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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2017-07-06 Thu

#2992. Ѹˤʸȯã [me][infinitive][syntax][tense][passive][split_infinitive]

ѸǤϡʸȯãLos (Los, Bettelou. The Rise of the to-Infinitive. Oxford: OUP, 2005.) 򻲾Ȥ Sawada (28) ˴ʷˤޤȤƤ褦ˡȯãˤϡ(1) Ķޤ to ٤Ȥ¦̤ȡ(2) űѸǤϸʤäο칽¤줿Ȥ¦̤롥(2) ˤĤƤϡ5ο¤Ŧ롥ʲˡѸ줫ʸȤȤ˼

(a) ư֤ to : The clothes need to be washed.
(b) λ have ȼ to : He expected to have finished last Wednesday.
(c) Ωꤵ to : They motioned to her not to come any further.
(d) դгʹʸˤ to : They believed John to be a liar.
(e) ʬΥ (split infinitive): to boldly go where no one has gone before.

Τ褦ʶḽŪ to 칽¤ޤ줿طʤˤϡб that ˤοͿƤ롥ȤϡŪˤ that β̤ȤƼεǽʣʹ¤ to ˼ä줿򤹤٤ִϰ쵤櫓ǤϤʤư֤ʤɤʣʰ̣¤ؤˤ that ʸФ餯ݤ줿Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥

Sawada, Mayumi. "The Development of a New Infinitival Construction in Late Middle English: The Passive Infinitive after Suffer." Studies in Middle and Modern English: Historical Variation. Ed. Akinobu Tani and Jennifer Smith. Tokyo: Kaitakusha, 2017. 27--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-30-1] [2022-12-11-1]

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2016-11-06 Sun

#2750. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- Ѹ줫βȸߴλ [perfect][preterite][aspect][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle][me][french][prosody][poetic_license]

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1])#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1])ڤӺε#2749. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- ḽѸ줫Ρְȿ ([2016-11-05-1]) ˰³"Present Perfect Puzzle" ˤĤơѸˤϡΥѥȴϢȤơȸߴλư줬Ū뤤ʸ̮Ū󡦶Ƹ륱롥ξԤδ֤˺ΩäǽŪʶ̤ϴʤȤ顤ޤѸΤ褦Τʶ̤ϤʤäȤ򼨤ȲǤ롥Visser (2198) 顤Ĥ󤲤褦

c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 1956, Adoun by olde Januarie she lay, That sleep til that the coughe hath hym awaked.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. F 1082, His brother . . . Up caughte hym, and to bedde hath hym broght.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 2132, er that dayes eighte Were passed . . . Januarie hath caught so greet a wille . . . hym for to pleye In his gardyn . . . That . . . unto this May seith he: Rys up, my wif!
c1390 Gower, Conf. Am. (Morley) II p. 107, And whan it came into the night, This wife with her hath to bedde dight Where that this maiden with her lay.
c1430 Syr Tryamowre (ed. Erdman Schmidt) 830, [he] bare hym downe of hys hors, And hath hym hurted sare.

ϡ"epic (present) perfect" ȤȤ򤹤뤳ȤǤ뤷ΧˤŪ (poetic_license) ͿƤ뤫⤷ʤVisser (2198) ϡե󥹸ˤƱͤɤ줬뤳Ȥ顤αƶβǽ⤢ꤽȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

It is not difficult to concur with 1960 Mustanoja and 1970 Bauer in assuming French influence as very likely. (As a matter of fact Modern colloquial French often prefers the type 'Je l'ai vu tomber' to that with the 'passé défini': 'Je le vis tomber.)'


Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-19-1]

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2016-05-07 Sat

#2567. 13Υ󥰥ɿͤȱѸηӤĤ [me][reestablishment_of_english][history]

#2561. The Proclamation of Henry III ([2016-05-01-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡΥޥʹߤο֡󥰥ɤǤϸʸ񤬱Ѹǽ񤫤뤳ȤϤޤä󥰥ɤȱѸϡե󥹿ͤȥե󥹸ΤӤβˤäȤäƤ褤Ȥ櫓13 Henry III ˤĹ (1216--72) ˤϥե㤷Ѹϰ̤㤫äξ֤Υ󥰥ɿͤˤȤäƤѤΤǤꡤĤ˱ѸȤδǦޤν郎ڤ줿ϡ1258ǯ˥åեɤdz줿IJ (Mad Parliament) ǡHenry III ̡ʹפ褦륪åեɾ (Provisions of Oxford) ǧᤵϤγǧΤ Proclamation of Henry III ȯԤޤʤǧä鵮²Ȳˤ褤ˤ Barons' War (1259--65) ²¦λƳԤϡʤȤˡޤⶵΥޥͤʤ󥰥ɿͤġ Simon de Montfort (c. 1208--65) ȤʪǤꡤ1264ǯˤ Henry ªƹ򰮤ä1265ǯEdward ҡʸ Edward IΨ񲦷Ȥ襤ǻ
Henry III Υե󥹿ͽѤ̵ǽϡΤ˱ѸŪ٤餻Ϥե󥹿ͤե󥹸ؤȿư򾷤ΤΤȤʤäȤˤäơαѸŤɾ뤳ȤǤѸȤ줬󥰥ɿͤΥǥƥƥȷӤĤȤʤäΤBaugh and Cable (128) ɾͤˤʤ롥

The effect of the foreign incursions in the thirteenth century was undoubtedly to delay somewhat the natural spread of the use of English by the upper classes that had begun. But it was also to arouse such widespread hostility to foreigners as greatly to stimulate the consciousness of the difference between those who for a generation or several generations had so participated in English affairs as to consider themselves Englishmen, and to cause them to unite against the newcomers who had flocked to England to bask in the sun of Henry's favor. One of the reproaches frequently leveled at the latter is that they did not know English. It would be natural if some knowledge of English should come to be regarded as a proper mark of an Englishman.


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2016-05-01 Sun

#2561. The Proclamation of Henry III [me][reestablishment_of_english][history][popular_passage][me_dialect][me_text]

Υޥ衤ƱѸȯԤ줿ˤ1258ǯ Proclamation of Henry III Ǥ롥ϡե󥹸ΤӤΤȤˤä󥰥ɤˤäơǰŪʽäʼºݤˤϡ⤦1ᤤ㳰ꡤ1155ǯ Henry II 󥿥٥ʶͿõǤˡHenry III ˤ뤳ϡ1258ǯ˽ Provisions of Oxford ǧΤǤꡤե󥹸ȡ餯ƥǤȯԤ줿ѸǤ񤫤뤳ȤˤʤäΤϡSimon de Montfort ѸäȤΤǤʤԤ䤹褦׵ᤷϤ򤫤Ȥȴط롥
ϥ󥰥ɤȥɤΤ٤Ƥνۤ줿褦ǡΤѸǤȤƤ2ĤΤ߸¸Ƥ롥1Ĥ Oxfordshire 줿Τǡ⤦1Ĥ Huntingdon ƤΤΤǤ롥Ԥϡ줬ܤȤʤäƤʤ̤줿ΤΤ褦Huntingdon ƤΤμ̤ϡ13Ȥᤤʸ¸ǸšˤΥɥɽ路Ƥȹͤ졤ѸŪˤͤ⤤ɥŪǤä14ޤǤˤϤषŪħȤƼ褦ˤʤäƤμ̤ΥƥȤϡäơ13Ⱦξκβޤ˼ƤȤǽפʤΤǤ롥
ʲˡDickins and Wilson (8--9) ꡤƥʸǤ褦

A Proclamation

   Henri, þurȝ Godes fultume King on Engleneloande, Lhoauerd on Yrloande, Duk on Normandi, on Aquitaine, and Eorl on Aniow, send igretinge to alle hise holde, ilærde and ileawede, on Huntendoneschire. Þæt witen ȝe wel alle þæt we willen and vnnen þæt, þæt vre rædesmen alle, oþer þe moare dæl of heom, þæt beoþ ichosen þurȝ us and þurȝ þæt loandes folk on vre kuneriche, habbeþ idon and shullen don in þe worþnesse of Gode and on vre treowþe, for þe freme of þe loande þurȝ þe besiȝte of þan toforeniseide redesmen, beo stedefæst and ilestinde in alle þinge a buten ænde. And we hoaten alle vre treowe in þe treowþe þæt heo vs oȝen, þæt heo stedefæstliche healden and swerien to healden and to werien þo isetnesses þæt beon imakede and beon to makien, þurȝ þan toforeniseide rædesmen, oþer þurȝ þe moare dæl of heom, alswo alse hit is biforen iseid; and þæt æhc oþer helpe þæt for to done bi þan ilche oþe aȝenes alle men riȝt for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of eȝte wherþurȝ þis besiȝte muȝe beon ilet oþer iwersed on onie wise. And ȝif oni oþer onie cumen her onȝenes, we willen and hoaten þæt alle vre treowe heom healden deadliche ifoan. And for þæt we willen þæt þis beo stedefæst and lestinde, we senden ȝew þis writ open, iseined wiþ vre seel, to halden amanges ȝew ine hord. Witnesse vsseluen æt Lundene þane eȝtetenþe day on þe monþe of Octobre, in þe two and fowertiȝþe ȝeare of vre cruninge. And þis wes idon ætforen vre isworene redesmen, Boneface Archebischop on Kanterburi, Walter of Cantelow, Bischop on Wirechestre, Simon of Muntfort, Eorl on Leirchestre, Richard of Clare, Eorl on Glowchestre and on Hurtford, Roger Bigod, Eorl on Northfolke and Marescal on Engleneloande, Perres of Sauueye, Willelm of Fort, Eorl on Aubemarle, Iohan of Plesseiz, Eorl on Warewik, Iohan Geffrees sune, Perres of Muntfort, Richard of Grey, Roger of Mortemer, Iames of Aldithele, and ætforen oþre inoȝe.
   And al on þo ilche worden is isend into æurihce oþre shcire ouer al þære kuneriche on Engleneloande, and ek in-tel Irelonde.


Dickins, Bruce and R. M. Wilson, eds. Early Middle English Texts. London: Bowes, 1951.

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2016-03-27 Sun

#2526. űѸѸʸػǯɽ [literature][chronology][timeline][me][oe][history]

ʸؤμ׺ʤǯɽˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1])#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1])#2323 ѸȤμ׺ʡ ([2015-09-06-1])#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ǸƤ⤦ι⤤ΤߤȻפTreharne ʸغʽ pp. xvi--xvii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ뤳ȤˤˤϢưʸػˤǯɽȤʤäƤ롥

Historical eventsLiterary landmarks
From c. 449: Anglo-Saxon settlements 
597: St Augustine arrives to convert Anglo-Saxons 
664: Synod of Whitby 
 c. 670? Cædmon's Hymn
 731: Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History
735: Death of Bede 
793: Vikings raid Lindisfarne 
869: Vikings kill King Edmund of East Anglia 
879--99: Alfred reigns as king of Wessexfrom c. 890: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
 Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; Gregory's Pastoral Care; Orosius; Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; Augustine's Soliloquies
937: Battle of Brunanburh 
from c. 950: Benedictine reform 
 c. 970: Exeter Book copied
959--75: King Edgar reignsc. 975: Vercelli Book copied
978--1016: Æthelred 'the Unready' reigns990s: Ælfric's Catholic Homilies and Lives of Saints
c. 1010: death of Ælfricc. 1010?: Junius manuscript copied
 c. 1014: Wulfstan's sermo Lupi ad Anglos
1016--35: Cnut, king of England 
1023: death of Wulfstan 
1042--66: Edward the confessor reignsApollonius of Tyre
1066: Battle of Hastings 
1066--87: William the Conqueror reigns 
1135: Stephen becomes kingGeoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae
1135--54: civil war between King Stephen and Empress MatildaPeterborough Chronicle continuations
1154--89: Henry II reigns1155: Wace's Roman de Brut
 1170--90: Chrétien de Troyes's Romances
 c. 1170s: The Orrmulum
 Poema Morale
 1180s: Marie de France's Lais
1189--99: Richard I reignsc. 1190--1200? Trinity Homilies
1199--1216: John reignsc. 1200? Hali Meiðhad
1204: loss of Normandy 
1215: Magna Carta 
1215: fourth Lateran Council 
1216--72: Henry III reignsc. 1220 Laȝamon's Brut
1224: Franciscan friars arrive in Englandc. 1225: Ancrene Wisse
 c. 1225: King Horn
1272--1307: Edward I reignsManuscript Digby 86 copied
 Manuscript Jesus 29 copied
 Manuscript Cotton Caligula A. ix copied
 Manuscript Arundel 292 copied
 Manuscript Trinity 323 copied
 South English Legendary composed
 c. 1300: Cursor Mundi
 1303: Robert Mannyng of Brunne begins Handlyng Synne
1307--27: Edward II reigns 
1327--77: Edward III reignsAuchinleck Manuscript copied
 Manuscript Harley 2253 copied
1337(--1454): Hundred Years' War with France 
 1338: Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Chronicle
 1340: Ayenbite of Inwit
c. 1343: Geoffrey Chaucer born 
 Ywain and Gawain translated
1349: Black Death comes to England 
1349: Richard Rolle dies 
 1355--80: Athelston
 Wynnere and Wastoure written
 1360s--1390s: Piers Plowman
1362: English displaces French as language of lawcourts and Parliament 
 1370s--1400: Canterbury Tales
1377: Richard II accedes to throne1370s: Julian of Norwich's Vision
1381: Peasants' Revolt breaks out 
1399: Richard II deposed 
1399: Henry IV accedes to the throne 
 c. 1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
 c. 1400: Chaucer dies
 c. 1410--30: Book of Margery Kempe


Treharne, Elaine, ed. Old and Middle English c. 890--c. 1450: An Anthology. 3rd ed. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-05-1] [2019-11-02-1]

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2016-03-15 Tue

#2514. Chaucer Gawain ͤФ븽幻ԤΥ󥹤ΰ㤤 [chaucer][sggk][spelling][editing][abbreviation][thorn][literature][me]

ʸؤεϥƥȤȤС鷺Ȥ줿 Geoffrey Chaucer (1340--1400) νʡʤ󤺤 The Canterbury Tales Ǥ롥ʸػˤήʤΥƥȤɾϡʤ⤤ʸؤμ̤̾ȸ Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Τ̵̾λͤνƥȤʸŪɾϹ⤤ʸػ˾ΰ֤Ť Chaucer 椷ƼŪǤ롥ϡSGGK ƥȤ˸ʤäȤ䡤ͤѤ줬Ѹή鳰줿ɸŪΤ륤󥰥ΤΤäȤؤäƤΤ褦ˡѸʸؤ˲餫ε̵ռΤǧƤ븽ιԤɼԤΤ Chaucer Gawain ͤФ븫ˤϡ¿ʬѤޤޤƤǽ롥
Horobin (106) ϡѤ򡤸ιԤơΥƥȤˤֻɤΤ褦˹Ȥ餫ˤ褦ȤHorobin ϡThe Canterbury Tales "The General Prologue" ͭ̾ƬʬˤĤơɸŪʹǤǤ Riverside Chaucer ΤΤȡǤ⸢Ҥܤ1 Hengwrt ܤΤΤȤ椷ơ˹Ԥܤˤäֻ˲ѤƤ뤫򼨤㤨Сܤ˸ <þ> ϹܤǤ <th> ֤ƤꡤξάۤΤŸƤꡤ⸽ɼԤ˼˸褦ղäƤ롥
SGGK ǤϡԤϼܥƥȤˤۤɲѤäƤʤ<þ> <ȝ> ϤΤޤݤƤꡤܤǤܤθɤ򡤴ȤϤ鷺Ȥʤ٤»ʤʤ褦ˤȤθȤ
Horobin (106) ϡξʤֻιˡΰ㤤ϸ幻ԤξʤФʸػ˾ɾȿǤΤǤȹͤƤ롥

The tendency for editors to remove the letter thorn in modern editions of Chaucer is quite different from the way other Middle English texts are treated. The poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, for instance, written by a contemporary of Chaucer's, is edited with its letters thorn and yogh left intact. This difference in editorial policy is perhaps a reflection of different attitudes to the two authors. Because Chaucer is seen as central to the English literary canon, there is a tendency to present his works as more 'modern', thereby accentuating the myth of an unbroken, linear tradition. The anonymous poet who wrote Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, using a western dialect and the old-fashioned alliterative metrical form, is further cut off from the literary canon by presenting his text in authentic Middle English spelling.


Τ褦ʸ幻Ԥˤϡä˰դϤʤ⤷ʤʤȤⲿ餫αʸػ˾ɾ˴ؤ٤ϤȤȤ

Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-10-24-1] [2017-10-07-1]

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2016-03-04 Fri

#2503. Ѹʸ [me][literature][chaucer][norman_conquest][romance][reestablishment_of_english][wycliffe][bible][langland][sggk][pearl][lydgate]

ѸαѸǽ񤫤줿ʸؤˤĤơȤ Baugh and Cable 110 "Middle English Literature" (149--51) ˰͵򤷡Ѹˤ˴Ϣϰ绨Ĥ˳礷
Ѹ줬ҲŪˤɤä̿ȡѸʸؤ̩ܤ˥󥯤Ƥ롥Υޥˤꡤե󥹸äήʸŪϹϡʤե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ʪظäƤꡤѸǽ񤫤줿Τ˥ѥȥդǽϳ̵äѸʪԤȤϳΤǤꡤ̤Ūǽ񤯤Ȥ԰٤ԤʤäƤΤǤ롥ϡѸ줷򤵤ʤ̱̽˥ꥹȶ۶褦ȤǮ˶줿Ԥääơ1150--1250ǯѸ˱Ѹǽ񤫤줿Τϡۤܤ٤ƤŪ͡ŪʸؤǤ롥Ancrene Riwle Ormulum (c. 1200) Τ褦ʡβܤ䡤űѸͳ褹ⶵξƤľλαѸʸؤä㳰Ū Layamon's Brut (c. 1200) The Owl and the Nightingale (c. 1195) Τ褦󽡶ŪʸؤФ㳰ȸäƤ褤λϡ§Ȥ "Period of Religious Record" ȸƤ٤
100ǯ֤ϡե󥹸ФƱѸ줬򼨤ᡤѸ줬깭ʸؤȤɽ蘆褦ˤʤäƤե󥹸ǽ񤫤줿ʸؤʤɤơ14ˤƱѸʸؤƤŪˤϡ󽡶Ūʥޥ (romance) Ȥ뤬ѸȤΤ˾褻褦ˤʤä1250--1350ǯαѸʸؤλϡ"Period of Religious and Secular Literature" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ
14θȾޤǤˤϡ󥰥ɤˤƱѸϤܴۤ (reestablishment_of_english) ̤λѸʸػˤˤڤθ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Canterbury Tales Troilus and Criseyde ȤäĤ Geoffrey Chaucer (1340--1400) ȤơҲŪ Piers Plowman (1362--87) 路 William LanglandʪĤ򤫤⤷ John Wycliffe (d. 1384)Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ۤ3ĤζŪŪʼ̤λĤͤ졤ޤ "Period of Great Individual Writers" ȸäƤ褤
15ϡChaucer ʤɤΰͤαƶǡѸʸػ˾塤ƤȤʤäƤꡤ"Imitative Period"뤤Ͻ Shakespeare ޤǤΤĤʤλȤ̣ "Transition Period" ʤɤȸƤФƤ롥ʸػŪˤŪ˲ᾮɾƤ餤뤬Lydgate, Hoccleve, Skelton, Hawes ʤɤηʪƤ롥åȥɤǤ⡤Henryson, Dunbar, Gawin Douglas, Lindsay ʤɤʤˤ Malory Caxton 뤬15θؤʸؤϤäȿ˰Ƥ٤Ǥ롥κǸλθءʸŪˤĤƤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ӡ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ׻ȡ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-08-05-1] [2016-03-27-1]

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2015-10-01 Thu

#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching [code-switching][me][emode][bilingualism][contact][latin][french][literature][borrowing][genre][historical_pragmatics][discourse_analysis]

ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤε񤤤ƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)

CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)


鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" 󤲤ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ򸦵椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻񤹤2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ򿼲뤳ȤǤ롥

Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.

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2015-09-28 Mon

#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia [diglossia][sociolinguistics][bilingualism][oe][me][latin][french]

ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. 󥰥ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ񲽡 ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])

ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥󥰥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽ󥰥Ҳ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС

. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.


פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
Ѹȡ󥰥ɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥

This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.


ΤȸѸˤƥե󥹸λѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥ󥰥ɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥

Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-02-1]

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2015-09-12 Sat

#2329. ѸμѸ [borrowing][loan_word][me][lexicology][contact][latin][french][greek][italian][spanish][portuguese][welsh][cornish][dutch][german][bilingualism]

ѸθüѤȤСޤե󥹸줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬󤬤 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾󤲤뤬ե󥹸졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥե󥹸ͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ򹭤̣ǼСѸ쥤󥰥ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)

LANGUAGESDirect IntroductionIndirect Introduction
Latin--- 
French--- 
Scandinavian--- 
Low German--- 
High German--- 
Italian through French
Spanish through French
Irish--- 
Scottish Gaelic--- 
Welsh--- 
Cornish--- 
Other Celtic languages in Europe through French
Portuguese through French
Arabic through French and Spanish
Persian through French, Greek and Latin
Turkish through French
Hebrew through French and Latin
Greek through French by way of Latin


#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) ǰѤ̤ꡤ"French acted as the Trojan horse of Latinity in English" Ȥ⤤ϻ¤ե󥹸ѸˤϡƥΤߤʤ餺äȤä¿θ줫μѤΡפȤƵǽƤΤǤ롥
Ϣơ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-22-1]

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2015-09-11 Fri

#2328. Ѹ¿ [me][bilingualism][french][latin][contact][sociolinguistics][writing][diglossia][register]

Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲ򻲾ȡ

#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. 󥰥ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])

Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤򡤤֤޼ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

LANGUAGERegisterMediumStatus
LatinFormal-OfficialWrittenHigh
FrenchFormal-OfficialWritten/SpokenHigh
EnglishInformal-ColloquialSpokenLow


Crespo (25) Ϥޤ3 (trilingualism) ֤ȤȤ2 (bilingualism) ءƺǽŪ1 (monolingualism) ؤȲäƤʳ򡤼Τ褦˿޼Ū˼Ƥ롥

ENGLANDLanguagesLinguistic situation
Early Middle AgesLatin--French--EnglishTRILINGUAL
14th--15th centuriesFrench--EnglishBILINGUAL
15th--16th c. onwardsEnglishMONOLINGUAL


ºݤˤϡ3Ѥ2ѤƤĿͤοΤ鸫и¤ƤȤդ٤Ǥ롥Crespo (25) 2ܤɽˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ"The initial trilingual situation (amongst at least certain groups) developed into oral bilingualism (though not universal) which in turn gradually resulted in vernacular monolingualism" ȤȤǤ롥ɽ⡤ѸΥޥҲŪΰ̤򤦤ޤɽƤޤǤϤ롥

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-09-28-1]

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2015-09-06 Sun

#2323 ѸȤμ׺ [me][literature][me_dialect][dialect]

űѸμ׺ʤȤʬۡǯˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1]) ǰѸκʤˤĤƤϡ#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1]) ̾άȤȤ󤷤Τߤǡʬۤʤɤ򼨤Ƥʤä
ϡѸμ׺ʤˤĤơ켣 (57--59) ˤǤ褦ǯϸ§Ȥ Kurath et al. (1954) ˤΤOED 򻲾ȤΤ⤢ȤΤȡѸʸؤΤȤˡ

1.  
  
c1275Kentish Sermons
1340Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt (= D.M.'s Remorse of conscience)
  
2.  
  
?a1200Ancrene Wisse (Corp-C) (= The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle (= Nuns' Rule))
?a1200Laȝamon's Brute, or Chronicle of Britain
?c1200Sawles Warde (= Soul's Guardian)
a1225--a1300Poema Morale (= Moral Ode)
?c1225King Horn
c1250Floriz and Blauncheflur
c1250The Owl and the Nightingale
a1376--?a1387William Langland, Piers Plowman A-, B-, C-Versions
a1387John de Trevisa's Translation of Higden's Polychronicon (= H.'s History of many Ages)
  
3.  
  
a1121--1160The Peterborough Chronicle
?c1200The Ormulum
a1250Bestiary
c1250The Story of Genesis and Exodus
1258Proclamation of Henry III
c1300Havelock the Dane
1382; 1388Wycliffite Bible
c1375--a1400Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
a1393John Gower, Confessio Amantis
c1400Mandeville's Travels (Tit)
1425--1520Paston Letters and Papers
a1438The Book of Margery Kempe
  
4.  
  
?c1380Patience
?c1380Pearl
?c1390Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
  
5.  
  
a1325Cursor Mundi (= The Runner of the World)
?c1343--?a1349Richard Rolle, Prose and Verse
?a1400Morte Arthure or The Death of Arthur


켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-03-27-1]

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2015-07-16 Thu

#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ [code-switching][me][bilingualism][latin][register][pragmatics]

Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ񡤤 macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) ε񤤤ʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸ񡤤Ȥ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ

I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.


ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲򤵤ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.


macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥

Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.

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2015-05-10 Sun

#2204. d th θءѲ [consonant][verners_law][phonetics][me]

ɸϡ#481. father ˵ä໤ ([2010-08-21-1]) ʬŪ˼夲ѸˤǤϡð > d 뤤Ϥεդ d > th Ф줬뤬 (157) ϴϢ22ƼƤ롥ͭפʥꥹȤʤΤǡʲ˵Ƥεǵ󤲤⻲ȡˡ

OE ð [ð]ModE. d [d]OE d [d]ModE. th [ð]
byrðenburdenderfather
ðecouldgad(e)riangather
ð(wi)nes dūnCuddesdonġeardgarth[θ] (? yard)
fiðelefiddlehiderhither
ġeforðianaffordhwiderwhither
morðormurderdormother
ðlneedlesweardswarth [θ] (? sward)
ðorrudderME tedertether
spīðraspidertōgæd(e)retogether
staðolstaddleþiderthither
swæðelswaddlewederweather


Skeat ˤ뽾ˤСΤ褦 d ð δ֤ɤϡĤƤ verners_law η̤ȤƤ⤿餵줿ŪǤȤ줿ϡ嵭ѲѸʹߤݤǤ뤳Ȥ顤ǯʾ Verner's Law ʤȤ;ȡˤͿƤȹͤ뤳Ȥˤ̵뤷⤷ Verner's Law ŪʴͿäȤʤС (PIE *t >) d/ð Τߤʤ餺(PIE *p >) [v]/[b], (PIE *k >) [x]/[ɣ], (PIE *s >) [z]/[r] ˤɤ줬ϤºݤˤϸʤȤŦơSkeat ϼ뤳ȤǤʤȤƤ롥ϡѸ d ð ϢξϡषβĶˤ벻ѲȤǤ롥βĶΤȤǤβѲǤȤͤϡJespersen Jordan ˤäƾƤϤ (161) εꤷĶΤ礤ƤȤβǤ󼨤ʸǤ롥Ūˤϡʲ̤ꡥ

12IJ [ð] [d] ž뷹򼨤
15ήɡԤ [d] [ð] ž뷹򼨤


嵭Τ褦˲ĶꤹȡۤȤɤ٤ƤδͿ㤬ޤǤȤ2ĤβϻۤʤäƤꡤߤ˴ͿʤΩѲǤ롤ȡ

סOE byrðen "burden" vs. fæder "father"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤ󤽤ʿءˡ˶࿦ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-04-1]

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2015-03-14 Sat

#2147. ѸΥե󥹼ѸȽ [purism][loan_word][french][inkhorn_term][me][lexicology]

16ˤϡƥѸϤȤƥޥ󥹽ʤɤμѸ줬ӤѸήʡ#1410. Ƚ󵢡 ([2013-03-07-1]) #1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡܸǤʹߡ̤δ줬졤°ʹߤ̵Υʸ줬ήʡ#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1]) ڤӡ#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]) 򻲾ȡˡλγơˤơ (purism) Ω줫μѸȽʹ줿Ѹߤ䤿˻ѤΤϹơä¿Ȥ٤ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƤޤʹʤΤϡѸ޹Τ褦˲󤻤ե󥹼ѸФȽǤ롥#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ǸȤꡤѸϥΥޥ󡦥󥯥ȸο֤ǡ˾ƿȤϤǤ̸üѤиƤΥե󥹼ѸؤȽϤʤäΤ
Τ˥ͥ󥹴ΥȽۤɤΩʤѸˤե󥹼ѸȽޤäʤä櫓ǤϤʤRanulph Higden (c. 1280--1364) ˤƥ Polychronicon 1387ǯ˱ John of Trevisa (1326--1402) ϡǡťΥɸȤȤ˥ե󥹸줫μѸ̵ʬ̤ʻѤˤĤƶ褷Ƥ롥Crystal (186) ΰѤƸ褦

by commyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys apeyred, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbittyng.


ƱͤˡRichard Rolle of Hampole (1290?--1349.) ˤ Psalter (a1350) Ǥ⡤"seke no strange Inglis" ʸΤ̱ѸϻȤʤˤȥե󥹼ѸФưŤԲ򼨤Ƥ뤷15 Polychronicon Osbern Bokenham (1393?--1447?) ⡤ե󥹸줬Ѹڤˤ񤷤Ƥ (Crystal 186) ȤơΤʤǡ줿ե󥹼ѸѤƤȤϤޤǤʤ
Τ褦ѸΥե󥹼ѸؤνŪϤĤǧ뤬η㤷Ƚ٤ñȯŪǤꡤä礭Ĭήʤä褦Ѹ켫ΤޤθȤƤܤĤʤϰ̤ˤäơѸؤλѸηȤŪ٤ܤӤˤϡޤ夬ᤫäΤȻפ롥Ǥ⡤ѸϤʽŪȽϡβȽʳȤơΤ˱Ѹ˾˰֤ŤΤǤϤ

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.

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2015-03-09 Mon

#2142. Ѹˤ3ñʣθʬ [map][laeme][lalme][me_dialect][me][3sp][3pp][verb][conjugation][nptr]

ɸ䤤˼ü᤯ˤϡɽǻ­Görlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ

 SouthMidlandNorth
Present Indicative3sg.-(e)þ-(e)þ-(e)s
pl.-(e)þ-(e)n-(e)s


Ͽ޾˼ȡ#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) ̤Ȥʤ뤬ܤʬۤȤˤ LAEME ʽѸˤ eLALME ʸѸˤ򻲾ȤΤǤ (cf. #1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1])) ʲǤϡξȥ饹줿ϿޤβŽդ褦ʥåȤ礭ʲˡޤϡ1150--1325ǯ򥫥С LAEME ꡤ3ñʺˤʣʱˤθʬۤ򤽤줾켨

LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' LAEME: 3pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero
LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero


ξϿޤ˽ޤִݤ -s ˽ޤĻͳѤ -th ɽʣθǤ¾˹ѤߤƤ뤬 -n ɽˡʣ̾ܤưθ߷ -e ޤϥθȤ "Northern Present Tense Rule" (NPTR; cf. #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])nptr) ʬۿޤ򸫤褦

LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero
LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero


Ǥϼ˸Ѹʬۤ˰ܤ롥eLALME ǤϡμऴȤ̡Ͽޤޤ3ñ顥

eLAEME: 3sp 's' eLAEME: 3sp 'th'
eLALME: 3sp 's' eLALME: 3sp 'th'


ʬۤ褯ѤǤꡤޤ̤ -s ˡޤ̤ -th ʬۤƤΤ狼롥ʣˤĤƤϡ-s, -th, -n, -e (or zero) 4ˤĤƳơϿޤ򸫤Ƥߤ褦

eLAEME: pp 's' eLAEME: 3pp 'th'
eLALME: pp 's' eLALME: pp 'th'
eLAEME: pp 'n' eLAEME: 3pp 'th'
eLALME: pp 'n' eLALME: pp 'e' or zero


ʬۤ褯ѤǤꡤ -s ʺޡˡ -th ʱޡˤͥ -n ʺޡˤĥƤ뤳ȤƼ롥ŪˡѸȸѸʬ۴֤Ūʺϸ뤬Ūˤ礭ѲϤʤȤäƤ褤  *

Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.

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2014-04-22 Tue

#1821. ե󥹸ȱѸ [french][latin][reestablishment_of_english][me][history][hfl]

ѸΡե󥹸ФѸˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵˤƤƱ٤Υե󥹤ǤϡƥФե󥹸äƤĤޤꡤ󥰥ɤȥե󥹤ξʤΤߤʤ餺ºݤˤϥ衼åѳƹˤǡˤ줳ۤʤ졤罰θ (vernacular) ƬƤΤǤ롥
Υե󥹤ǡե󥹸줬˻̱ƤˡѤȤ鳵⤷褦ե󥹤ǤϡˡθȤƥƥ줬ŪǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤ13椫ե󥹸λѤϤޤäƤä Charles IV μ (1322--28) ˤƹˡˤե󥹸λѤϡꤷΤȤϤʤʤäΤΡŸθ14ϡե󥹲ΥǥƥƥȷӤĤȤơե󥹸¸ߴΤǧ褦ˤʤäƤ椯ơĤ1539ǯ815ˡˤե󥹸ˡŪʤդͿ뤳ȤȤʤäե󥹸˾̾⤤졦ȥļ (l'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts) Ǥ롥#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡޤˡ⳦ϥƥȥե󥹸2DzäƤե󥽥1 (Francis I; 1494--1547) ˡǤΥƥѤѻߤΤǤ롥Perret (47) ꡤļδطս

L'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539) Articles 110 et 111
«Et afain qu'il n'y ait cause de douter sur l'intelligence desdits arrests, nous voulons et ordonnons qu'ils soient faits et escrits si clairement, qu'il n'y ait ne puisse avoir aucune ambiguïté ou incertitude, ne lieu à demander interprétation.
Et pour ce que de telles choses sont souvent advenues sur l'intelligence des mots latins contenus esdits arrests, ensemble toutes autres procédures, [...] soient prononcez, enregistrez et delivrez aux parties en langaige maternel françois et non autrement.»


ļϡƥ򰷤ʤζ̳ô򸺤餹ȤºŪŪ⤢äե󥹸ե󥹤ιȤꤹȤ̣礤äθˤˤơե󥹤¾ɸऱɸե󥹸ڤȳͤʤǤ椯κǽηŪʰ⤬1539ǯͿ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ºݤˡ17ˤļƤϳ礷ե󥹳̿줿ȤϤޤǤʤ
󥰥ɤˤѸϡ#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) #706. 14ѸϽˡ ([2011-04-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡޤǽ˿ʤǤäΤˡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) Ǥ1362ǯΤ褦ʡѸħϤˤϤ뤬졦ȥļΤ褦1ĤηŪʽΤϤʤ
Ǥϥ󥰥ɡե󥹤ȤɸꡤϤε夬äؤнˡξ֤礭ۤʤäƤκۤεϡǤˤλΤΤˤä褦˻פ롥

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-16-1] [2015-07-02-1]

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2014-03-05 Wed

#1773. ich, everich, -lich ch ä [me][corpus][hc][phonetics][personal_pronoun][consonant][-ly]

#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1]) εǡűѸ줫ѸˤѤ줿1;ñ̾μ ich λҲüƶѸ I ؤȯŸаޤˤĤǤϡʲѲȤϡǽ˸붯ȼζ礬ؤäƤΤǤϤʤƤ
Ūװ̵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤSchlüter ˤС³Ƭβ˼ˤäơĹ ich Ūû i Τ줫Ф䤹Ȥ¤Τˤ롥
Schlüter ϡHelsinki Corpus ѤѸǻ头ȤˡƸ³μ̤ˡich, everich, -lich 줾Ѱ۷ʬۤĴʲˡSchlüter (224, 227, 226) ˷ǺܤƤ롤ơʬɽ򼨤

I1150--1250 (ME I)1250--1350 (ME II)1350--1420 (ME III)1420--1500 (ME IV)
tokens%tokens%tokens%tokens%
before Vich169100121954300
I006513597253100
before <h>ich171100105973200
I003315698316100
before Cich51394363420000
I3364945811061002043100
EVERY1150--1250 (ME I)1250--1350 (ME II)1350--1420 (ME III)1420--1500 (ME IV)
tokens%tokens%tokens%tokens%
before Veverich- 686764939
everiche- 1140000
every- 004361461
before <h>everich- 00120- 
everiche- 1100120- 
every- 00360- 
before Ceverich- 6292200
everiche- 10482200
every- 52410596138100
-LY1150--1250 (ME I)1250--1350 (ME II)1350--1420 (ME III)1420--1500 (ME IV)
tokens%tokens%tokens%tokens%
before V-lich231281212410
-liche162875177238215
-ly117112518842195
before <h>-lich13187211200
-liche5982247381400
-ly0026498476100
before C-lich7013181518220
-liche468859377395232
-ly1121087889394797


3ĤɽǡȤ櫓Ҳ (before C) ch æûΥѡơ̻ŪɤäƤ餤ûγ®٤¿ΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ME II ME III ζǤ1350ǯǡ餫ʳ礬ѻ롥14ȾФˡich I, everich every, -lich -ly ѲȤɤ߼롥
⤦٤С3ܤ٤¤ꡤich, everich, -lich νǡ ch Ȥ櫓Ҳ֤ˤæƤäȤ狼롥Ѳ˴ؤƽפʤΤϡᶭˤ벻ŪװϳΤ˺ѤƤΤΡ˸Ūװ֤褦˺ѤƤ餷ȤǤ롥Schlüter (228) ĴΤޤȤʬѤ褦

. . . the affricate [ʧ] in final position has turned out to constitute another weak segment whose disappearance is codetermined by syllable structure constraints militating against the adjacency of two Cs or Vs across word boundaries. . . . [T]he three studies have shown that the demise of final [ʧ] proceeds at different speeds depending on the item concerned: it is given up fastest in the personal pronoun, not much later in the quantifier, and most hesitantly in the suffix. In other words, the phonetic erosion is overshadowed by lexical distinctions. Relics of the obsolescent long variants are typically found in high-frequency collocations like ich am or everichone, where the affricate is protected from erosion by the ideal phonotactic constellation it ensures.


Ϣơ#40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1]) ڤӡ#832. every each ([2011-08-07-1]) ⻲ȡ

Schlüter, Julia. "Weak Segments and Syllable Structure in ME." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 199--236.

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2013-12-28 Sat

#1706. Ѹ one the most [syntax][me][superlative][sggk]

αѸޥ󥹤η Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ǡФεΤо줹 (ll. 135--56) ǡɸΡone the + ǾפɽʰѤ Andrew and Waldron Ǥˡ

Þer hales in at þe halle dor an aghlich mayster,
On þe most on þe molde on mesure hyghe;


On þe most ϡ"the very biggest (one)" ۤɤζĴ줿̣"one of the very biggest (ones)" Ȥ϶̤뤳Ȥդ줿Ǿ򶯤Ư򤹤 one ˡǤ롥ѸǤˤ˸ˡǡMED Ǥ ōn (pron.) θ 7b ΤȤˡ¿㤬󤲤Ƥ롥OED Ǥϡone, adj., n., and pron. θФȤΤȤ C. pron. 3a ˡεҤ롥
Mustanoja (297) ˤȡthe + Ǿפˡthe + פȤ㤬 Trin. Hom. 185 1ĤȤ

þat is þat bihotene lond, þar is on þe wunsume bureh and on þe hevenliche wunienge þar alle englen inne wunien


the + ǾפΤ̤ۤǤꡤˡ11ʸڤ롥ane þa mæstan synne, on þe fairest toun, oon the grettest remedye, oon the unworthieste, oon the beste knyght, on þe sellokest swyn ʤˤȤޤʤˡ16ˤϤޤȤʤꡤSpenser Shakespeare ۤܺǸλѼԤȤʤ롥ޤˡѸ˲ڡ餤ƻäդɽäȤ롥
Middle High German, Early Modern High German, Middle Low German, Middle Dutch, Old NorseSwedish ʤ¾Υޥˤбɽʸڤ졤ꥷ μóνος ƥ unus ζĴˡˤ̤Ȥꡤޤե󥹸 une dame la plus belle ˤӤΤǡѸ one the most ηˤϤδͿΤǤϤʤȵ⤢뤬Mustanoja (298--99) ϱѸȼȯãȸƤ롥

There is every reason to look upon the types one the good man and one the best man as natural outgrowths of the organic structural pattern of native linguistic usage. They offer striking parallels to the common OE type min se leofa (leofesta) freond. The characteristic feature in constructions of this kind is the isolation of an attribute or other defining word from the noun or noun-group by means of an intervening element (called a Gelenkspartikel and particule d'articulation by German and French Romance scholars). This isolation has the effect of bringing out into relief the idea expressed by the attribute, i.e., of making this word and the whole group more emphatic.


one the + ǾȤΥ뤳ȤˤäŪڤӰ̣Ū˺ΩȤ˴ؤơMustanoja (299) ϼΤ褦ɽȤδϢŦƤ롥

This peculiar rhythmic arrangement, which probably has counterparts in most languages of the world, is responsible for such common types as all the world, both the(se) boys, half a bottle, too long a story, what a night, etc.


half a bottle Τ褦ɽθˤĤƤϡ#788. half an hour ([2011-06-24-1]) DZΧŪװMustanoja Τ褦˰̣ŪǽŪװθɬפ
one the most ηѸ˺餤ƻäɽȤȤǤСλޤ᤿̻ŪĴɬפȤʤ롥

Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2013-12-03 Tue

#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" [creole][pidgin][me][old_norse][contact][terminology][creoloid]

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ᥯쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) ơ⤦κ󼨤ľܤȤϡ2κȤȥԥ (pidginisation) ȤȤɤΤ褦˶̤뤫Ȥͻ
Ϣ³줺"the drastic break" (Görlach 341) ȽǤˤϥԥ󲽤ȤäƤ褤ȹͤ뤬Trudgill (181--82) Afrikaans 夲ƱݤεŸƤ롥

Interestingly, there are some languages in the world which look like post-creoles, but which are not. These are varieties which, compared to some source, show a certain degree of simplification and admixture. We do not, however, call these languages creoles, because the extent of the simplification and admixture is not very great. And we do not call them post-creoles because they have never been creoles --- which is in turn because they have never been pidgins! Afrikaans, the other major language of the white community in South Africa alongside English, used to be considered a dialect of Dutch . . . . During the course of the twentieth century, however, it achieved autonomy . . . and now has its own literature, dictionaries, grammar books, and so on. Compared to Dutch, Afrikaans shows significant amounts of regularization in the grammar, and a significant amount of admixture from Malay, Portuguese and other languages. It still remains mutually intelligible with Dutch, however. The crucial feature of Afrikaans is that, although it is now spoken by some South Africans who are the descendants of people who spoke it as a non-native language --- hence the influence from Portuguese, Malay and so on --- and who undoubtedly therefore spoke a pidginized form of Dutch/Afrikaans, the language was at no time a pidgin. In the transition from Dutch to Afrikaans, the native-speaker tradition was maintained throughout. The language was passed down from one generation of native speakers to another; it was used for all social functions and was therefore never subjected to reduction. Such a language, which demonstrates a certain amount of simplification and admixture, relative to some source language, but which has never been a pidgin or a creole in the sense that it has always had speakers who spoke a variety which was not subject to reduction, we can call a creoloid.


ɸ४٤СAfrikaans ˤϳΤñ㲽䵬§ߤ롥ޤޥ졼졤ݥȥʤɤܤѤߤ롥Ȥä pidgin Ȥ creole ȤƤ֤櫓ˤϤʤȤΤϡAfrikaans ˤϴְ㤤ʤŪϢ³뤫üԤϡñ㲽ܿиʤ⡤ڤ뤳ȤʤθѼѤƤܿȹ碌¨ʤصŪʸФȤפʤ"the drastic change" ϤʤäΤǤ롥Ǥϡθ򲿤ȸƤ֤ΤTrudgill ϡѸȤ "creoloid" ŬڤǤϤʤȼĥ롥
"creoloid" ȤѸϡѸˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤűѸȸťΥɸȤܿϡcreole ߽Ф櫓ǤϤʤޤ creoloid ߽ФˤʤäȤ롥ʤʤСťΥɸȤܿϸűѸθѲ®٤®᤿ޤǼϩαĹǤꡤϢ³äƱݤεȤơ#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲ȡ

Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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