
*
925Ҥηؤդ10ԤޤΡؤդ٤ˤơǯ١ϢֱܵѸˤįեפƤƤޤϢܤ7Ǥ֥եϱѸβФѤפꤷƵɮޤʲФȤޤ
1. Ҳȯؤαƶ
ե줫μѸ줬ѸȯͿƶˤĤƳƤޤä /v/ γΩ䡤/f/ /v/ βΩηˤĤƲ⤷ޤ
2. 첻ȯؤαƶ
եͳ첻2첻ѸβηϤͿƶƤޤ/ɔɪ/ ƳʤɡʤβǤ
3. Ȥؤαƶ
եѸˤäƱѸζѥɤΤ褦ѲƤޤۤʤ붯ѥζ¸ʤɡѸˤδ鶽̣ޤ
4. Ѹ餷η
ѸϥեαƶĤĤ⡤ȼβηϤȯãƤޤβǷƤȯΡֱѸ餷פˤĤȽŪ˹ͻޤ
εǤϡե줬ѸΡʸäǤϤʤȯͿƶʤ⤷ƤޤեθŪʱƶˤĤƤΤäƤȤ⡤ȯؤαƶˤĤƤϰճʹȤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦̾٥ԤѸˤȤʤäƤޤ
ҡؤդ10˼äƤФȻפޤ6Ϣܵ hellog ǾҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡɤȤ
#5449. ؤդ٤DZѸϢܤϤޤޤ ([2024-03-28-1])
#5477. ʤʩѸˤϻƤñ줬Ρ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ2ơ ([2024-04-25-1])
#5509. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ǽʩñ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ3ơ ([2024-05-27-1])
#5538. եѸή --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ4ơ ([2024-06-25-1])
#5566. ѸΥեѸ줬ѸäͿ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ5ơ ([2024-07-23-1])
#5600. ե촷줷ƤѸ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ6ơ ([2024-08-26-1])
δ졡ֱѸˤįե졡7եϱѸβФѤסؤդ2024ǯ10桤ҡ2024ǯ92554--55ǡ
#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) ǡƻ poor θˤĤƤ줿θϸťե povre ͳ褷 v äƤѸ¦ v üȤȤäб̾ poverty Ǥ v üƤʤϤʤȤ䤬줿
Ԥˤ̾ղäƤꡤȤ v θ벻Ķۤʤ뤿ξοۤʤΤȡܤ˹ͤƤŪˤĴ٤Ƥߤʤʬʤ
ǡȤ Jespersen äƤߤ v ˤĤơMEG1 2ĤΥĤ뤳ȤǤޤ §2.532. Ѥ롥
§2.532.A /v/ has disappeared in a great many instances, chiefly through assimilation with a following consonant: had ME hadde OE hæfde, lady ME ladi, earlier lafdi OE hlæfdige . head from the inflected forms of OE hēafod; at one time the infection was heved, (heavdes) heddes . lammas OE hlafmæsse . woman ME also wimman OE wifman . leman OE leofman . gi'n, formerly colloquial, now vulgar for given . se'nnight [ˈsenit] common till the beginning of the 19th c. for sevennight. Devonshire was colloquially pronounced without the v, whence the verb denshire 'improve land by paving off turf and burning'. Daventry according to J1701 was pronounced "Dantry" or "Daintry", and the town is still called [deintri] by natives. Cavendish is pronounced [ˈkɚndiʃ] or [ˈkɚvndiʃ]. hath OE hæfþ. eavesdropper (Sh. R3 V. 3.221) for eaves-. The v-less form of devil, mentioned for instance by J1701 (/del/ and sometimes /dil/), is chiefly due to the inflected forms, but is also found in the uninflected; it is probably found in Shakespeare's Macb. I. 3.107; G1621 mentions /diˑl/ as northern, where it is still found. marle for marvel is frequent in BJo. poor seems to be from the inflected forms of the adjective, cf. Ch. Ros. 6489 pover, but 6490 alle pore folk; in poverty the v has been kept . ure† F œuvre, whence inure, enure . manure earlier manour F manouvrer (manœuvre is a later loan). curfew, -fu OF couvrefeu . kerchief OF couvrechef . ginger, oldest form gingivere . Liverpool without v is found in J1701 and elsewhere, see Ekwall's edition of Jones §184. Cf. further 7.76.
Jespersen ϡƻˤ v üϡͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȤv ľ̤λҲ³ v æ첻³ݻ롤ȤͤΤ褦ˤ費Ķˤä v 뤫Ĥ뤫ޤȤΩäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ͤޤǤˡv üˤĤƤϡ §7.76. ꡤطǽѤ褦
§7.76./v/ and /f/ are often lost in twelvemonth (Bacon twellmonth, S1780, E1787, W1791), twelvepence (S1780, E1787), twelfth (E1787, cf. Thackeray, Van. F. 22). Cf. also the formerly universal fi'pence, fippence (J1701, E1765, etc.), still sometimes [fipəns]. Halfpenny, halfpence, . . .
ˤĤƤϡ⤦ܤĴ٤ƤɬפꤽʲϢ hellog Ƥ
#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1])
#2276. 13ʹߤ v (2) ([2015-07-21-1])
#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1])
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Ѹ oh ˤ褽űѸδ (interjection) Ȥ ēalā ȤΤ롥θϽѸؤ ealā ȤưѤ줿ѸޤǤˤϻȤʤä褦Ū˴ϤΤȻפ뤬뤫ˡʹˡ˶ΤΤ˴ŤȤܤΥޥȥڤƥδ o ФűѸȤƤѤƤꡤűѸǤŪʴäȤäƤ褤
⤦٤СΥΥޥȥڤ2ĤʬʤäƤꡤºݤˤ줾줬ΩȤƤѤ롥ēa lā Ǥ롥Ȥ߹碌ʣΤ͡ˤä褦ǡThe Dictionary of Old English (DOE) ˤ eala ea, eala ... la, eala ... ea, eala eala, ealaeala ʤ˭ʥꥨ¾δȤ߹蘆ä eala nu "oh now" Τ褦ʻȤ⤢ä
ȤȤƤϡűѸʸį¤ꡤƤӤꡤꡤò䡤ʤɤ˹ѤƤꡤϤ긽Ѹ oh ȤäƤ褤ȤƤˡˡޤǤꡤ嵭Τ褦˷֤Ѥд𤬶äΤ
űѸ꤯ɤʸǤߤ
Lit 4.6 1: æla þu dryhten æla ðu ælmihtiga God æla cing ealra cyninga & hlaford ealra waldendra.
Sat 161: . . . eala drihtenes þrym! eala duguða helm! eala meotodes miht! eala middaneard! eala dæg leohta! eala dream Godes! eala engla þreat! eala upheofen!
HomU 38 18: eala, eala, fela is nu ða fracodra getrywða wide mid mannum.
ɸˤĤơ켣 (274) ˤꡤTajima (1985) Ȥ6ι¤Ѹ첽ֻȤȤ˰Ƥ롥
I°Ūư̾졤: at the king's crowning ʲ˲ĺȤ
IIŪư̾졤: other penance doing ʤۤι뤳ȡ
IIIư̾of̾졤: choosing of war (襤뤳)
IVư̾of̾졤: the burying of his bold knights ͦʵΤ뤳ȡ
Vư̾Ū졤: saving their lives ̿뤳ȡ
VIư̾Ū졤: the withholding you from it ʤ뤳ȡ
Ū줬ư̾Ф֤뤳Ȥ⤢и֤뤳Ȥ⤢äԤξˤֻ of ȼ¤⤢ạ̈ޤư̾μ줬°ʡʸνͭʡˤȤ̳ʡʸŪʡˤȤξߤƤΤܤ٤Ǥ롥ˡư̾Τ괧 the ɤȤ⡤˾νפʥݥȤǤ롥

Tajima, Matsuji. The Syntactic Development of the Gerund in Middle English. Tokyo: Nan'un-Do, 1985.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
ѸΥɤϥޥʼҲäݥꥰʼҲȤäƤ褤̤ơɤ̱äդϾ˱Ѹäդϡ쥸ˤꡤƥ졤ե졤ѸΤ⤢դȤƤαѸϡѸˤƤäȤǤϤ뤬¤¸ߴ褦ˤʤäƤ
Fisher et al. (xiii) ϡɤˤ뤳3Ⱦθ1ʸϤΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ롥
Until the 14th century there was little association between Chancery and Westminster. Like the rest of his household, Chancery followed the King in his peregrinations about the country, and correspondence up to the time may be dated from York, Winchester, Hereford, or wherever the court happened to pause (as the King's personal correspondence---the Signet correspondence---continued to be throughout the 15th century). It is important to observe that in its movement about the country, the court as a whole must have reinforced the impression of an official class dialect , in contrast to the regional dialects with which it came in contact. For two centuries this court dialect was spoken French and written Latin; after 1300 it gradually became spoken English and written French. The English spoken in court then and for a long time afterward was quite varied in pronunciation and structure. But written Latin had been standardized in classical times, and by the 13th century written French had begun to be standardized in form and to achieve the lucid idiom that English prose was not to achieve until the 16th century. Increasingly as the 14th century progressed, this Latin and French was written by clerks whose first language was English. Latin was the essential subject in school, but the acquisition of French was more informal, and by the end of the century we have Chaucer's satire on the French of the Prioress, Gower's apologies for his own (quite acceptable) French, and the errors in legal briefs which betoken Englishmen trying to compose in a foreign language. By 1400 the use of English in speaking Latin and French in administrative writing had established a clear dichotomy between colloquial speech and the official written language, which must have made it easier to create an artificial written standard independent of the spoken dialects when the royal clerks began to use English for their official writing after 1417.
ʤǸ˵Ƥ1417ǯȤϡ#3214. 1410ǯ夫30ǯˤƤ Chancery English ˨ ([2018-02-13-1]) ǿƤ̤ꡤHenry V νʤ̼ (Signet Office) ˤѸȯԤϤǯΤȤǤ롥
Fisher, John H., Malcolm Richardson, and Jane L. Fisher, comps. An Anthology of Chancery English. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1984. 392.
ܥ֥ǤǤϡ̾ץȡ (name_project) ΰĤȤơѸο̾١ˤĤơ¿εƤ˰͵ƤԸ Fransson ˤ Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350 Ǥ롥20ȾθŤʬθȤƤϺǤǤ⽼¤ʸ1ĤǤ롥ºݡθܼƸǡѸοȡ̾ˤ褽ΤȤäƤ褤Fransson (5--7) ƸƤߤ褦
Bibliography
Abbreviations
INTRODUCTION
A. Scope and Aim. Explanatory Notes
B. A Short Survey of Middle English Surnames
1. The Rise of Surnames
2. Surnames in Latin and French
3. Classification of Surnames
C. Surnames of Occupation
1. Surname and Trade. A Comparison
2. Specialized Trades
3. Names not Found in NED. Antedating
D. The Heredity of Surnames
E. Two Suffixes of Obscure History
1. The Ending -ester
2. The Ending -ier
MIDDLE ENGLISH SURNAMES OF OCCUPATION
Ch. I. DEALERS, TRADERS
A. Merchant, Dealer
B. Pedlar, Hawker, Barterer
Ch. II. MANUFACTURERES OR SELLERS OF PROVISIONS
A. Miller, Sifter
B. Corn-Monger, Meal-Monger
C. Baker, Maker or Seller of Bread
D. Cook, Sauce-Maker
E. Maker or Seller of Cheese or Butter
F. Maker or Seller of Spices, Garlics, Oil
G. Maker or Seller of Salt, Soap, Candles, Wax
H. Butcher, Poulterer
I. Seller of Fish
J. Brewere, Vintner, Taverner
Ch. III. CLOTH WORKERS
A. Manufacturers of Cloth
1. Flax-Dresser, Comber, Carder
2. Spinner, Roper
a. Spinner, Winder and Packer of Wool
b. Maker of Ropes, Strings, Nets
3. Weaver or Seller of Cloth
a. Weaver, Webster
b. Maker or Seller of Woollen Cloth
c. Maker or Seller of Linen or Hempen Cloth
d. Maker or Seller of Silk, Pall, Curtains
e. Maker of Sacks, Bags, Pouches
f. Maker of Quilts, Blankets, Mats
g. Felt-Maker, Worker in Horsehair
4. Fuller, Teaseler, Shearman
5. Dyer and Bleacher of Cloth
a. Dyer, Lister
b. Dyer with Woad, Cork, Madder
c. Blacker, Bleacher, Washer
B. Manufacturers of Clothes
1. Tailor, Renovator of Old Clothes
2. Maker of Cowls, Jackets, Pantaloons
3. Maker or Seller of Hats, Caps, Hoods, Plumes
Ch. IV. LEATHER WORKERS
A. Tanner, Skinner, Currier
B. Saddler, Girdler
C. Furrier, Glover, Purse-Maker
D. Maker of Bellows or Bottles
E. Parchmenter, Bookbinder, Copyist
F. Shoemaker, Cobbler
Ch. V. METAL WORKERS
A. Goldsmith, Gilder
B. Coiner, Seal-Maker, Engraver
C. Maker of Clocks
D. Copper-Smith, Brazier, Bell-Founder
E. Tinker, Pewterer, Plumber
F. Blacksmith, Shoeing-Smith
G. Locksmith, Lorimer
H. Needler, Nailer, Buckle-Maker
I. Maker or Furbisher of Armour
J. Maker of Military Engines, Swords, Knives
K. Maker of Bows or Arrows
Ch. VI. WOOD WORKERS
A. Sawyer, Maker of Laths or Boards
B. Carpenter, Joiner
C. Maker of Carts, Wheels, Ploughs
D. Maker of Ships, Boats, Oars
E. Maker of Coffers, Boxes, Organs
F. Turner, Maker of Spoons, Combs, Slays
G. Cooper, Hooper
H. Maker of Baskets or Sieves
I. Maker of Hurdles or Palings
J. Maker of Spades or Besoms
K. Maker of Charcoal, Potash, Tinder
Ch. VII. MASONRY AND ROOFING WORKERS
A. Mason, Plasterer, Painter
B. Thatcher, Tiler, Slater
Ch. VIII. STONE, CROCKERY, AND GLASS WORKERS
A. Miner, Quarrier, Stone-Cutter
B. Lime-Burner, Tile-Maker
C. Potter, Glazier
Ch. IX. PHYSICIAN, BARBER
A. Physician, Surgeon, Veterinary
B. Barber, Blood-Letter
EXCURSUS. TOPONYMICAL SURNAMES
A. Surnames Ending in -er
B. Surnames Ending in -man
A list of Compound Surnames
Index of Surnames
ŪȤݤΤǤϤʤºݤˤϤǤȴƤȤϤΤޤȤ٤ꤹ٤ʸǤȤͳʬΤǤϤʤ
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
#5488. Ѹο̾ʤɽ魯ˤμ϶äۤɺʬƤ¿ͤä ([2024-05-06-1]) ӡ#5489. űѸο̾μѸƱ餤¿ͤäݤ ([2024-05-07-1]) ƤꡥԤεǡѸˤ¿ͤä̾ѸˤƼ餷Ƥä¤˿줿
Ʊͤˡ̾ɽ魯 (by-name) ⡤ѸˤƼ餷ƤäȤϤʤFransson (32) ˤС"by-name" "family name" ȯŸƤݤˡŪûο̾줿ǤϤʤȤ
As regards surnames of occupation we can notice that they become less specialized towards the end of the period, and if we examine rolls after 1350, we shall be surprised at the rarity of specialized names as compared with the earlier period. The reason for this has nothing to do with what has been said above about trades; it is connected with the heredity of surnames, which now begins to become prevalent. The specialized surname of occupation coincided with the trade of a person and, as a rule, does not seem to have been hereditary, which is probably due to its length and to the fact that it very easily calls to mind the trade itself. The surnames that became hereditary were usually short and denoted common trades, e.g. Smith, Cook, Tailor, Turner, etc.; it is almost exclusively names of this kind that one finds in later rolls. It is true that there are surnames of the specialized type that have survived to modern times, e.g. Arrowsmith, Cheesewright, but they are probably very rare; they owe their existence to the fact that the corresponding trade has died out or that the corresponding substantive has become extinct and its signification been forgotten, e.g. Billiter (= ME Belleyetere), Jenner (= ME Gynour), etc.
ŪˤϸĿͤ°Ƥ by-name Ȥ° family name ȯŸƤˤĤơľ¿줿ȤȤ¿ζؤѲƤäȤǤ
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames''. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
ε#5488. Ѹο̾ʤɽ魯ˤμ϶äۤɺʬƤ¿ͤä ([2024-05-06-1]) Ƥ顤ʵ䤬⤫Ǥ롥ΩĸűѸˤϡ̾μѸƱ餤ʬƤ¿ͤäΤ뤤ϡäϼäΤϸˤȤɤޤ餺ʸꡤʸΥȥԥåȤʤ롥
⻲Ȥ Fransson (31) ϡ餯űѸˤϿ̾Ϥäϼäȿ¬Ƥ롥äȸС¿οȤȤ̾ϡΥޥ (norman_conquest) αƶΤȤˡɡѸˤ⤿餵줿ΤȹͤƤ롥
Did this specialization exist before the Middle English period? The trade-names that are recorded in the Old English literature have been collected by Klump (Die altengl. Handwerkernamen). It is noteworthy that these are comparatively few in number; they are chiefly general names of trades, usually not specialized. A great number of the names in the present treatise are not represented there. To infer from this that all these did not exist in OE, is of course premature. The case is that we have no documents from that time in which trade-names are common. Much speaks in favour of the opinion, however, that many names of occupation did not come into existence until after the Norman conquest.
űѸ¿ο̾ʸڤʤȤȤϡűѸ¿οȤʤäȤɬ̣櫓ǤϤʤFransson θΩƤǤϡΤ褦˲ᤷƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
Ѹοȡ̾ˤȯޤޤ⤷ơޤ˻פƤ
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
Ѹο̾ӤӤ (by-name) ˤĤĴ٤ƤȡοȤκʬƤͤ˶äʤ˺٤ȤʬƤΤȰݤƱˡ¿˶òʤΤ
㤨 Fransson (30) θˤȡĴץΤۡȤ˴ؤ뿦̾бϡʤ165ढȤʪ״Ϣֿʪȳ¿ԤȴϢ25ߤĤȤ̤ˤ108Ф졤ʪפʪפͽۤȤब˭٤ǡϢդ줿107˵ڤ֤Ȥ
⤷ȤˡζѸλˤϡޤǤο̾κʬ¿ϳǧʤȤλ̻ŪӤɬñǤϤʤΤΡFransson (31) "we can say that --- with the exception of modern factories -- specialization of trades was considerably greater in the Middle Ages than in modern times." ȷŤƤ롥
ǤϡʤѸˤϿȡ̾ˤΤ褦˺ʬƤΤFransson (31) ϡ4ۤɤŦƤ롥
(1) εѤȯŸʲɤߵȡΤζ椨
(2) Ȥ̾ˤĤƱѸ̾бե̾ʻ¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿츫̾μब˭٤Ȥ¿
(3) 뿦̾ӤӤʪ̣ǤοȤ˽Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤ𤬤롥㤨 girdler ϡ֥ɥ뿦͡פºݤˤϥɥäƤ櫓ǤϤʤƱ¾ʤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿Ĥޤꡤ°ʤοͤǤ⤢ä
(4) 嵭ȴϢơܶȤȤȤ˥ޥʡȤĤǤ硤Ԥ̾ȤƺѤۤȤƤϼǽϤ⤤Blodleter ÷͡סʡᾲˤ Vershewere ֱʸߡסʡڤˤʤɤΤ褦롥
Ѹ˿̾ʬƤ¿ͤȤ¤ߤ褦ǤϡűѸǤϤɤäΤơʤѸʹߤˤϡκʬ¿ʤʤäΤ̣Ǥ롥
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.
̾ץȡ (name_project) ȤδϢǡѸο̾ (personal_name)Ȥ櫓 (last name) "by-name" 뤤 "family name" ˴ؿƤ롥űѸѸˤߤ by-name εϡClark (567) ˤ4ढʤѸ˸¤餺褽Ūʬˡ
(a) familial ones, viz. those defining an individual by parentage, marriage or other tie of kinship
(b) honorific and occupational ones (categories that in practice overlap)
(c) locative ones, viz. those referring to present or former domicile
(d) characteristic ones, often called 'nicknames'
Τ (b) ̾̾̾ȤȤ館뤬Ѹˤ뤳̾ȤƤλѡ by-name ȤžѤ줿ܤƤ롥Ѹο̾¿뤬Clark (570--71) ȤĤġ츻ŪŪʬहȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ
1. եʤ뤤ϥƥ졩ˤμѸ (French loanword)
barber, butcher, carpenter, cordwainer/cordiner, draper, farrier, mason, mercer, tailor; fourbisseur, pestour
2. (native word)
A. ñ (simplex)
cok, herde, smith, webbe, wrighte
B. ʣǸ (complex)ʤʣ
a. ư١
bruere/breuster, heuere, hoppere/hoppestre; bokebynder, bowestrengere, cappmaker, lanternemaker, lymbrenner, medmowere, rentgaderer, sylkthrowster, waterladestre
b. ̾١
bureller, glovere, glasier, madrer, nailere, ropere, skinnere; burelman, candelwif, horseknave, maderman, plougrom, sylkewymman; couherde, swynherde, madermongere, stocfisshmongere, ripreve, bulleward, wodeward, wheelewrighte
Ѹο̾ᤰˤĤƤϡʲ hellog Ǥ夲ƤΤȡ
#590. last name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤä ([2010-12-08-1])
#2365. ΥޥαѸ̾κѡ ([2015-10-18-1])
#5231. űѸο̾ˤϲȷϤɽ魯 (family name) Ϥʤäɡ ([2023-08-23-1])
#5297. űѸ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-28-1])
#5338. Ѹ˿̾ˤ⤿餵줿2ĤοȤλ ([2023-12-08-1])
#5346. Ѹ˱Ѹ̾Ƴ줿طʡ ([2023-12-16-1])
#5299. Ѹ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-30-1])
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. Olga Fischer. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 542--606.
#5299. Ѹ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-30-1]) ǡClark ˵äơűѸ줫Ѹˤƿ̾Τ礭ѤäȤǧcf. #5297. űѸ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-28-1])ˡ(1) ĤƤ "idionym" "baptismal name" ؤƤƤäȡ (2) ץä "by-name" ˸Ū "family name" ؤȯŸƤäȤ2פǤ롥
Ѹ̾οȤ⤤뤳2ѸΤɤΤ餤Υߥ塦ΩΤΤ˽Ҥ٤뤳ȤϤǤʤޤǽȯŸħClark (552) ϡ1ܤ1250ǯ2ܤ1450ǯȤߤƤ롥
This twofold shift in English personal naming was a specifically Middle English process. Among the mass of the population, the name system of ca 1100 was still virtually the classic Late Old English one, modified only by somewhat freer use of ad hoc by-names . . .; but ca 1450 a structure prefiguring the present-day one had been established, with hereditary family names in widespread use, though not yet universally adopted. As for the ousting of pre-Conquest baptismal names by what were virtually the present-day ones, that had been accomplished by ca 1250. This series of changes involved several convergent processes.
绨ĤˤС1ܤοϽѸ (1100--1300) δ֤˸ǤޤäƤ2ܤοϼ˸Ѹ (1300--1500) ȯŸƤäȸŪ̾դ鸽Ū̾դؤѲ濴Ȥʤϡۤܤ줤Ѹ (1100--1500) ȤäƤƤ褤Ȥˤʤ롥
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. Olga Fischer. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 542--606.
Ѹäͤ륷diglossia ѼȤʬˤ5ƤȤʤ롥ޤǤΡ#5306. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (1) ([2023-11-06-1])#5311. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (2) ([2023-11-11-1])#5315. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (3) ([2023-11-15-1])#5326. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (4) ([2023-11-26-1]) ٤ʤ顤 Pearce αѸѸ켭ŵȤ (143--44) "diglossia" "polyglossia" ιܤȤꡤ̣ŪǤ롥
Polyglossia A situation in which two or more languages exist side by side in a multilingual society, but are used for different purposes. Typically, one of the languages (usually labelled the 'H' or 'high' variety) has greater prestige than the others, and is used in formal, public contexts such as education and administration. The other languages in a polyglossic situation (usually labelled the 'L' or 'low' varieties) tend to be used in informal, private contexts (and also in popular culture). England was a triglossic society, with English as the 'L' variety, and French and Latin as 'H' varieties. As French died out, England became diglossic in English and Latin (which was maintained as the language of education and the Church).
Ǹ˱Ѹˤˤ triglossia diglossia ʤ polyglossiaˤڤƤΤϡֱѸءѸ켭ŵǤ롥Ѹˤˤ polyglossia ݤˤϡΤ褦Ѹθ𤬻Ф뤳Ȥ¿ξ1դɬפǤ롥
Τ褦ʵǤϡѸΥɤ triglossia μҲȤƤȤ館뤳Ȥ¿Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3Τ٤ƤΤϡԥߥåɤκǾؤνŪŪȤΤߤǤ롥Ѹȥե2λȤȤʤС⤦ԥߥåɤβޤDz뤬ȤƤԥߥåɤΤˤϵڤФʤĤޤꡤѸɼҲ3ع¤Υԥߥåɤؤơ뤯 triglossia diglossia ȤȤǤȤƤ⡤ɼҲιʤ뤤¿ˤʣ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤषѸΤߤΥ뤬Ū¿ȤȤõƤƤ褤
ǻפФΤϡŵŪ diglossia ҲξǤ롥ˤȡȤ櫓 H Ѽν٤ˤĤƤ٤κϤȤϤҲʤ뤤¿ˤ L H ΤθѼäȤäɥĸɸɥĸ졤쥢ӥȸŵӥ졤ϥ쥪ȥե㤬Ƥ
ŵŪ diglossia Ҳ˾Ȥ餹ȡѸɤ diglossia/triglossia ȸƤǤ褤ΤȤ䤬ͯˤѸȤϡdiglossia ȤǰγѤαפȤʤΤȤʤΤդ꤬ռǤ롥
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
#5297. űѸ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-28-1]) ѸǤϤ롥Ѹˤʤȡ̾ΤѤꡤȼäƿ̾ؤѸȤѤ롥Clark (551--52) ꡤϢսѤ롥
Neither the structure nor the content of the Present-Day English personal-name system owes much to pre-Conquest styles. The typical Old English personal designation consisted of a single distinctive name (or 'idionym'), such as Dudda, Godgifu or Wulfstan; and only occasionally was this supplemented by a qualifying by-name (usually postposed), such as sēo dæge 'the dairymaid' or sē hwīta 'the white(-haired man)' . . . . A Present-Day English 'full name', on the other hand, necessarily involves two components; the second denoting a patrilinear family group and the first (which may consist of one unit or or several), an individual within that group. In Present-Day English usage, moreover, the familial, hereditary component is the crucial one for close identification, whereas in Old English usage, as in early Germanic ones generally, the idionym was central, any addition being optional. Beside this total change of structure, it is trivial that, out of the hundreds of Old English idionyms, only a handful, and those mainly ones which, like Edith, Edmund and Edward, were associated with widely venerated saints, are today represented among Present-Day English first-names.
The change of system demands a change of terminology. The special term 'idionym', no longer appropriate, will be replaced by 'baptismal name' ('Christian name' is needed for a more specific sense, neither 'forename' nor 'first name' is appropriate until family naming is well established, and 'font name' is unidiomatic). For an optional identifying component, the term 'by-name' will be retained. Only when continuity between generations is demonstrable will the term 'family name' be used ('surname' is rejected as insufficiently precise).
űѸȰۤʤꡤѸǤ2ĤμȤ߹碌̾ŪˤʤäƤ롥ĤޤꡤŪʡ̾פȤŪȤʤäƤ櫓ǡűѸ줫 idionym ȤǰѸѤƤȤˤʤ롥षꥹȶҲˤ̾Ȥ baptismal name ȤǰѸ줬դ路ʤäƤ롥 baptismal name ˲äǡꤹ뤿 by-name ä褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥 by-name ϼºݾ²ȷϤɽ魯̤Ȥ¿Ѹˡ³̾ƥबޤäΤǤ롥
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. Olga Fischer. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 542--606.
2ָ107ڡˤ 15:30--18:45 ˡī㡼ɶˤƥֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ3ȤʤѸֻ --- ɸʤ˱ɡ֤ޤ

ιֺ¤ϡ4Υ3ȤʤޤΥ饤ʥåפϰʲ̤Ǥ
1ʸεȯã --- ե٥åȤγȤʽա429
2űѸֻ --- μʤʲơ729
3Ѹֻ --- ɸʤ˱ɡʽ107
4Ѹֻ --- ɸಽܻؤơߡ̤
ޤǤ2ιֺ¤ǤϡޤѸ˰ʸե٥åȤεȯãǧ˸űѸ449--1100ǯˤˤѤμºݤѻƤޤ3ܤѸ1100--1500ǯˤǤλޤǤ˱ѸüԤϥˤϤäǤޤ1066ǯΥΥޥη̡ɸѸפüñ֤ȤѸ˾Ǥޤʻ֤ŸƤޤ礲˸СġαѸν꤬פפ˹ʤ褦ñ֤äǤȤߤХͥƥȤʤޤͳȤߤХݥƥǤϤƤξϡαѸѸΥڥˤʤƶͿΤǤ礦Ѹ쥹ڥˤˤơäȤ㥯ʻǤ餳⤷Ƥޤֺ¤ΤʤǤѸ츶ʸɤߤʤ顤λΥڥįƤߤȻפޤ
ֺ¤λäˤؿΤϡΥڡꤪߤ̤Τۤ饤ǤλäǽǤޤϿ줿ˤϡƨۿȤƥưؤΥͽǤԹΤ褤ˡǤä4ΥΤǤϤޤƲƤΩƤޤΤǡñȯǤΤäⴿޤǤ
ܥȴϢơʲ hellog Voicy heldio ۿ⤴Ȥ
Ρ1ʸεȯã --- ե٥åȤγȤꡡ
heldio #668. īֺ¤οʸֻαѸˡפ429Ϥޤޤ2023ǯ330
hellog #5088. īֺ¤οʸֻαѸˡפ429Ϥޤޤ ([2023-04-02-1])
hellog #5119. īֺ¤οʸֻαѸˡפ1ޤ ([2023-05-03-1])
Ρ2űѸֻ --- μʤ
hellog #5194. 729ڡˡīΥֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ2ָűѸֻ --- μʤס ([2023-07-17-1])
heldio #778. űѸʸ --- 729ڡˤīΥֺ2˸ơ2023ǯ718
hellog #5207. īΥֺ¡ʸֻαѸˡפ2ָűѸֻ --- μʤפޤ ([2023-07-30-1])
Ρ3Ѹֻ --- ɸʤ˱ɡϡʰʲ2023/09/26(Tue)θ嵭
heldio #848. Ѹɸʤֻ --- 107ڡˤīΥֺ3˸ơ2023ǯ926
ηФϢ³ơVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ī6ۿˤˤ delicious Ȥۿޤ
#840. delicious, delectable, delightful
#841. deleicious Ū줬ؤʤȤˤʤäƤ
Ĥơ#283. delectable delight ([2010-02-04-1]) ꤹ뵭ȤꡤȤ̩ܤ˴ؤǤƥư dēlectāre ͶǤ롤̥λ롤Фˤ˴Ťƻ줬͡ʷ֤Ѹ˥եͳƼѤޤʤۤˡܤ˱Ѹ¦Ƿ줿Ʊηƻ⤢ޤˡηƻִӤͿ롤Ф롤ʡڤ̣Ρ˧פʤɤΥݥƥʰ̣ɽ路ˤȤäƤ褤ñ췲Ƥޤ
Ʊ줬äƤⶥ礹ǡġ¸߰յʤޤʤˤѸˤʤΡۤȤѤʤΤФƤΤƻǤ
Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary (= HTOED) Ĵ٤ƤߤȤŪˤ13Ρdelicious פ夷Ƥޤ츻Ū dēlectāre ̤ꤦƱǤʲ˰ޤ
delite (c1225--1500): Very pleasant or enjoyable; delightful.
delightable (c1300--): Very pleasing or appealing; delightful.
delicate (a1382--1911): That causes pleasure or delight; very pleasing to the senses, luxurious; pleasurable, esp. in a way which promotes calm or relaxation. Obsolete.
delightful (a1400--): Giving or providing delight; very pleasant, charming.
delicious (c1400?-): Very pleasant or enjoyable; very agreeable; delightful; wonderful.
delectable (c1415--): Delightful; extremely pleasant or appealing, (in later use) esp. to the senses; very attractive. Of food, drink, etc.: delicious, very appetizing.
delighting (?a1425--): That gives or causes delight; very pleasing, delightful.
delitous (a1425): Very pleasant or enjoyable; delightful.
delightsome (c1484--): Giving or providing delight; = delightful, adj. 1.
delectary (?c1500): Very pleasant; delightful.
delighted (1595--1677): That is a cause or source of delight; delightful. Obsolete.
dilly (1909--): Delightful; delicious.
delish (1915--): Extremely pleasing to the senses; (chiefly) very tasty or appetizing. Sometimes of a person: very attractive. Cf. delicious, adj. A.1.
Ѹˤʤä⤢ΤϳΤǤճ¿ʤ褽ٸǤȤϤ˸ĤäƤΤषäǤִӤͿ롤ʡפȤ̤ܵѤΤϡºŪˤ delicious, delectable, delightful 餤ΤΤǤ礦
Τ褦ʸä̵̸뤤;ȤäϡѸǤϷ褷ƵǤϤޤϢơ#3157. ʤ splendid Ʊ ([2017-12-18-1])#4969. splendid ƱΥ饤 ([2022-12-04-1])#4974. splendidious, splendidous, splendious λ --- EEBO corpus ([2022-12-09-1]) ⤴
#193. 15 Chancery Standard through ΰ֤14̤ ([2009-11-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤѸ⽪˶Ť15θŪʸǤ顤ֻˤϤޤѰۤɤ줬ä14˻Ϥޤ꤫ƤֻɸಽϡޤǤäȿʹԤƤΤǤ롥An Anthology of Chancery English ΥåįƤȡthrough ʳˤ⡤֤δ餪⤷ñϤĤ⤢롥ܤˤĤ3ñ (England, merchant, notwithstanding) 夲֤վޤƤߤ褦ο٤Ǥ롥
England (35), Englande (10), Engeland (7), Englond (28), Englonde (3), Engelond (1), Inglond (6), Ingelond (3), Ingland (1), Yngelond (2), Ynglond (1)
merchant (1), marchant (8), marchaunt (6), merchaunt (4); (pl.) marchauntȝ (10), merchauntȝ (6), marchaunts (4), merchauntes (3), marchantes (3), merchantes (2), marchantȝ (2), merchandes (1), marchandes (1), marchauntes (1), merchantȝ (1)
notwithstanding (3), notwithstondyng(e) (16), natwiþstandyng (6), notwiþstandyng(e) (3), notwiþstanding (2), notwithstonding (1), notwyþstandyng (1), notwythstondyng (1), notwistanding (1), natwithstandyng (1), naughtwithstandinge (1), nogthwithstondyng (1), nottewithstondyng (1), notwythstondyng (1)
Ǥ餳ɤƤȤΤ̣3ɹΰѤǤ롥¾䤷Τ٤
Ϣ England ˤĤƤϡ#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1]) ȡ#2250. English θƬ첻ʻˡ ([2015-06-25-1]) notwithstanding ˤĤƤϡ#5064. notwithstanding ([2023-03-09-1]) ȡ
Fisher, John H., Malcolm Richardson, and Jane L. Fisher, comps. An Anthology of Chancery English. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1984. 392.
ǥνդϡά䥿ݤ¿ѸǤñξάλϰ̤ǤϤʤξάֻѤ뤫ͽ¬Ǥʤ (nlp) ˤƤϡΤ褦ʾάֻʤɤɬפȤʤꡤʤʤΤ褦
ѸֻΥꥨ˭٤Ǥ롥֤ϰ̤ǤϤʤֻѤ뤫ϡȤ˴ˤϤΤΡˤͽ¬ǤʤѸɤʬϤݤˤϡ¿ֻͤפɬפꡤʤ
ξԤϡΤ褦ˤȤƤƤ롥"tomorrow" Ȥñֻꥨ˼ꡤӤƤߤ褦ǥ Vajjala ¾ (p. 295) 顤Ѹ MED ä
Ρǥ "tomorrow" ֻ
tmw, tomarrow, 2mrw, tommorw, 2moz, tomorro, tommarrow, tomarro, 2m, tomorrw, tmmrw, tomoz, tommorow, tmrrw, tommarow, 2maro, tmrow, tommoro, tomolo, 2mor, 2moro, 2mara, 2mw, tomaro, tomarow, tomoro, 2morr, 2mro, tmoz, tomo, 2morro, 2mar, 2marrow, tmr, tomz, tmorrow, 2mr, tmo, tmro, tommorrow, tmrw, tmrrow, 2mora, tommrow, tmoro, 2ma, 2morrow, tomrw, tomm, tmrww, 2morow, 2mrrw, tomorow
ΡMED "tomorrow" ֻ
tōmōrn, tomorne, -moroun(e, -morwen, -morwin, -morewen, -morgen, tomor3en, -moregan, -moreuin, -marewene, -marwen, -marhen, -mar3an, -mar3en, -mær3en, temarwen; tōmōrwe, tomorewe, -moreu, -mor(r)owe, -mor(r)ou, -morou, -moru(e, -mor3e, -marewe, temorwe, tomoruwe, -more3e, -mar3e, -mær3e
⤦ݤϤʬǥоݤȤ뼫ѤȯŸϡѸ츦ˤͭѤˤʤФäΤ褦Ǥʤ顤䡤ʤʤ⤷ӤǤϤʤ
Vajjala, Sowmya, Bodhisattwa Majumder, Anuj Gupta, Harshit Surana ˡ滳 ˡؼ --- NLP ץꥱȯΥ٥ȥץ饯ƥ١饤ѥ2022ǯ
˾塤ҤȤ來Ӥ䤫˱Ǥҳ (age_of_discovery) ǤߤȡʤѸˤȤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤcf. #4423. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ10ҳȳǰѡפޤ ([2021-06-06-1])ˡ
ʲؿҳ٤δ (pp. 109--10) άǯɽǺܤ롥ҳϰϤˤĤƤϤĤιͤ뤬1415ǯΥݥȥ뷳ˤ륻Τ˻Ϥޤꡤ1648ǯΥȥեꥢ˽ȤΤ1ĤθǤ롥άǯɽˤߤ褦ˡˤĹ
| 5 | 饯ϸ饹Ѥޤǹҳ |
| 4Ⱦ | ͥ륳ƥꥹϸޤõ |
| 111 | 롤ۤʻ |
| 1 | ܥ |
| 60--70 | إȥ鳤 |
| 1Ⱦ | ֥ҥåѥפˤ륢ӥҳˤʤ |
| 2 | ȥޡɤθפʤ |
| 166 | ءʥޥ륯ꥦˤλټ˻ |
| 207 | ۹ |
| 4--5 | Υɲʤ |
| 399--412 | 쿸ˡΥɡιԡʩ٤ |
| 7Ⱦ | Ĥʻ礵 |
| 618 | |
| 639 | ֿͤΥץȿ |
| 7Ⱦ | 䲦ޥåθפ |
| 671--95 | ʩεںߡˡ |
| 750 | ХȤ˥åСī롥ǰפ˿ʽ |
| 875 | ѡ˶ |
| 907 | ˴彽 |
| 960 | ǰפδ |
| 969 | եƥī˰ܤ롥ȳ̤ƤΥǰסʸ奨ץȤϹȳͳΥǰפƳ |
| 1096 | 1 (--99) ꥢԤƬ |
| 1127 | |
| 1147 | 2 (--48) |
| 1169 | ץȤ˥桼īΩ |
| 1245--47 | ץΡԡˡĤ̿ˤꥫ饳˻ιԵ魯 |
| 1254 | ֥奭Ĥ̿ˤꥫ饳ޤιԡιԵ |
| 1258 | 뷳ХΡåСī˴뷳ϥꥢץȤ˿Ǥ |
| 1271--95 | ޥ륳ݥΥιԤںߡιԵ |
| 1291 | ΥΥǥեꥫҳ |
| 1293 | ˥ޥѥҥȲΩ뷳˿ |
| 1312 | ΥΥơޥʥꥢ˹ҳ |
| 1349ʥޥޡ | ֥Хȥ24ǯˤ錄륢եꥫιԤ饿˵ |
| 1336 | ɤ˥ʥ벦 |
| 1345 | ޥѥҥȡϳ |
| 1351--54 | ֥ХȥեꥫιԡػΦͷ٤ |
| 1360 | ޥǥΡιԵ٤κΩ |
| 1368 | |
| 1372 | Ȥ |
| 1403 | ڥΥӡۡιԤƥࡼ˱ڤ顦ȥ٥롤ʥꥢ˹ҳ |
| 1405 | ޤҳ1433ǯޤ7ˤ錄 |
| 1415 | ݥȥ뷳Ρ֤ʤեꥫϩõϤޤ |
| 1434 | 롦ͥܥɡ̨ |
| 1453 | ޥˤ륳ƥΡץ빶ά |
| 1455 | ͥĥͥ⥹Ȥեꥫҳ |
| 1475 | ĥǥץȥޥΡءٴ |
| 1479 | ڥݥȥ֤˥륫 |
| 1482 | ݥȥեꥫεߥʷߡݥȥͥܿ |
| 1488 | ǥˤ˾ȯҳ |
| 1492 | ֥1ҳ (--93) |
| 1493 | ֥2ҳ |
| 1494 | ڥݥȥ֤˥ȥǥ㥹 |
| 1498 | ޤΥɹҳ֥3ҳڤã |
| 1500 | ֥롤ɤؤӼ֥饸ɺ |
| 1501 | ꥴץåꥫ52ޤǹҳ |
| 1502 | ֥4ҳƱ߹ҳ |
| 1505 | ȥġǹõķ |
| 1508 | ֥르ĤƱͤʼݤεķ |
| 1509 | ᥤǥǡץȡ顼Ϣ |
| 1510 | ݥȥ롤 |
| 1511 | ݥȥ롤ޥåά |
| 1512 | ݥȥ |
| 1513 | Хܥѥʥ϶Ǥʿδߤã |
| 1519--21 | ƥΥᥭʥƥ |
| 1520 | ޥ϶ȯʿΤǤƥեԥ˻ |
| 1522 | 륫ΰʲ18͡ǽҤȤƥӥ |
| 1527 | ƥۤΥ楫õ |
| 1528--33 | ԥΥ |
| 1529 | 饴åˤΥݥȥ뵢° |
| 1534 | ƥΥʥõ |
| 1535 | ޥΥõ |
| 1537 | Υ।ʥ֥ |
| 1538 | 롦ġΥϢץǥȥ륳ͤ |
| 1541 | ԥΥޥõΥ㡼ʡϸޤǹҳ (1542) |
| 1543 | ͤΥݥȥ͡ |
| 1545 | ܥӥΥݥȥ仳ȯǯᥭǤ仳ȯ |
| 1553 | ӡϩõ |
| 1565 | ͡ϩˤեԥᥭޤǹҳ |
| 1567 | ˥ʿιҳǯȯ |
| 1568 | ۡեǡ륢ǥڥδæ |
| 1570 | ɥ쥤ΥֳڥϤΫå |
| 1571 | 쥬ԡޥ˥Էߡꥹȶ̤γѥȤǥޥ˾ |
| 1575 | եӥå㡼ϩõļ |
| 1577--80 | ɥ쥤ΫåҤʤ |
| 1578 | 륫롼ǥݥȥ뷳å |
| 1584--85 | 륿Υ˥̱ײ |
| 1586--88 | ٥ǥ |
| 1595 | 1õ˥ʿõޥ륱ȯ |
| 1598 | եΡȡͤȤƺǽ |
| 1599 | ͥեͥå쥤ɹҳ |
| 1600 | ꥹ쥤ɲΩκ֥饸˺Ȥꡤեꥫ͢Ϥޤ |
| 1605 | ιҳ˥塼إ֥ǥޤ |
| 1606 | 塤Ȥ˻Ĥ줿ȥ쥹˥塼˥ȥꥢ֤γȯޥ˥˸ |
| 1610 | ϥɥ˥ƹˤʤ |
| 1614 | ǥԥȤιԵٴ |
| 1615 | ͥۡƥȥ롦ιҳ̨ۡȯ |
| 1617 | 2õ |
| 1620 | ᥤե˥塼ɤ |
| 1622 | δ⡤⥵ӥǥι |
| 1623 | ܥʻͤˤ륤ꥹܿͤ͡λʸ奤ꥹͤ쥤ɤιǰפűषɤ˽ |
| 1637 | եꥫΥߥå |
| 1639 | ޥǰסΤԲǽˤʤ롥ޥʿιҳ |
| 1641 | ͥޥåå |
| 1642--43 | ޥȥꥢسԤ餫ˤ |
| 1645 | ͥȡإ |
| 1647 | ܥ細ΡʡƤΥե˥õ |
| 1648 | ߥǥ˥աų̈ʥǥ˥̨ˤã١¸ߤˤϵĤʤäȥեꥢˤ뻰ǯνꡥΩǧ |
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǡꥹʡ줿˲#517. Ū줬ˤʤư֤Ѹȯ --- He was given a book.ۿޤҤİ
§ȤƸűѸǤưľŪ줬Ȥʤưʸ¸ߤޤǤȤ³ѸˤʤꡤưδŪֻŪޤǤ⤬ȤʤưʸǽȤʤäƤޤʳפ (125--31) ˡϤۿؤȤʤޤ
Fischer ˤСѸǤϼΤ٤ƤμưʸǽǤ
1 The book was selected by the committee
2 Nicaragua was given the opportunity to protest
3 His plans were laughed at
4 The library was set fire to by accident
Ѹ˸Ǥϡμưʸγ˴ؤ¿ʤƤޤĤιͤΤΡͼư (passivisation) ˴ؤ쵬§ŬϰϤѲƤȤȤ館¿褦Ǥפˡưоݤ֤ȤȤưľŪ줫ŪءֻŪس礷ƤȤǤ
1ĤβǤ⤷ȤƤ⡤ʤʤΤȤŪɬפޤưȤϰۤʤ뤱ɤⲿ餫Ǵط츽ݤˤƤѲ礬äƤȤСȹ碌ƹͻɬפޤդλ Fischer (384) ˸äƤ餤ޤ礦
There are two general paths along which one could look for an explanation of these developments. One can hypothesise that there was a change in the nature of the rule that generates passive constructions . . . Another possibility is that there was a change in the application of the rule due to changes having taken place elsewhere in the system of the language . . . The latter course seems to be the one now more generally followed. Additional factors that may have influenced the spread of passive construction are the gradual loss of the Old English active construction with indefinite man . . . (this construction could most easily be replaced by a passive) and the change in word order . . . .
ѲβȸڤϡʤʤưפǤϤޤΤ˱ѸˤȤʬꡤ椬³ƤΤǤ
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.
Ť Wardale ѸǤ˼äƤ롥Ѹ (Middle English) ϸűѸ (Old English or Anglo-Saxon) ȲɤۤʤΤWardale (2--3) 3Ƥ롥
(a) One of these marked differences is that whereas the latter contained very little foreign element, only a limited number of Latin words and a very few from Celtic and other sources being found, the vocabulary of Middle English has been enormously enriched, especially from Old Norse and French.
(b) Another point of distinction is that whereas in the O.E. period the West Saxon dialect under Ælfred's encouragement of learning had come to be the standard literary dialect, the others being relegated chiefly to colloquial use, in M.E. times no such state of affairs existed. In them all dialects were used for literary purposes and only towards the end of the period do we find that of Chaucer beginning to assume its position as the leading literary language.
(c) But more important than these external points of difference, if perhaps less obvious, and more essential because inherent in the language itself, is the modification which gradually made itself seen in that language. English, like all Germanic tongues, has at all times been governed by what is known as the Germanic accent law, that is by the system of stem accentuation. By this law, except in a few cases, the chief emphasis of the word was thrown on the stem syllable, all others remaining less stressed or entirely unaccented. . . . But by [the M.E. period] all vowels in unaccented syllables have been levelled under one uniform sound e . . .
ĤޤꡤűѸ٤ȤѸκΩ3롥˭٤ʼѸ졤ɸѼԺߡ̵첻οʿȤ櫓3ܤŪܼŪħǤꡤ2Ĥνʷ̤⤿餷ȡWardale (3--4) ϵ롥
The consequences of this levelling of all unaccented vowels under one are twofold.
(a) Since many inflectional endings had by this means lost their distinctive value, as when a nominative singular caru, care, an a nominative plural cara both gave a M.E. care, or a nominative plural limu, limbs, and a genitive plural lima both gave a M.E. lime, those few endings which did remain distinctive, such as the -es, of the nominative plural of most masculine nouns, were for convenience' sake gradually taken for general use and the regularly developed plurals care and lime were replaced by cares and limes. In the same way and for the same reason the -es of genitive singular ending of most masculine and neuter nouns came gradually to be used in other declensions as when for an O.E. lāre, lore's we find a M.E. lǫres
(b) The second consequence follows as naturally. The older method of indicating the relationship between words in a sentence having thus become inadequate, it was necessary to fin another, and pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions came more and more into use. Thus an O.E. bōca full, which would have normally given a M.E. bōke full was replaced by the phrase full of bōkes, and an O.E. subjunctive hie 'riden, which in M.E. would have been indistinguishable from the indicative riden from an O.E. ridon, by the phrase if hi riden. In short, English from having been a synthetic language, became one which was analytic.
1Ĥη̤ϡΤ˶̤ -es Τ褦ͥʶ̲ȤȤ2ĤϡȸδطɸΤ˶ޤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäˡ̾졤ֻ졤³Ȥä˰¸ٹ礬Ūʸ줫ʬŪʸذܹԤȤ
ʾ塤ѸȸűѸΰ㤤ˤĤפäΤǾҲ𤷤
Wardale, E. E. An Introduction to Middle English. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1937. 2016. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.
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