϤʤȤȿʹ롥θ̱²۸ˤΤ顤Τ褦˻פΤ
伫ȡ2Ѥ˴ؤϤ˳ΤǡΥɤθŪ˻פ⤫٤Τ˺롥̱²Ȥδؤ⡤ҲδؤˤƸȤ館ȡɤˤʩδط褯Ǥ褦˻פ롥
ΥޥȤλȤľλˤϡԤΥޥ͡ե vs Ԥ륤ɿ͡ѸפȤΩιޤäȤϴְ㤤ʤǤϡ̱²ȸ줬ʬӤĤƤ롥Фξ̱²κήʤˤĤ졤ʩѤ̤뼴̱²пϤȤ顤ҲؤȤؤȰܤäƤ12̤ơɤθϡˡ־ήե vs ֲήѸפȤΩιޤؤȰܹԤƤäΤǤ롥ܹԤͻҤʶ٤ˡñ㲽ƿСΤ褦ˤʤ֤եѤɽ魯ˡ

ήȤϤ12Ǥ֥Υޥϡήס֥ɷϡήפȤ褽ƤϤޤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥ʩλȤʬμ̱²пϤַϡפ顤ؤȤƤΡ־岼פ˰ܤä뤤ϡּҲפȹͤȡ䤹ˤĤơBaugh and Cable (114--15) Ѥ褦
For 200 years after the Norman Conquest, French remained the language of ordinary intercourse among the upper classes in England. At first those who spoke French were those of Norman origin, but soon through intermarriage and association with the ruling class numerous people of English extraction must have found it to their advantage to learn the new language, and before long the distinction between those who spoke French and those who spoke English was not ethnic but largely social. The language of the masses remained English, and it is reasonable to assume that a French soldier settled on a manor with a few hundred English peasants would soon learn the language of the people among whom his lot was cast.
Baugh and Cable ϳ̻ˤɾΤѸˤȤ櫓ΥޥȰʸѸμҲŪ˴ؤơҤϤäƤ롥
Ϣơ[2011-02-17-1]ε#661. 12ɿͤäդȽաפ⻲ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸˡեαƶǡѸŪʸǤ줿ꡤ֤줿ꡤѲ;ʤ줿ˤȤޤʤΥ٥ǤϤäȤ⸲ǤꡤեѸή椨˸űѸä¿Ѥؤɤޤ줿̾ˤĤƤƱȤ뤷ֻ¿ʬˤĤƤꡤΰ̣ˤƤ⤽ ([2009-09-01-1]ε#127. deer, beast, and animalפʤɤȡˡ
ޤΩʤȤǤϡˤĤƤƱȤȤŦ롥ʸ (238) ˤСѸǤϡǤǤ̾ -ness "action of A", "quality of A", "thing that is A", "place of being A" ʤɤι̣äƤꡤбեǤǤ -ity "quality of being A" ΤߤäȤѸˤʤȡ-ness "quality of being A" ΤߤؤỌ̇̄ꤷդ -ity "quality of being A" "aggregate of being A" ΰ̣碌Ĥ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤ̣ιȤ餹ȡ-ness -ity Ω줬žȤˤʤ롥оݸΰ̣ܤƤϡɬ⤳γäƤ餺ѸξȤ¿ǤäΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϤ-ness Ѹʹߤ˰̣ñ㲽ͭΰ̣ʤ顤Ĥˤ̾ȤŪĤΤߤȤʤä¡ʡʸˡ "grammaticalisation"ˤߤСʤȤ̣ϰϤȤǤϡˤ錄äơ˥ե -ity ˶ƤΤ褦
ˤѸȥեз褪ӵžݤȤɤߤʤͤƤΤϡ[2012-05-01-1]ε#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤פǽҤ٤ƻΰ̣ϰϤθˤ뺹ˤĤƤβǤ롥β֤
űѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
-ness -ity ΰ̣ϰϤΩ deer, beast, animal ΰ̣ξ붥ϡθΰ̣˴ؤñȯŪ礭ʸäȤ٥Ǥ⡤ʩϤ絬ϤʵžݤäƤΤǤϤʤ
忡ָѸˤ-ity-nessξ硽סؤȤФΡʸؤȸؤλߡ ԡҡ2012ǯ213--48ǡ
ε[2012-06-12-1]˰³ѸγϻꡥűѸѸζ1000ǯˤ Malone θϡüᤤȤơߡۤȤɼƤʤжˤˤΤ1200ǯˤ٤Ȥ Kitson ͤǤ롥
Kitson (221--22) ϡޤߤμήθǤ1100ǯ뤤1150ǯȤǯ夬ɤΤ褦ʵ߽ФƤ⤷Ƥ롥[2009-12-19-1]ε#236. Ѹˤλʬ (5)פǼ褦ˡHenry Sweet 3ʬϸ˰ŪʱƶϤĤȤˤʤäSweet ȤѸγϻˤĤƤΰոɤƤ1888ǯʳǤ1150ǯ줫4ǯ1892ǯʳǤ1200ǯ˶ڤꤷƤǤʸԤ[2009-12-20-1]ε#237. Ѹˤλʬ (6)פǼƤ븫ˡθ塤1150ǯȤ븫Ū¿λٻԤߤǤ Hogg (9) "by about 1100 the structure of our language was beginning to be modified to such a considerable degree that it is reasonable to make that the dividing line between Old English and Middle English" ȤθƤ褦ξ⡤Фϡ첻 [ə] ؿʿȤǤ롥
Kitson εСѸγϻ꤬Τϡ첻οʿΤǤϤʤ֤ơˤäưۤʤ®٤ǿʹԤǤ롥ޤ첻οʿϡŪʲѲȤƿʹԤ櫓ǤϤʤʣ (analogy) ѲȤƿʹԤΤǤꡤβפŤ뤳Ȥ;פˤ䤳ǡѸγϻˤäƤϡ(1) ɤˤ첻ʿ濴˿뤫(2) 첻ʿλϤޤäŻ뤹Τ뤤ϴλŻ뤹Τ뤤ֻŻ뤹ΤʤɤδˤʤФʤʤ
Kitson (222--23) ϡ(1) ˤĤƤϡűѸɸ濴 Winchester äȡѸɸಽ줿ɽȤ South-West Midland "AB-language" äȡ첻ʿܺ٤פŤ뤳Ȥǽʤۤɤ¿μܤ鸽¸Ƥ뤳ȡSweet ζʬǤ South-West Midland Laȝamon ȤѤƤ뤳ȤʤɤŦʤ顤"the area between, broadly, Wiltshire and Herefordshire" 뤤 "the north Wessex--south-west midland area" (223) ܤ˿٤ȷŤƤ롥(2) 첻ʿδλ٤ȤˤĤƤϡѲȤƤ첻ʿ褷ƵչԤʤʳʤ˽λʳäѸγϤΤŬäƤȷƤ롥
And bearing in mind that the linguistic processes of the transition were to a large extent analogical rather than strictly regular sound-changes, it seems most reasonable to date the beginning of Middle English, as against Old English whether or not with a sub-period specified as Transitional, to the point of time from which even if external events influencing linguistic change had taken so different a course as to lead to directions of analogy violently different from the actual ones, reduction of inflectional variety to the single-un-stressed-vowel level characteristic of actual Middle English was irrevocable. (223)
Kitson ϡΰܹԴ֤ǽ줿ʸˤֻȯδط̩Ĵ1200ǯޤǤϡޤ첻ȸ첻ζ̤ĤäƤȼĥΤ褦˷ŤƤ롥
. . . even at the end of the twelfth century the replacement of language with at least some variety of inflections by language with fully levelled inflections was not absolutely irrevocable. . . . Granting the level of fuzziness at the edges inescapable in all tidy divisions of linguistic periods, Sweet's 1892 dating really is right after all.
Malone, Kemp. "When Did Middle English Begin?" Language 6 (1930): 110--17.
Kitson, Peter R. "When did Middle English begin? Later than you think!." Studies in Middle English Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997. 221--269.
Hogg, Richard M., ed. The Cambridge History of the English Language: Vol. 1 The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge: CUP, 1992.
ѲϢ³ŪǤ뤿ᡤŪʴΤߤˤꡤˤʬ뤳ȤԲǽǤ롥Ūʴ˲ä¿ʬ˸쳰ŪʴޤơʬƤ椯ΤǤ롥ޤʬäޤäƤޤȡȤʤä̵Ƚ˼ѤƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥Ω줿ʬϸϰϤˡŤϤꡤưͿץ饹¦̤ƱˡƤޤޥʥ¦̤äƤ롥äơʬȽŪ˸ƤȤ˽פǤ롥
ѸˤλʬŪˤĤƤϡ##232,233,234,235,236,237 Ϣ³Ǽ夲ƤHenry Sweet 3ʬߤ˻ޤŪ˼ѤƤ뤬Ȥ櫓ѸλϤޤɤǯƤ뤫ȤˤĤƤϡޤȤδ֤Ǥ⸫ɤƤ롥¿γǤϡ1100ǯ뤤1150ǯȤǯ夬褯ߤ롥ߤȾۤʤȤΤϡ˽ʬǤ롥
ŤϤ뤬褯ѤȤơפڤä Malone ͤΤƤߤ褦ޤMalone ϡSweet θŵʤ顤Ū3ʬޤλ¸٤ˤΤǤ뤳Ȥǧ
I propose, therefore, to start with the three main divisions of Old, Middle and Modern, based mainly on the inflectional characteristics of each stage. Old English is the period of full inflections (nama, gifan, caru), Middle English of levelled inflections (naame, given, caare), and Modern English of lost inflections (naam, giv, caar). (qtd in Malone, p. 110 as from Sweet, A History of English Sounds, printed on p. 160 of the Transactions of the Philological Society for 1873--74.)
Sweet θűѸѸ̤ϡʿƤ뤫ɤȤˤ롥ŪˤС˸롤͡첻ɽ蘆첻줾ħŪʲݤäƤ뤤 [ə] ؤۣ沽ƤȤˤ롥ۣ沽켫ΤϢ³ŪǤ뤿ᡤ줬Ϥޤäǯ⽪äǯΤ˸ꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ褽θȤȤǤС¿Ԥ12դƧǤꡤ줬ߤͼƤ1100ǯ1150ǯʤɤζڤǯȿǤƤ롥
Malone ϡSweet ˽äơ첻 [ə] ǯ夬ʤűѸѸʬǯǤȤΤǤС1000ǯˤޤǤΤܤ餻ɬפƤ롥ȤΤϡ10ΤΤȤ4 (the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, the Junius Codex, the Beowulf Codex) ˤ첻ʬۤܺ٤˸ƤȡǤ˶첻 [ə] ʤǤͻҤ "scribal error" ̤Ʊ뤫
εϡƱΥƥȤθ줬ɤޤǸȡ Schriftsprache ȿǤƤΤȯֻδطɤޤΤͤߤΤȤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ롥ֻΤߤͤΤǤС첻餫 <e> 11뤤12ԤɬפΤ⤷ʤȯ䤷̤ΤǤС첻 [ə] ϡ10˸ȤȤˤʤ롥¸Ǥ϶üᤤǯǤϤ뤬ε̤ơѸϤĻϤޤäȤ䤤װΤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥
Malone, Kemp. "When Did Middle English Begin?" Language 6 (1930): 110--17.
[2011-08-20-1]εǡ#845. Ѹθäεȳפ礷ѸθäϤɤäΤˤĤƤ͡ʸ椬뤬פǤϡűѸͳθä60--70%ʩͳθä22--30%ťΥɸͳθä8--10%ʳ1%̤ȤͤФƤ (Duggan 238)
ȤNorman Hinton 1980ǯȾȯɽƤѸä絬ϤĴˤСפȤ˰ۤʤͤƤ롥Hinton ʸ̤ʤΤǡʲ Hinton 𤽤ΤΤǤϤʤDuggan (238--39) ǸڤƤ뤽γפ˴ŤΤͤޤǤ롥
MED ˼ФθФȤθ츻˴ŤƸʬष̡Germanic 35.06%, Romance 64.54%, Other 0.35% ȤͤϤФ줿פ٤ Germanic Romance οͤžƤ뤫Τ褦ǤꡤפˡˤäơۤɤޤǤ˷̤Τȶʤ롥פ⡤äդƲᤷʤФʤʤȤǧĤġ³褦

Hinton ϡChaucer Cotton Nero A.x θˤĤƤʬԤʤäƤꡤѸλˤäʿŪӤ뤳ȤˤäơƸΡǯ¬פߤƤ롥Chaucer θ Germanic 38.5%, Romance 61.2%, Other 0.09% ȤΨǤꡤ1460ǯʿŪΨȤޤCotton Nero A.x ˤĤƤ Germanic 58.7, Romance 41%, Other 0.15% ȤΨǡ1390ǯʿŪΨؤȤϤͤǤꡤǯؤ櫓ǤϤʤषChaucer Cotton Nero A.x 70ǯȤŪʺ줾θäλȤʬκƤ餯ʸŪʺбƤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽ⤷
Duggan, H. N. "Meter, Stanza, Vocabulary, Dialect". Chapter 8 of A Companion to the Gawain-Poet. Ed. Derek Brewer and Jonathan Gibson. Cambridge: Brewer, 1997. 221--42.
Hinton, Norman "The Language of the Gawain-Poems." Arthurian Interpretations 2 (1987): 83--94.
121718ˡ˸زΩؤdzŤ줿ؿΤǽʤƤߤĤζ̣ȯɽääˡůȻȯɽֱѸθˤȷƻΥפˤĤơפüѻˤδ餪⤷ä
ƻˤϡ̣Ū2ब̤Ȥ1Ĥϡɾޤߡ٤ȤΤǤ qualitative adjective (QA) ǡgood, beautiful, kind ʤɤŵǤ롥ɾΤǤꡤvery ǶĴǤ뤷ӵ롥⤦1Ĥϡɾޤޤط relational adjective (RA) ǤꡤIndian, linguistic, opposite ʤɤŵǤ롥̾Ĵӵˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
лμĥΤʤǶ̣äΤϡRA QA ؼ̾˰ᤤȤȤǤ롥Сɾ QA ƻΥץȥפǤꡤRA ¿쾯ʤ줽æƤ뤿ˡƻŪʤ夯դ̾ŪʤȤ롥ơμѤȤСŪ̾줬ݤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ (##902,879,666,667) ΤȤϡƻǤŵŪʷƻǤ QA ⡤̾˰ᤤƻǤ RA Τۤ¿ѤƤȤ¤ȴϢΤǤϤʤʾ夬лμĥΰǤä
ΤˡܸǤ̾ˡ֤Ρפ֤ʡפŪפĤСɤ̾ǤƻˡؤžǤ롥ηƻΰ̣ǽ "relation" ȸƤ֤ΤǤСrelation μ Τۤ quality μ⤺ä¿Ȥ롥̾οƱбƻ줬ȤȤˤʤ뤫ϼѸ˸¤äȤǤϤʤѸ줫줫ˤ餺ƻΤˤ QA RA γϡ⤽Ԥ礭ФäƤȹͤ롥
Ѹ˸¤ȡ̣¤⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥ѸǤϤʤեѸ줬ܳŪήѸλ˹ʤääѸƻįƤߤȡɤ嵭ͽۤȿ QA γ礬ʤʤ¿Ǥ롥ƻζϡ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨפǵƻȤ줿QA ¿ȤƼʤΰϥѥˤȴǤꡤŪǤϤʤˡޤΰϡ QA Ӥ뤯餤˹٤δܸ¿ޤǤ뤳ȤˤⵤŤ⤷ʤѸˤեѸηƻˡƳ QA ¿ȡä˹٤ǴŪ QA ¿Ȥϡܤͤ¤Ǥ롥
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