ѸǤϡʸȯãLos (Los, Bettelou. The Rise of the to-Infinitive. Oxford: OUP, 2005.) Ȥ Sawada (28) ˴ʷˤޤȤƤ褦ˡȯãˤϡ(1) Ķޤ to ٤Ȥ¦̤ȡ(2) űѸǤϸʤäο칽¤줿Ȥ¦̤롥(2) ˤĤƤϡ5ο¤Ŧ롥ʲˡѸ줫ʸȤȤ˼
(a) ư֤ to : The clothes need to be washed.
(b) λ have ȼ to : He expected to have finished last Wednesday.
(c) Ωꤵ to : They motioned to her not to come any further.
(d) դгʹʸˤ to : They believed John to be a liar.
(e) ʬΥ (split infinitive): to boldly go where no one has gone before.
Τ褦ʶḽŪ to 칽¤ޤ줿طʤˤϡб that ˤοͿƤ롥ȤϡŪˤ that β̤ȤƼεǽʣʹ¤ to ˼ä줿٤ִϰ쵤櫓ǤϤʤư֤ʤɤʣʰ̣¤ؤˤ that ʸФ餯ݤ줿Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥
Sawada, Mayumi. "The Development of a New Infinitival Construction in Late Middle English: The Passive Infinitive after Suffer." Studies in Middle and Modern English: Historical Variation. Ed. Akinobu Tani and Jennifer Smith. Tokyo: Kaitakusha, 2017. 27--47.
#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1])#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1])ڤӺε#2749. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- ḽѸ줫Ρְȿ ([2016-11-05-1]) ˰³"Present Perfect Puzzle" ˤĤơѸˤϡΥѥȴϢȤơȸߴλư줬Ū뤤ʸ̮ŪƸ륱롥ξԤδ֤˺ΩäǽŪʶ̤ϴʤȤ顤ޤѸΤ褦Τʶ̤ϤʤäȤȲǤ롥Visser (2198) 顤Ĥ褦
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 1956, Adoun by olde Januarie she lay, That sleep til that the coughe hath hym awaked.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. F 1082, His brother . . . Up caughte hym, and to bedde hath hym broght.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 2132, er that dayes eighte Were passed . . . Januarie hath caught so greet a wille . . . hym for to pleye In his gardyn . . . That . . . unto this May seith he: Rys up, my wif!
c1390 Gower, Conf. Am. (Morley) II p. 107, And whan it came into the night, This wife with her hath to bedde dight Where that this maiden with her lay.
c1430 Syr Tryamowre (ed. Erdman Schmidt) 830, [he] bare hym downe of hys hors, And hath hym hurted sare.
ϡ"epic (present) perfect" ȤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤷ΧˤŪ (poetic_license) ͿƤ뤫⤷ʤVisser (2198) ϡեˤƱͤɤ줬뤳Ȥ顤αƶβǽ⤢ꤽȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
It is not difficult to concur with 1960 Mustanoja and 1970 Bauer in assuming French influence as very likely. (As a matter of fact Modern colloquial French often prefers the type 'Je l'ai vu tomber' to that with the 'passé défini': 'Je le vis tomber.)'
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
#2561. The Proclamation of Henry III ([2016-05-01-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡΥޥʹߤο֡ɤǤϸʸѸǽ뤳ȤϤޤäɤȱѸϡեͤȥեΤӤβˤäȤäƤ褤Ȥ櫓13 Henry III ˤĹ (1216--72) ˤϥե㤷Ѹϰ̤㤫äξ֤ΥɿͤˤȤäƤѤΤǤꡤĤ˱ѸȤδǦޤν郎ڤ줿ϡ1258ǯ˥åեɤdz줿IJ (Mad Parliament) ǡHenry III ̡ʹפ褦륪åեɾ (Provisions of Oxford) ǧᤵϤγǧΤ Proclamation of Henry III ȯԤޤʤǧä鵮²Ȳˤ褤ˤ Barons' War (1259--65) ²¦λƳԤϡʤȤˡޤⶵΥޥͤʤɿͤġ Simon de Montfort (c. 1208--65) ȤʪǤꡤ1264ǯˤ Henry ªƹä1265ǯEdward ҡʸ Edward IΨȤ襤ǻ
Henry III ΥեͽѤ̵ǽϡΤ˱ѸŪ٤餻ϤեͤեؤȿưΤΤȤʤäȤˤäơαѸŤɾ뤳ȤǤѸȤ줬ɿͤΥǥƥƥȷӤĤȤʤäΤBaugh and Cable (128) ɾͤˤʤ롥
The effect of the foreign incursions in the thirteenth century was undoubtedly to delay somewhat the natural spread of the use of English by the upper classes that had begun. But it was also to arouse such widespread hostility to foreigners as greatly to stimulate the consciousness of the difference between those who for a generation or several generations had so participated in English affairs as to consider themselves Englishmen, and to cause them to unite against the newcomers who had flocked to England to bask in the sun of Henry's favor. One of the reproaches frequently leveled at the latter is that they did not know English. It would be natural if some knowledge of English should come to be regarded as a proper mark of an Englishman.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Υޥ衤ƱѸȯԤ줿ˤ1258ǯ Proclamation of Henry III Ǥ롥ϡեΤӤΤȤˤäɤˤäơǰŪʽäʼºݤˤϡ⤦1ᤤ㳰ꡤ1155ǯ Henry II ٥ʶͿõǤˡHenry III ˤ뤳ϡ1258ǯ˽ Provisions of Oxford ǧΤǤꡤեȡ餯ƥǤȯԤ줿ѸǤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϡSimon de Montfort ѸäȤΤǤʤԤ䤹褦ᤷϤȤȴط롥
ϥɤȥɤΤ٤Ƥνۤ줿褦ǡΤѸǤȤƤ2ĤΤ߸¸Ƥ롥1Ĥ Oxfordshire 줿Τǡ⤦1Ĥ Huntingdon ƤΤΤǤ롥Ԥϡ줬ܤȤʤäƤʤ̤줿ΤΤ褦Huntingdon ƤΤμ̤ϡ13Ȥᤤʸ¸ǸšˤΥɥɽ路Ƥȹͤ졤ѸŪˤͤ⤤ɥŪǤä14ޤǤˤϤषŪħȤƼ褦ˤʤäƤμ̤ΥƥȤϡäơ13Ⱦξκβޤ˼ƤȤǽפʤΤǤ롥
ʲˡDickins and Wilson (8--9) ꡤƥʸǤ褦
A Proclamation
Henri, þurȝ Godes fultume King on Engleneloande, Lhoauerd on Yrloande, Duk on Normandi, on Aquitaine, and Eorl on Aniow, send igretinge to alle hise holde, ilærde and ileawede, on Huntendoneschire. Þæt witen ȝe wel alle þæt we willen and vnnen þæt, þæt vre rædesmen alle, oþer þe moare dæl of heom, þæt beoþ ichosen þurȝ us and þurȝ þæt loandes folk on vre kuneriche, habbeþ idon and shullen don in þe worþnesse of Gode and on vre treowþe, for þe freme of þe loande þurȝ þe besiȝte of þan toforeniseide redesmen, beo stedefæst and ilestinde in alle þinge a buten ænde. And we hoaten alle vre treowe in þe treowþe þæt heo vs oȝen, þæt heo stedefæstliche healden and swerien to healden and to werien þo isetnesses þæt beon imakede and beon to makien, þurȝ þan toforeniseide rædesmen, oþer þurȝ þe moare dæl of heom, alswo alse hit is biforen iseid; and þæt æhc oþer helpe þæt for to done bi þan ilche oþe aȝenes alle men riȝt for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of eȝte wherþurȝ þis besiȝte muȝe beon ilet oþer iwersed on onie wise. And ȝif oni oþer onie cumen her onȝenes, we willen and hoaten þæt alle vre treowe heom healden deadliche ifoan. And for þæt we willen þæt þis beo stedefæst and lestinde, we senden ȝew þis writ open, iseined wiþ vre seel, to halden amanges ȝew ine hord. Witnesse vsseluen æt Lundene þane eȝtetenþe day on þe monþe of Octobre, in þe two and fowertiȝþe ȝeare of vre cruninge. And þis wes idon ætforen vre isworene redesmen, Boneface Archebischop on Kanterburi, Walter of Cantelow, Bischop on Wirechestre, Simon of Muntfort, Eorl on Leirchestre, Richard of Clare, Eorl on Glowchestre and on Hurtford, Roger Bigod, Eorl on Northfolke and Marescal on Engleneloande, Perres of Sauueye, Willelm of Fort, Eorl on Aubemarle, Iohan of Plesseiz, Eorl on Warewik, Iohan Geffrees sune, Perres of Muntfort, Richard of Grey, Roger of Mortemer, Iames of Aldithele, and ætforen oþre inoȝe.
And al on þo ilche worden is isend into æurihce oþre shcire ouer al þære kuneriche on Engleneloande, and ek in-tel Irelonde.
Dickins, Bruce and R. M. Wilson, eds. Early Middle English Texts. London: Bowes, 1951.
ʸؤμʤǯɽˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1])#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1])#2323 ѸȤμʡ ([2015-09-06-1])#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ǸƤ⤦ι⤤ΤߤȻפTreharne ʸغʽ pp. xvi--xvii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ뤳ȤˤˤϢưʸػˤǯɽȤʤäƤ롥
| Historical events | Literary landmarks |
|---|---|
| From c. 449: Anglo-Saxon settlements | |
| 597: St Augustine arrives to convert Anglo-Saxons | |
| 664: Synod of Whitby | |
| c. 670? Cædmon's Hymn | |
| 731: Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History | |
| 735: Death of Bede | |
| 793: Vikings raid Lindisfarne | |
| 869: Vikings kill King Edmund of East Anglia | |
| 879--99: Alfred reigns as king of Wessex | from c. 890: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |
| Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; Gregory's Pastoral Care; Orosius; Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; Augustine's Soliloquies | |
| 937: Battle of Brunanburh | |
| from c. 950: Benedictine reform | |
| c. 970: Exeter Book copied | |
| 959--75: King Edgar reigns | c. 975: Vercelli Book copied |
| 978--1016: Æthelred 'the Unready' reigns | 990s: Ælfric's Catholic Homilies and Lives of Saints |
| c. 1010: death of Ælfric | c. 1010?: Junius manuscript copied |
| c. 1014: Wulfstan's sermo Lupi ad Anglos | |
| 1016--35: Cnut, king of England | |
| 1023: death of Wulfstan | |
| 1042--66: Edward the confessor reigns | Apollonius of Tyre |
| 1066: Battle of Hastings | |
| 1066--87: William the Conqueror reigns | |
| 1135: Stephen becomes king | Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae |
| 1135--54: civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda | Peterborough Chronicle continuations |
| 1154--89: Henry II reigns | 1155: Wace's Roman de Brut |
| 1170--90: Chrétien de Troyes's Romances | |
| c. 1170s: The Orrmulum | |
| Poema Morale | |
| 1180s: Marie de France's Lais | |
| 1189--99: Richard I reigns | c. 1190--1200? Trinity Homilies |
| 1199--1216: John reigns | c. 1200? Hali Meiðhad |
| 1204: loss of Normandy | |
| 1215: Magna Carta | |
| 1215: fourth Lateran Council | |
| 1216--72: Henry III reigns | c. 1220 Laȝamon's Brut |
| 1224: Franciscan friars arrive in England | c. 1225: Ancrene Wisse |
| c. 1225: King Horn | |
| 1272--1307: Edward I reigns | Manuscript Digby 86 copied |
| Manuscript Jesus 29 copied | |
| Manuscript Cotton Caligula A. ix copied | |
| Manuscript Arundel 292 copied | |
| Manuscript Trinity 323 copied | |
| South English Legendary composed | |
| c. 1300: Cursor Mundi | |
| 1303: Robert Mannyng of Brunne begins Handlyng Synne | |
| 1307--27: Edward II reigns | |
| 1327--77: Edward III reigns | Auchinleck Manuscript copied |
| Manuscript Harley 2253 copied | |
| 1337(--1454): Hundred Years' War with France | |
| 1338: Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Chronicle | |
| 1340: Ayenbite of Inwit | |
| c. 1343: Geoffrey Chaucer born | |
| Ywain and Gawain translated | |
| 1349: Black Death comes to England | |
| 1349: Richard Rolle dies | |
| 1355--80: Athelston | |
| Wynnere and Wastoure written | |
| 1360s--1390s: Piers Plowman | |
| 1362: English displaces French as language of lawcourts and Parliament | |
| 1370s--1400: Canterbury Tales | |
| 1377: Richard II accedes to throne | 1370s: Julian of Norwich's Vision |
| 1381: Peasants' Revolt breaks out | |
| 1399: Richard II deposed | |
| 1399: Henry IV accedes to the throne | |
| c. 1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight | |
| c. 1400: Chaucer dies | |
| c. 1410--30: Book of Margery Kempe |
ʸؤεϥƥȤȤС鷺Ȥ줿 Geoffrey Chaucer (1340--1400) νʡʤ The Canterbury Tales Ǥ롥ʸػˤήʤΥƥȤɾϡʤ⤤ʸؤμ̤̾ȸ Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Τ̵̾λͤνƥȤʸŪɾϹ⤤ʸػ˾ΰ֤Ť Chaucer 椷ƼŪǤ롥ϡSGGK ƥȤ˸ʤäȤ䡤ͤѤ줬Ѹή鳰줿ɸŪΤ륤ΤΤäȤؤäƤΤ褦ˡѸʸؤ˲餫ε̵ռΤǧƤ븽ιԤɼԤΤ Chaucer Gawain ͤФ븫ˤϡ¿ʬѤޤޤƤǽ롥
Horobin (106) ϡѤιԤơΥƥȤˤֻɤΤ褦˹Ȥ餫ˤ褦ȤHorobin ϡThe Canterbury Tales "The General Prologue" ͭ̾ƬʬˤĤơɸŪʹǤǤ Riverside Chaucer ΤΤȡǤ⸢Ҥܤ1 Hengwrt ܤΤΤȤ椷ơ˹Ԥܤˤäֻ˲ѤƤ뤫㤨Сܤ˸ <þ> ϹܤǤ <th> ֤ƤꡤξάۤΤŸƤꡤ⸽ɼԤ˼˸褦ղäƤ롥
SGGK ǤϡԤϼܥƥȤˤۤɲѤäƤʤ<þ> <ȝ> ϤΤޤݤƤꡤܤǤܤθɤȤϤ鷺Ȥʤ٤»ʤʤ褦ˤȤθȤ
Horobin (106) ϡξʤֻιˡΰ㤤ϸ幻ԤξʤФʸػ˾ɾȿǤΤǤȹͤƤ롥
The tendency for editors to remove the letter thorn in modern editions of Chaucer is quite different from the way other Middle English texts are treated. The poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, for instance, written by a contemporary of Chaucer's, is edited with its letters thorn and yogh left intact. This difference in editorial policy is perhaps a reflection of different attitudes to the two authors. Because Chaucer is seen as central to the English literary canon, there is a tendency to present his works as more 'modern', thereby accentuating the myth of an unbroken, linear tradition. The anonymous poet who wrote Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, using a western dialect and the old-fashioned alliterative metrical form, is further cut off from the literary canon by presenting his text in authentic Middle English spelling.
Τ褦ʸ幻Ԥˤϡä˰դϤʤ⤷ʤʤȤⲿ餫αʸػ˾ɾ˴ؤ٤ϤȤȤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ѸαѸǽ줿ʸؤˤĤơȤ Baugh and Cable 110 "Middle English Literature" (149--51) ˰͵Ѹˤ˴Ϣϰ绨Ĥ˳礷
Ѹ줬ҲŪˤɤä̿ȡѸʸؤ̩ܤ˥Ƥ롥ΥޥˤꡤեäήʸŪϹϡʤեǽ줿ʪظäƤꡤѸǽ줿Τ˥ѥȥդǽϳ̵äѸʪԤȤϳΤǤꡤ̤ŪǽȤ٤ԤʤäƤΤǤ롥ϡѸ줷ʤ̱̽˥ꥹȶ۶褦ȤǮ˶줿Ԥääơ1150--1250ǯѸ˱Ѹǽ줿Τϡۤܤ٤ƤŪ͡ŪʸؤǤ롥Ancrene Riwle Ormulum (c. 1200) Τ褦ʡβܤ䡤űѸͳ褹ⶵξƤľλαѸʸؤä㳰Ū Layamon's Brut (c. 1200) The Owl and the Nightingale (c. 1195) Τ褦ŪʸؤФ㳰ȸäƤ褤λϡ§Ȥ "Period of Religious Record" ȸƤ٤
100ǯ֤ϡեФƱѸ줬ᡤѸ줬깭ʸؤȤɽ蘆褦ˤʤäƤեǽ줿ʸؤʤɤơ14ˤƱѸʸؤƤŪˤϡŪʥޥ (romance) Ȥ뤬ѸȤΤ˾褻褦ˤʤä1250--1350ǯαѸʸؤλϡ"Period of Religious and Secular Literature" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ
14θȾޤǤˤϡɤˤƱѸϤܴۤ (reestablishment_of_english) ̤λѸʸػˤˤڤθ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Canterbury Tales Troilus and Criseyde ȤäĤ Geoffrey Chaucer (1340--1400) ȤơҲŪ Piers Plowman (1362--87) 路 William LanglandʪĤ⤷ John Wycliffe (d. 1384)Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ۤ3ĤζŪŪʼ̤λĤͤ졤ޤ "Period of Great Individual Writers" ȸäƤ褤
15ϡChaucer ʤɤΰͤαƶǡѸʸػ˾塤ƤȤʤäƤꡤ"Imitative Period"뤤Ͻ Shakespeare ޤǤΤĤʤλȤ̣ "Transition Period" ʤɤȸƤФƤ롥ʸػŪˤŪ˲ᾮɾƤ餤뤬Lydgate, Hoccleve, Skelton, Hawes ʤɤηʪƤ롥åȥɤǤ⡤Henryson, Dunbar, Gawin Douglas, Lindsay ʤɤʤˤ Malory Caxton 뤬15θؤʸؤϤäȿ˰Ƥ٤Ǥ롥κǸλθءʸŪˤĤƤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ӡ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤεƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)
CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)
鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.
ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])
ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽҲ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС
. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.
פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
ѸȡɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥
This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.
ΤȸѸˤƥեλѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.
ѸθüѤȤСޤե줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾뤬ե졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥեͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ̣ǼСѸ쥤ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)
| LANGUAGES | Direct Introduction | Indirect Introduction |
| Latin | --- | |
| French | --- | |
| Scandinavian | --- | |
| Low German | --- | |
| High German | --- | |
| Italian | through French | |
| Spanish | through French | |
| Irish | --- | |
| Scottish Gaelic | --- | |
| Welsh | --- | |
| Cornish | --- | |
| Other Celtic languages in Europe | through French | |
| Portuguese | through French | |
| Arabic | through French and Spanish | |
| Persian | through French, Greek and Latin | |
| Turkish | through French | |
| Hebrew | through French and Latin | |
| Greek | through French by way of Latin |
Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲȡ
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])
Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤֤ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
| LANGUAGE | Register | Medium | Status |
| Latin | Formal-Official | Written | High |
| French | Formal-Official | Written/Spoken | High |
| English | Informal-Colloquial | Spoken | Low |
| ENGLAND | Languages | Linguistic situation |
| Early Middle Ages | Latin--French--English | TRILINGUAL |
| 14th--15th centuries | French--English | BILINGUAL |
| 15th--16th c. onwards | English | MONOLINGUAL |
űѸμʤȤʬۡǯˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1]) ǰѸκʤˤĤƤϡ#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1]) ̾άȤȤΤߤǡʬۤʤɤƤʤä
ϡѸμʤˤĤơ켣 (57--59) ˤǤ褦ǯϸ§Ȥ Kurath et al. (1954) ˤΤOED ȤΤ⤢ȤΤȡѸʸؤΤȤˡ
| 1. | |
|---|---|
| c1275 | Kentish Sermons |
| 1340 | Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt (= D.M.'s Remorse of conscience) |
| 2. | |
| ?a1200 | Ancrene Wisse (Corp-C) (= The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle (= Nuns' Rule)) |
| ?a1200 | Laȝamon's Brute, or Chronicle of Britain |
| ?c1200 | Sawles Warde (= Soul's Guardian) |
| a1225--a1300 | Poema Morale (= Moral Ode) |
| ?c1225 | King Horn |
| c1250 | Floriz and Blauncheflur |
| c1250 | The Owl and the Nightingale |
| a1376--?a1387 | William Langland, Piers Plowman A-, B-, C-Versions |
| a1387 | John de Trevisa's Translation of Higden's Polychronicon (= H.'s History of many Ages) |
| 3. | |
| a1121--1160 | The Peterborough Chronicle |
| ?c1200 | The Ormulum |
| a1250 | Bestiary |
| c1250 | The Story of Genesis and Exodus |
| 1258 | Proclamation of Henry III |
| c1300 | Havelock the Dane |
| 1382; 1388 | Wycliffite Bible |
| c1375--a1400 | Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales |
| a1393 | John Gower, Confessio Amantis |
| c1400 | Mandeville's Travels (Tit) |
| 1425--1520 | Paston Letters and Papers |
| a1438 | The Book of Margery Kempe |
| 4. | |
| ?c1380 | Patience |
| ?c1380 | Pearl |
| ?c1390 | Sir Gawain and the Green Knight |
| 5. | |
| a1325 | Cursor Mundi (= The Runner of the World) |
| ?c1343--?a1349 | Richard Rolle, Prose and Verse |
| ?a1400 | Morte Arthure or The Death of Arthur |
Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) εʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸȤ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ
I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.
ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.
macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥
Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
ɸϡ#481. father ˵ä ([2010-08-21-1]) ʬŪ˼夲ѸˤǤϡð > d 뤤Ϥεդ d > th Ф줬뤬 (157) ϴϢ22ƼƤ롥ͭפʥꥹȤʤΤǡʲ˵Ƥεǵ⻲ȡˡ
| OE ð [ð] | ModE. d [d] | OE d [d] | ModE. th [ð] |
| byrðen | burden | fæder | father |
| cūðe | could | gad(e)rian | gather |
| Cūð(wi)nes dūn | Cuddesdon | ġeard | garth[θ] (? yard) |
| fiðele | fiddle | hider | hither |
| ġeforðian | afford | hwider | whither |
| morðor | murder | mōdor | mother |
| nǣðl | needle | sweard | swarth [θ] (? sward) |
| rōðor | rudder | ME teder | tether |
| spīðra | spider | tōgæd(e)re | together |
| staðol | staddle | þider | thither |
| swæðel | swaddle | weder | weather |
12IJ [ð] [d] ž뷹
15ήɡԤ [d] [ð] ž뷹
嵭Τ褦˲ĶꤹȡۤȤɤ٤ƤδͿ㤬ޤǤȤ2ĤβϻۤʤäƤꡤߤ˴ͿʤΩѲǤ롤ȡ
סOE byrðen "burden" vs. fæder "father"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤʿءˡ˶ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ
16ˤϡƥѸϤȤƥޥʤɤμѸ줬ӤѸήʡ#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1]) #1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) ȡˡܸǤʹߡ̤δ줬졤°ʹߤ̵Υʸ줬ήʡ#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1]) ڤӡ#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]) ȡˡλγơˤơ (purism) Ω줫μѸȽʹ줿Ѹߤ䤿˻ѤΤϹơä¿Ȥ٤ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƤޤʹʤΤϡѸΤ褦˲եѸФȽǤ롥#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ǸȤꡤѸϥΥޥȸο֤ǡ˾ƿȤϤǤ̸üѤиƤΥեѸؤȽϤʤäΤ
Τ˥ͥΥȽۤɤΩʤѸˤեѸȽޤäʤä櫓ǤϤʤRanulph Higden (c. 1280--1364) ˤƥ Polychronicon 1387ǯ˱ John of Trevisa (1326--1402) ϡǡťΥɸȤȤ˥ե줫μѸ̵ʬ̤ʻѤˤĤƶ褷Ƥ롥Crystal (186) ΰѤƸ褦
by commyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys apeyred, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbittyng.
ƱͤˡRichard Rolle of Hampole (1290?--1349.) ˤ Psalter (a1350) Ǥ⡤"seke no strange Inglis" ʸΤ̱ѸϻȤʤˤȥեѸФưŤԲƤ뤷15 Polychronicon Osbern Bokenham (1393?--1447?) ⡤ե줬ѸڤˤƤ (Crystal 186) ȤơΤʤǡ줿եѸѤƤȤϤޤǤʤ
Τ褦ѸΥեѸؤνŪϤĤǧ뤬η㤷Ƚ٤ñȯŪǤꡤä礭Ĭήʤä褦Ѹ켫ΤޤθȤƤܤĤʤϰ̤ˤäơѸؤλѸηȤŪ٤ܤӤˤϡޤ夬ᤫäΤȻפ롥Ǥ⡤ѸϤʽŪȽϡβȽʳȤơΤ˱Ѹ˾˰֤ŤΤǤϤ
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
ɸ䤤˼üˤϡɽǻGörlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ
| South | Midland | North | ||
| Present Indicative | 3sg. | -(e)þ | -(e)þ | -(e)s |
| pl. | -(e)þ | -(e)n | -(e)s | |
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| LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' | LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero |
|
| LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero |
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| eLALME: 3sp 's' | eLALME: 3sp 'th' |
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![]() |
| eLALME: pp 's' | eLALME: pp 'th' |
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![]() |
| eLALME: pp 'n' | eLALME: pp 'e' or zero |
ѸΡեФѸˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵˤƤƱ٤ΥեǤϡƥФեäƤĤޤꡤɤȥեξʤΤߤʤ餺ºݤˤϥ衼åѳƹˤǡˤ줳ۤʤ졤罰θ (vernacular) ƬƤΤǤ롥
Υեǡե줬˻̱ƤˡѤȤ鳵⤷褦եǤϡˡθȤƥƥ줬ŪǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤ13椫եλѤϤޤäƤä Charles IV μ (1322--28) ˤƹˡˤեλѤϡꤷΤȤϤʤʤäΤΡŸθ14ϡեΥǥƥƥȷӤĤȤơե¸ߴΤǧ褦ˤʤäƤ椯ơĤ1539ǯ815ˡˤեˡŪʤդͿ뤳ȤȤʤäե˾̾⤤졦ȥļ (l'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts) Ǥ롥#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡޤˡ⳦ϥƥȥե2DzäƤե1 (Francis I; 1494--1547) ˡǤΥƥѤѻߤΤǤ롥Perret (47) ꡤļδطս
L'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539) Articles 110 et 111
«Et afain qu'il n'y ait cause de douter sur l'intelligence desdits arrests, nous voulons et ordonnons qu'ils soient faits et escrits si clairement, qu'il n'y ait ne puisse avoir aucune ambiguïté ou incertitude, ne lieu à demander interprétation.
Et pour ce que de telles choses sont souvent advenues sur l'intelligence des mots latins contenus esdits arrests, ensemble toutes autres procédures, [...] soient prononcez, enregistrez et delivrez aux parties en langaige maternel françois et non autrement.»
ļϡƥʤζ̳ô餹ȤºŪŪ⤢äեեιȤꤹȤ̣礤äθˤˤơե¾ɸऱɸեڤȳͤʤǤ椯κǽηŪʰ⤬1539ǯͿ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ºݤˡ17ˤļƤϳ礷ե̿줿ȤϤޤǤʤ
ɤˤѸϡ#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) #706. 14ѸϽˡ ([2011-04-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡޤǽ˿ʤǤäΤˡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) Ǥ1362ǯΤ褦ʡѸħϤˤϤ뤬졦ȥļΤ褦1ĤηŪʽΤϤʤ
ǤϥɡեȤɸꡤϤε夬äؤнˡξ֤礭ۤʤäƤκۤεϡǤˤλΤΤˤä褦˻פ롥
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1]) εǡűѸ줫ѸˤѤ줿1;ñ̾μ ich λҲüƶѸ I ؤȯŸаޤˤĤǤϡʲѲȤϡǽ˸붯ȼζ礬ؤäƤΤǤϤʤƤ
Ūװ̵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤSchlüter ˤС³Ƭβ˼ˤäơĹ ich Ūû i Τ줫Ф䤹Ȥ¤Τˤ롥
Schlüter ϡHelsinki Corpus ѤѸǻ头ȤˡƸ³μ̤ˡich, everich, -lich 줾Ѱ۷ʬۤĴʲˡSchlüter (224, 227, 226) ˷ǺܤƤ롤ơʬɽ
| I | 1150--1250 (ME I) | 1250--1350 (ME II) | 1350--1420 (ME III) | 1420--1500 (ME IV) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| tokens | % | tokens | % | tokens | % | tokens | % | ||
| before V | ich | 169 | 100 | 121 | 95 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
| I | 0 | 0 | 6 | 5 | 135 | 97 | 253 | 100 | |
| before <h> | ich | 171 | 100 | 105 | 97 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| I | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 156 | 98 | 316 | 100 | |
| before C | ich | 513 | 94 | 363 | 42 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| I | 33 | 6 | 494 | 58 | 1106 | 100 | 2043 | 100 | |
| EVERY | 1150--1250 (ME I) | 1250--1350 (ME II) | 1350--1420 (ME III) | 1420--1500 (ME IV) | |||||
| tokens | % | tokens | % | tokens | % | tokens | % | ||
| before V | everich | - | 6 | 86 | 7 | 64 | 9 | 39 | |
| everiche | - | 1 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
| every | - | 0 | 0 | 4 | 36 | 14 | 61 | ||
| before <h> | everich | - | 0 | 0 | 1 | 20 | - | ||
| everiche | - | 1 | 100 | 1 | 20 | - | |||
| every | - | 0 | 0 | 3 | 60 | - | |||
| before C | everich | - | 6 | 29 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | |
| everiche | - | 10 | 48 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | ||
| every | - | 5 | 24 | 105 | 96 | 138 | 100 | ||
| -LY | 1150--1250 (ME I) | 1250--1350 (ME II) | 1350--1420 (ME III) | 1420--1500 (ME IV) | |||||
| tokens | % | tokens | % | tokens | % | tokens | % | ||
| before V | -lich | 23 | 12 | 8 | 12 | 12 | 4 | 1 | 0 |
| -liche | 162 | 87 | 51 | 77 | 23 | 8 | 21 | 5 | |
| -ly | 1 | 1 | 7 | 11 | 251 | 88 | 421 | 95 | |
| before <h> | -lich | 13 | 18 | 7 | 21 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| -liche | 59 | 82 | 24 | 73 | 8 | 14 | 0 | 0 | |
| -ly | 0 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 49 | 84 | 76 | 100 | |
| before C | -lich | 70 | 13 | 18 | 15 | 18 | 2 | 2 | 0 |
| -liche | 468 | 85 | 93 | 77 | 39 | 5 | 23 | 2 | |
| -ly | 11 | 2 | 10 | 8 | 788 | 93 | 947 | 97 | |
. . . the affricate [ʧ] in final position has turned out to constitute another weak segment whose disappearance is codetermined by syllable structure constraints militating against the adjacency of two Cs or Vs across word boundaries. . . . [T]he three studies have shown that the demise of final [ʧ] proceeds at different speeds depending on the item concerned: it is given up fastest in the personal pronoun, not much later in the quantifier, and most hesitantly in the suffix. In other words, the phonetic erosion is overshadowed by lexical distinctions. Relics of the obsolescent long variants are typically found in high-frequency collocations like ich am or everichone, where the affricate is protected from erosion by the ideal phonotactic constellation it ensures.
Ϣơ#40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1]) ڤӡ#832. every each ([2011-08-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
Schlüter, Julia. "Weak Segments and Syllable Structure in ME." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 199--236.
αѸޥη Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ǡФεΤо줹 (ll. 135--56) ǡɸΡone the + ǾפɽʰѤ Andrew and Waldron Ǥˡ
Þer hales in at þe halle dor an aghlich mayster,
On þe most on þe molde on mesure hyghe;
On þe most ϡ"the very biggest (one)" ۤɤζĴ줿̣"one of the very biggest (ones)" Ȥ϶̤뤳Ȥդ줿ǾƯ one ˡǤ롥ѸǤˤ˸ˡǡMED Ǥ ōn (pron.) θ 7b ΤȤˡ¿㤬Ƥ롥OED Ǥϡone, adj., n., and pron. θФȤΤȤ C. pron. 3a ˡεҤ롥
Mustanoja (297) ˤȡthe + Ǿפˡthe + פȤ㤬 Trin. Hom. 185 1ĤȤ
þat is þat bihotene lond, þar is on þe wunsume bureh and on þe hevenliche wunienge þar alle englen inne wunien
the + ǾפΤ̤ۤǤꡤˡ11ʸڤ롥ane þa mæstan synne, on þe fairest toun, oon the grettest remedye, oon the unworthieste, oon the beste knyght, on þe sellokest swyn ʤˤȤޤʤˡ16ˤϤޤȤʤꡤSpenser Shakespeare ۤܺǸλѼԤȤʤ롥ޤˡѸ˲ڡ餤ƻäդɽäȤ롥
Middle High German, Early Modern High German, Middle Low German, Middle Dutch, Old NorseSwedish ʤ¾Υޥˤбɽʸڤ졤ꥷ μóνος ƥ unus ζĴˡˤ̤Ȥꡤޤե une dame la plus belle ˤӤΤǡѸ one the most ηˤϤδͿΤǤϤʤȵ⤢뤬Mustanoja (298--99) ϱѸȼȯãȸƤ롥
There is every reason to look upon the types one the good man and one the best man as natural outgrowths of the organic structural pattern of native linguistic usage. They offer striking parallels to the common OE type min se leofa (leofesta) freond. The characteristic feature in constructions of this kind is the isolation of an attribute or other defining word from the noun or noun-group by means of an intervening element (called a Gelenkspartikel and particule d'articulation by German and French Romance scholars). This isolation has the effect of bringing out into relief the idea expressed by the attribute, i.e., of making this word and the whole group more emphatic.
one the + ǾȤΥ뤳ȤˤäŪڤӰ̣Ū˺ΩȤ˴ؤơMustanoja (299) ϼΤ褦ɽȤδϢŦƤ롥
This peculiar rhythmic arrangement, which probably has counterparts in most languages of the world, is responsible for such common types as all the world, both the(se) boys, half a bottle, too long a story, what a night, etc.
half a bottle Τ褦ɽθˤĤƤϡ#788. half an hour ([2011-06-24-1]) DZΧŪװMustanoja Τ褦˰̣ŪǽŪװθɬפ
one the most ηѸ˺餤ƻäɽȤȤǤСλޤ̻ŪĴɬפȤʤ롥
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) ơ⤦κľܤȤϡ2κȤȥԥ (pidginisation) ȤȤɤΤ褦˶̤뤫Ȥͻ
Ϣ³줺"the drastic break" (Görlach 341) ȽǤˤϥԥȤäƤ褤ȹͤ뤬Trudgill (181--82) Afrikaans 夲ƱݤεŸƤ롥
Interestingly, there are some languages in the world which look like post-creoles, but which are not. These are varieties which, compared to some source, show a certain degree of simplification and admixture. We do not, however, call these languages creoles, because the extent of the simplification and admixture is not very great. And we do not call them post-creoles because they have never been creoles --- which is in turn because they have never been pidgins! Afrikaans, the other major language of the white community in South Africa alongside English, used to be considered a dialect of Dutch . . . . During the course of the twentieth century, however, it achieved autonomy . . . and now has its own literature, dictionaries, grammar books, and so on. Compared to Dutch, Afrikaans shows significant amounts of regularization in the grammar, and a significant amount of admixture from Malay, Portuguese and other languages. It still remains mutually intelligible with Dutch, however. The crucial feature of Afrikaans is that, although it is now spoken by some South Africans who are the descendants of people who spoke it as a non-native language --- hence the influence from Portuguese, Malay and so on --- and who undoubtedly therefore spoke a pidginized form of Dutch/Afrikaans, the language was at no time a pidgin. In the transition from Dutch to Afrikaans, the native-speaker tradition was maintained throughout. The language was passed down from one generation of native speakers to another; it was used for all social functions and was therefore never subjected to reduction. Such a language, which demonstrates a certain amount of simplification and admixture, relative to some source language, but which has never been a pidgin or a creole in the sense that it has always had speakers who spoke a variety which was not subject to reduction, we can call a creoloid.
ɸ४٤СAfrikaans ˤϳΤñ㲽䵬§ߤ롥ޤޥ졼졤ݥȥʤɤܤѤߤ롥Ȥä pidgin Ȥ creole ȤƤ֤櫓ˤϤʤȤΤϡAfrikaans ˤϴְ㤤ʤŪϢ³뤫üԤϡñ㲽ܿиʤ⡤ڤ뤳ȤʤθѼѤƤܿȹ碌¨ʤصŪʸФȤפʤ"the drastic change" ϤʤäΤǤ롥ǤϡθȸƤ֤ΤTrudgill ϡѸȤ "creoloid" ŬڤǤϤʤȼĥ롥
"creoloid" ȤѸϡѸˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤűѸȸťΥɸȤܿϡcreole ߽Ф櫓ǤϤʤޤ creoloid ߽ФˤʤäȤ롥ʤʤСťΥɸȤܿϸűѸθѲ®٤®ޤǼϩαĹǤꡤϢ³äƱݤεȤơ#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲ȡ
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
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