ɸϡѸǤϤ褯Τ줿ʬ (reanalysis) Ȥơޤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤƼ夲Ƥʲ (110--17) ˽äơʽŪʵҤܤ
űѸǤϡѸ They had their enclosure closed. have + Ū + ʬפιʸ¸ߤ (þā hīe tō Ðǣm ġemǣre cōmon . . ., þā hæfdon hīe hiera clūsan belocene [Or, ed. Sweet 112/34]) ιʸΰ̣ϸȰۤʤ餺֡Ūˤʲʬˤɽ魯֤ȤƤġפۤɤǤꡤŪȲʬŪỤ̄Ū̩ܤʴطˤäξڵˡʬŪʤ˰פƶȼäƤʾǤϡñгʡˡʳǤϡä˿δްդϤäƤʤä
8ޤǤˡŪѰۤƤŪȲʬΰ֤žhave + ʬ + ŪʸоǤ롥θϤФ餯¸ƤΤΡϸѸΤ褦 They had closed their enclosure. They had their enclosure closed. ΰ̣Ωɽ魯ΤǤɬʤä˿have + ʬ + Ūפ¿Ѥ褦ˤʤꡤޤ¾ưβʬ˸¤ƤΤưʤѰưʳˤβʬˤޤdzȤʤɤơֲʬŪפΤĤʤhave + ʬפΤĤʤ꤬ռ褦ˤʤä
ѸȡʬŪδطŪʰפɸʤʤꡤhave + ʬפβʣŪʽҸưȤª˻äʳǡhave + ʬפϸѸˤĤʤ칽ʸȤƳΩȤäƤ褤̣ŪˤСޤΤ˶̤뿷꤬줿櫓ǤϤʤäºݡwhilom long ago ʤɲɽ魯ȸߴλʸ뤳Ȥϡʹ Shakespeare դޤ³ƤꡤѸθߴλˤߤָߤȤδͿפȤħΩƤȤΤ16ʹߤǤ롥
ιʸεȯãʸˡȤŪ˵ҤȼΤ褦ˤʤݺ, p. 14 οޤͤˤˡ
OE ME ModE
have + NP + pp -----> have + pp + NP -----> have + pp + NP ===> λ
ͭư ư ư

³ɸɽˤĤơQuirk et al. (1284--85) ˤιʸ⤵Ƥ롥ʲ˺Ƹ褦
A special case of prepositional apposition is offered by singular count nouns where the of-phrase is subjective . . ., eg:
the fool of a policeman
an angel of a girl
this jewel of an island
This structure consisting of determiner + noun (N2) + of + indefinite article + noun (N1) is not a regular prepositional postmodification, since N1 is notionally the head, as can be seen in the paraphrases:
The policeman is a fool. [note the AmE informal variant some fool policeman]
The girl is an angel.
This island is a jewel.
The whole part N2 + of + a corresponds to an adjective:
the foolish policeman
an angelic girl
this jewel-like island
The natural segmentation is reflected in variant spellings, as in the familiar AmE expression a hell of a guy (nonstandard spelling: a helluva guy).
In this construction, the determiner of N1 must be the indefinite article, but there is no such constraint on the determiner of N2:
''a'' ''a policeman'' ''the'' ''fool of'' *''the policeman'' ''this'' *''policeman'' ''that''
Also, N2 must be singular:
?*those fools of policemen
The possessive determiner actually notionally determines N1, not N2:
her brute of a brother ['Her brother was a brute..']
Both N2 and N1 can be premodified:
a little mothy wisp of a man
this gigantic earthquake of a piece of music
a dreadful ragbag of a British musical
this crescent-shaped jewel of a South Sea island
Ǹ this crescent-shaped jewel of a South Sea island Τ褦ˡN1 N2 ξֽƤ褦Ǥϡ̾Τˤ濴ɤʤΤۣǤ롥ϤŪʼỌ̇̄ŪʽſϰפƤΤݤỌ̇̄бط붦ŪϻĤˤ衤̻ŪˤߤСϸι¤ξΩ⤦Ͽ¤ξΩäƤ뤫Τ褦ǤꡤΩ褫ŪɽȤʤäƤΤ⤷
ʸˡȤƤʬϤǧθؤ佤ؤȤƤϤξʤ̣ʸǤ롥̻ŪɤΤ褦˿ޤƤĴΤȥԥåΤ褦˻פ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ֻ of ˡ1ĤȤơɸΤ褦㤬롥an angel of a girl ϰ̣Ū "a girl like an angel" ȥѥե졼졤ľȤɽȤʤ롥ʤΤ褦ʰ̣Τ
Ǥ of ˡϹ̣ǡƱʡ (apposition) ȤäƤ褤OED ˤȡof θ23 "Between two nouns which are in virtual apposition" Ȥꡤθβ˺ʬ줿23bˤƤˡƤ롥
b. In the form of, in the guise of.
The leading noun is the latter, to which the preceding noun with of stands as a qualification, equivalent to an adjective; thus 'that fool of a man' = that foolish man, that man who deserves to be called 'fool'; 'that beast of a place' = that beastly place.
Quot. ?c1200 is placed here by Middle Eng. Dict.; however the of-phrase seems to complement the verb and its object . . . rather than the preceding noun only as in later examples.
[?c1200 Ormulum (Burchfield transcript) l. 11695 Þeȝȝ hallȝhenn cristess flæsh off bræd & cristess blod teȝȝ hallȝenn. Off win.
a1375 William of Palerne (1867) 226 (MED), So fair a siȝt of seg ne sawe he neuer are.
. . . .
1992 Vanity Fair (N.Y.) Feb. 144/3 The Schramsberg offers a whirlwind of a mousse, tasting of lemon and yeast.
MED Ƥ㤬ΤǡMED of (prep.) ȤƤߤȡƱͤ "quasi-appositional relationship" ɽ魯ˡȤƸ19b(b) "in the form of (sth. or sb.)" Ȥߤ롥ʬʸ⤢ꤽ15ȾФ "a faire body of a woman" Ȥ餫ʳߤȡ٤ȤѸˤƱˡȯãƤȤϳΤǤ롥
"a faire body of a woman" ϸ֤ΡʻѤΡפǤꡤ of ֤Ω body ΤϤäȤȤ³뤦ˡbody of a βΤȤƸ³̾ woman 褦˴褦ˤʤäƤΤɸ an angel of a girl ǤСϸ־ΡʻѤŷȡפ̣ɽäȻפ뤬angel of a βΤȤƷƻ angelic ۤɤεǽơ³ girl ˤäƤΤȤŪ˺ʬ (reanalysis) 줿
ŪˤСa [X] of a [Y] ι¤ˤơŪˤ [X] äʬϤФ [Y] Ȥʤꡤ"a [X]-like Y" ۤɤ̣褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥Ūʹ¤ϡOED ǤϰʲΤ褦˸23aˤưƤꡤߤޤǤѵȤʤäƤ롥
a. In the person of; in respect of being; to be; for. Obs.
The leading noun is the former, of the qualification of which the phrase introduced by of constitutes a limitation; thus 'he was the greatest traveller of a prince', i.e. the greatest traveller in the person of a prince, or so far as princes are concerned. The sense often merges with that of the partitive genitive. . . . .
c1275 (?a1200) Laȝamon Brut (Calig.) (1963) 3434 Þe hǣhste eorles..curen heom enne king of ane cnihte þe wes kene.
c1300 (?a1200) Laȝamon Brut (Otho) 4980 Hadden hii anne heuedling of on heȝe ibore man.
a1470 Malory Morte Darthur (Winch. Coll.) 119 He was a ryght good knyght of a yonge man.
1697 K. Chetwood Life Virgil in Dryden tr. Virgil Wks. sig. *4v, Cæsar..the greatest Traveller, of a Prince, that had ever been.
1748 Ld. Chesterfield Let. 20 Dec. (1932) (modernized text) IV. 1278 Allowed to be the best scholar of a gentleman in England.
ʬ23aȸ23bˡʸ̮Τ˶̤뤳Ȥ褦˻פ롥ŪʴߤСŪξǧ߽ФƤ褦ˤפ롥̤ȤơƱ˷ƻ콤Ǥ⤢ľȤǤ⤢걣ȤǤ⤢ԻĤɽޤƤ롥صŪ an angelic girl Ȥϥѥե졼ǤΤΡan angel of a girl Ϳ뽤Ṳ̄礭ۤʤ롥
ŪʬϤ㡤ڤؤˤĤƤϡ#2333. a lot of ([2015-09-16-1]) ȡ#2343. 19ˤ a lot of ȯ ([2015-09-26-1]) ȡ
#2333. a lot of ([2015-09-16-1]) ǡѸǶˤ٤ι⤤ζ (phrasal determiner) ˤ200ǯ;Ǥ뤳Ȥߤ19ޤǤϡζˤ lot ϡְ컳ȡġ췲פۤɤθѤƤꡤθ塤褦䤯¿¿̡פθȤȤäǡѸˤ a lot of lots of ǧ٤CLMET3.0 ʸäƤߤʸ̤Υƥȥե
1 (1710--1780) Υ֥ѥ10,480,431ˤ4㤬ҥåȤ¿?פ̣ȤƤѤƤʤa lot of my own drawing Ǥϡ¿פǤϤʤְ컳פθȤѤƤꡤ"Annuities for lives have occasionally been granted in two different ways; either upon separate lives, or upon lots of lives" Ǥ餫ˡֽġפθǽʤɤǤϡ¿פؤȯŸƤʷϵϴ롥
2 (1780--1850) Υ֥ѥ11,285,587ˤ22㤬줿ͽ̤ꡤˡǻȤƤΤۤȸФĤʸ褦
You know when a lot of servants gets together they like to talk about their betters; and some, for a bit of swagger, likes to make it appear as though they knew more than they do, and to throw out hints and things just to astonish the others. (Anne Brontë, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848))
Therell be lots to speak for her! (ibid.)
. . . there's a high fender, and an iron safe, and some cards about ships that are going to sail, and an almanack, and some desks and stools, and an inkbottle, and some books, and some boxes, and a lot of cobwebs, . . . (Charles Dickens, Dombey and Son (1844))
. . . I ran on through a lot of alleys and back-slums, until I got somewhere in St. Giles's, and here I took a cab. (Punch, Vol. 1 (1841))
a lot of οΰפȽǤǤʸϾʤä1ʸ̣ a lot of servants Ф gets ȼƤ뤬ư -s ϡ³ some . . . likes ȽǤƤ⡤ʣ˰פʣߤ -s ȹͤΤʣ -s ˤĤƤ 3pp γƵȡˡ
3 (1850--1920) Υ֥ѥ12,620,207ˤϡɽټΤ384㤬ҥåȤlot(s) θѤƤ⾯ߤ뤬ŪˤϸѸ¤ȵ̤ۤˡ¿?פΰ̣ѤƤ롥1800ǯ˽Фθǯǰ쵤˹ޤäήԸˡǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
914դǡa lot of ɤơ¿Ρפ̣褦ˤʤäΤȤϡѸˤ˸ؤδϡ̣ѲʸˡȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ʲˤȤʤ̾ lot θŪ̻ŪѲάҤ褦
OED 츻ŵˤȡѸ lot Ρ֤פθϡűѸ hlot (allotment, choice, share) ˤΤܤ롥켫Τϥޥĸ *χlutam ˤΤܤꡤŪˤϰĸθ촴 *kleu- (hook) ˵ġ¾ΥޥˤƱ줬ߤ졤ޥؤѤƤ롥֡ʤΤΡ˾ޡפ̣ȹͤ졤ƥ clāvis (key), clāvus (nail) ȤδϢŦƤ롥
ơűѸΡ֤פθ˻ϤޤꡤˤäƷʤΡʬۡסơֳơפθѸ parking lot ־ˤϡϤγƤȤȤǤ롥Ǥ뤫ֱ̿פθѸΤΤǤ롥
Ѹä16ȾФˤϡΡַʡפθȯãʤˤθѤȤʤˡʤȤСߡƥåڡѡ1ǯʬܥɥȾǯʬʤɡʤΰ컳뤳Ȥ¬Ǥ褦ˡƱΤΡְ컳ȡפȤ17ȾФߤǤ⡤˽Фʪؤ Lot 46: six chairs ʤɤɽѤ롥ƱʪͤΡֽġ췲 (group, set) ۤɤθȯŸ The first lot of visitors has/have arrived. / I have several lots of essays to mark this weekend. / What do you lot want? (informal) ʤɤ㤬ǧ롥
Ťֳơפθˤ衤ֽġ췲פθˤ衤a lot of [noun] ηѤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤϼǤ롥ޤlot ˡä˷Τΰ̣͡ʷƻ줬ź졤an interesting lot of people a lazy lot (of people) Τ褦ɽƤ1800ǯˤϡa great lot of a large lot of ʤɿ̤礭ɽ魯ƻ줬Ĥ졤餯줬Ȥʤäơ19ˤϷƻʤ a lot of 뤤 lots of ñΤǡ¿Ρ¿̤Ρפɽ魯ˡȯãߡ¿Ρפΰ̣Ƕˤܶ a lot of ϡ̤ꡤʤ꿷ɽǤ롥
a lot of [noun] lots of [noun] μϡ衤Ūˤ lot(s) ΤϤˤΰפȽǤˡ [noun] ȤȤ館Ƥ褦ߤǤϡa lot of lots of many much Ʊͤ˸ (determiner) 뤤Ͽ̻ (quantifier) ȲᤵƤ (Quirk et al. 264) ΤȤϡȤ alot of ֤줿ꡤa ά lot of ʤɤɽ뤳ȤǧǤ롥
Ʊ褦ˡʬɽ魯 of ޤ礬ȤƺʬϤ졤ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤơa number of a majority of ʤɤ롥a [noun_1] of [noun_2] ηɽˤơ [noun_1] [noun_2] ؤȰܹԤѲ̤ƤƤ뤳Ȥ狼 (Denison 121)
嵭 lot ΰ̣ѲˤĤƤϡRoom (169) ⻲Ȥ줿
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.
Ѹˤˤϡ絬Ϥ¾ư첽 (transitivization) Ĭήǧ롥űѸǤŪ¾ưʤȤѤưˤϼư⾯ʤäѸˤơƤȤ櫓Ѹˤơοä¾ư첽Ȥϡưΰ̣ˡˤ뤳ȤषŪװ礭ͿƤ롥 (100) ˤС3װꤵ롥
1ĤϡѸ˶οबʹԤ̾̾ˤƳʤηŪʶ̤ĤʤʤäȤ롥ˤꡤűѸǤͿŪ°ŪȤäƤư줬γʤȷ־ͻ礷ŪгʤȤ뤳ȤˤʤäĤޤꡤŪϤ٤гʤǤʬϤ졤ư줽ΤΤ¾ưǤǧ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥1200ǯͿʤȤưֹʸ褦ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⡤κʬϤ̩ܤʴطˤȹͤ롥
2ܤȤơűѸưˤФղä줿 ġe- ʤɤƬѸޤǤ˾üȤ롥űѸǤϡ㤨мư restan ʵ٤ˡgrōwan ˤФơƬղä ġerestan ʵ٤ޤˡġegrōwan ߽Фˤ¾ưȤƵǽʤɡܼˤäƼ¾ڤؤ礬äƬüξηṲ̄ȡμưη֤¾ưεǽդä뤳Ȥˤʤä
3ܤˡűѸưˤϸ촴첻ѰۤˤäƼ¾ˡ̤Τäbrinnan / bærnan (burn), springan / sprengan (spring), stincan / stencan (stink) ʤɤǤ롥θѲˤξ줬Ū˰פ˵ڤǡäͣθ¾ξˡô褦ˤʤä
嵭ϡŪѲǡ2Ūưΰ̣ˡѲȤʥꥪư켫ΤŪ˰̣ˡѲȤľŪʥʥꥪäǽǤʤषȵǽξ¦ΰϤˤäơư¾ưƤȹ̵ͤۤϤʤ褦˻פ롥līcian Τ褦;ư (impersonal_verb) ο;βʤɤ⡤ư¾ư첽ȤĬήΤʤ˰֤Ť뤳ȤǤϲ֡졤̣ѤΤ٤Ƥ˴ؤ븽ݤǤꡤװѲΰȤʤꡤϤȤʤäΤ̤뤳ȤưפǤϤʤޤ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǿ줿Ѹˤˤ linking verb γȤ⡤ưȤޤѲỌ̇̄ѲȤͻ礷褦褹롥
ˤ衤¾ư첽ĬήѸ˽װ椷ƤȤϸ
ưμ¾žˤĤƤϡư (passive) ȯãƵư (reflexive_pronoun) οϢƤԤˤĤƤϡ#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1])#2206. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (2) ([2015-05-12-1])#2207. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (3) ([2015-05-13-1]) ⻲ȡޤ¾ưȤѸˤĤƤϡ#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ʤɤǡŪʰ̣ѲߤƤȤ櫓ɤγˤФƤ̣Ѳ4ϡ[2010-08-13-1]Ǽ夲̲ (generalization)ü첽 (specialization) (pejoration)ɲ (amelioration) Ǥ롥ŪʬǤϡǽ2ĤؼоݤϰϤγ̾Ȥ denotation μ˴ؤꡤ2ĤŪɾιȤ connotation μ˴ؤäƤ롥2ĤμΤߤǥѥäڤڤ̣ɤƤΤ̣ѲȤФ4郎ɬڤ롥
Τʬ䤹ǤϤ뤬4ΤˤƤϤޤʤ̣ѲϿ¿ǧƤꡤФȽˤ餵ƤΤ¤Ǥ롥㤨С̾Ǥ count one's beads ˤ beads (cf. #1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])) ηФ̣Ѳϡ4Τˤ⤢ƤϤޤʤŪϡޤŪǤʤϳ줬¿ȤȽȤʤޤ̣Ѳü첽Ǥ⤢갭Ǥ⤢ʤɤΤ褦ˡ2ĤζʬƱˤƤϤޤäƤޤ⾯ʤʤϡΤ꤬뤳ȤʪäƤ롥
⤦1ĤȽȤơ̲䰭ʤɤѸϡΰ̣ѲˤAȿBȤỤ̄뤤ϴỤ̄бط̾դŪʥ٥ˤȤɤޤäƤ롤ȤΤ롥ºݤˤϰ̣ѲΤΤưŪʲǤꡤΤꤿΤϤβɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ뤫ǤϤˤĤƾ嵭Υ٥ϲⶵƤʤȡʴϢȤơ#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) ȡ
ŦȽԤ1ͤǤ Fortson (650) ϡưŪʲȤʬ (reanalysis) ˤۤʤʤǸ롥ʬϤϸѼԤοŪʲǤꡤ켫ȡ°ʸ˰¸ȤǼҲŪӤӤƤ롥äơѲΰ̣ߤ˴طŤͼϡ4ĤۤɤγǰǤޤȤۤñǤϤʤष¿ͤʤϤǤ롥λ¤ʤƤޤǡ경ŪΩʤFortson (652) μĥϼ̤Ǥ롥
. . . a fundamental flaw of most categorizations of semantic change is that they rest upon the assumption that an old meaning becomes the new meaning, that there is some real connection between the two. As these and other examples show, however, this assumption is false; a connection between the new and old meanings is illusory. The set of meanings in a speaker's head is created afresh just like all the other components of the grammar. It may legitimately be asked how it is, then, that one can seem so often to find a connection between an old and a new meaning. In the case of metonymic change, the question makes little sense. Metonymic changes are so infinitely diverse precisely because . . . the connections are not linguistic; they are cultural. This has in some sense always been known, but when metonymic extension is defined in terms of an "association" of a word becoming the word's new meaning, we can easily forget that the "association" in question is not linguistic in nature.
Fortson ϡ̣ѲΥᥫ˥ˤΤϺʬϤȤϢ³ŪʲǤǤƤꡤŪ˼ĥƤ̣Ѳˤ̣Ϣ³ꤷƤ롥Fortson ΤθϸѲλҶײΩӤƤꡤ줬ɤޤΤϤ狼ʤŪʰ̣Ѳ˲ʤΤȤФ1ĤƤƤ롥
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸˤƤפѲϤֵǽƤȯפȤª뤳ȤǤ뤬ϡֵǽ¤γŬפȴ뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ衤οȼäƸ¤ (Lexical Projection) ǽ¤ (Functional Projection) ؤȺʬϤˤƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ǽƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ؤȳŬƤäȤΤ
ʸˡεǤϡʪʲʬŪѤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) ȤǰѤ褦ˤʤäƤݺ (151) Τ狼䤹
ŬȤϡȤСʪʲ¦̤ǤϡȤβݻΤ¸ߤƤӤΩ줬¸Ŭ夲̤ȤʤꡤĻؤοʲĤʤäȤͤǤά͡Lass (1990) ϤγǰѲ˱Ѥư DO ȯãγŬʤȤȻưäΤ̵̣¸ߤȤʤꡤ̤Ӥ˳Ѥ줿ˤƤޤܽǤϡιͤʤᡤ¤ޤŬȼĥȻפޤά͵ǽƤϤȤȰĤ FP (Functional Projection) ȹͤ졤Ŭη̡ޤޤʹ¤ȤƶȤ櫓ǤѸϤ̻ŪѲβǡ̾ưζ֤ξüȶˡ濴ι¤鵡ǽ濴ι¤ؤȰܹԤƤȹͤ졤η̡졤ư졤ư֡λʹԷ¿ͤʬۤȸ櫓Ǥ
Τ褦ʸѲѤϡɭοʲȤͤˤĤʤ롥ҥȤͭθȯȿʲָʲפȸƤ֤ȤС嵭Τ褦ʸѲϡָξʲפȤߤ뤳ȤǤȤĴ碌ʤֿʲפȤߤǸ椬ʤƤ롥
ݺ (158) ϡμȿκѤ˿ʤ顤κǸΤ褦äƤ롥
켫ΤĤƻõѤϡ뼫ȿʼȯŪȤޤˤȸʤȤǽǤȿȤη뾽䥷ޥޤΥ֥ͭ̾ǤʪŪʪŪ¦̤ФǤʤȤСϤĻФԷ֡ʰδֳֻ֤ѡˡݸݡкѥƥҲΩʤɤˤڤӤޤξʲޤˤΰȤƹͤ졤ưŪŬѲᥫ˥ߤ¸ߤȤǤ줳ȤФοʲƳָפȸΤǤϤʤǤ礦ѸˤʸˡθݤϤޤˤιǤꡤѲθ椬ʣηϤʳؤĤμʤˤʤ뤳ȤƤƤΤǤ
Ѳ礭1ĤβǤ롥
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹ괧 a(n) ȴ the ϡŪˤϤ줾űѸο (OE ān) ȷ (OE se) ȯãΤǤ롥ߤǤϲĻ̾ñǤϤ줫ղäɬܤȤʤäƤꡤʳ̾ʣǤꡦʸˡƥɸΤȤƾ¤פôäƤ뤬űѸѸǤϤޤǤդǤˤʤäѸʹߡ줬ɬܤʸˡܤȤʤäƤäʤʤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤäˤʸˡΩ줫ߤȡʸˡϿ DP (Determiner Phrase) ȤǽƤȯȤª뤳ȤǤ롥ݺ (16) Ȥơ괧괧ι¤Ѳĥɽȼ̤Ȥʤ롥

an ˤƤ þe ˤƤ⡤űѸǤϡ̾ˤзƻȤǤդźơ礭 NP (Noun Phrase) äѸˤʤäΤ NP ǤϤʤ DP ȤǽƤι¤ȤƺƲᤵ褦ˤʤäDP ȯȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ι¤ DP ȲᤵȤȤϡޤ a the μȤʤꡤ̾ʤΤȤꡦξʸˡǽȯãȤ̣롥NP Τ褦˸Ūʰ̣ͭƤ顤DP Τ褦ʸˡǽôǽƤغƲᤵ줿Ȥǡι¤Ѳʸˡΰȸ뤳ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƵǽƤȯȤǤѲ¿ꡤݺǤϼΤ褦ʹܤǽ DP, CP, IP ؤκʬϤη̤ȤƼ갷äƤ롥
ι¤Ѳ
괧졤괧
there ι¤Ѳ
ͭɸ -'s ι¤Ѳ
³ι¤Ѳ
now, when, while, after, that
ط̾ι¤Ѳ
that, who
Ƶ̾ι¤Ѳ
ư DO ι¤Ѳ
ˡưι¤Ѳ
may, can ,will
to ι¤Ѳ
ɸ to, be going to, have to
ʹԹʸι¤Ѳ
λʸι¤Ѳ
ưʸΤι¤Ѳ
it ʸι¤Ѳ
Ϣ BE ʸit դ;ιʸ
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥
(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.
ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼
1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)
ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) κǸDzʤĤäˡʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤפȤΤäĴ٤ƤߤȡʸˡӸݤʤΤ뤤Ϥ켫ȤưϸʤΤȤϡºݡʸˡθԤδ֤Ǥ褯ƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äϴϢʸˡθưäˤΰΰȯŸȳˤĤơTraugott εҤ˰͵Ƴ⤷
ʸˡϡ30;ǯۤɤƸؤ礭ʥɤȤĹƤ礭ͤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥߤ븫Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤष "the expansion of various kinds" Ȥߤ븫Ǥ롥ξԤȤˡ̣ȲѲʸˡѲΩĤĤⲿ餫ηǴؤäƤȤߤƤ롤ä˷ŪѲȤδطɤȤ館뤫ˤäΩ줬ʬƤ롥
Ūˤϡʸˡ "reduction and increased dependency" ȤߤƤ̣ɺ (semantic bleaching) Ȳθ (reduction) åȤˤʤäȤǡ"unidirectionality from more to less complex structure, from more to less lexical, contentful status" (Traugott 273) Ȥθĥ롥θ Givón "Today's morphology is yesterday's syntax." ΰ⤤ŵŪ˽Ƥ뤬˰̲ǡΤ褦ʰΥǥƤƤ롥ǤϡΧ (autonomy) ¾Ǥؤν° (dependency) ٹ礤ʤ顤ĤˤϾäƤޤȤʸˡΥ饤ե뤬ɽƤ롥
discourse > syntax > morphology > morphphonemics > zero
θϡ1990ǯȾаʹߡ¿Ƚˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäǤϤʤޤӸݤȤߤ븫ΨŪʷˤʤȤ븫Ф졤ȤȤˡæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ָò (lexicalisation) ʤɤΩǰŦ褦ˤʤäȿΰĤȤæʸˡȤϲòȤϲȤɵ椵褦ˤʤꡤʸˡȤޤΥեɤϳ礷Ƥä
ʸˡΤ⤦1Ĥθϡreduction ǤϤʤष expansion ǤȤΤʸˡܤ줿ϡƤޤˤäɽ줿ꡤˡʡʤɤ˴ؤΤäܤܤ³ɸʤɤܤȡʸˡȤϤष¤ŪʳĥǤŬϰϤγǤϤʤȤפƤ롥㤨Сؼ줬괧ؤʸˡ뤳Ȥˤꡤͭ̾ˤ³褦ˤʤꡤŬϰϤ̤Ȥʤäʸˡ̣ΰ̲ݲǤ뤳ȤͤСŬϰϤȤϼǤ롥 (productivity) γȸƤ褤ܸΡ֤Ȥǡפξɽɸؤȯãʤɤ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥª줺ष autonomy ͭƤȤͤ롥ˤơʸˡϸѲ (pragmaticalisation) βȤӤĤ褦ˤʤä
ʸˡ2ĤθҲ𤷤ǯǤʸˡϿäơʤȯŸȳ뤲Ƥ롥㤨С1990ǯιʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) оˤꡤʸˡθǤ̣ȷ֤ΥڥռʬϤܤ褦ˤʤä㤨Сñפ A lot of fans is for sale. ʣפ A lot of fans are for sale. ؤѲ A lot of our problems are psychological. Τ褦ɽƤΤߤȡʸˡȤȤΰʬϤȤ狼롥ۤˡgive an answer make a promise ʤɤΡַڤư괧ܹ̾פʣ⡤ʸʸˡʸˡδ뤳ȤǤ
ʸˡΰˤĤƤˤʤäƤ̤ϡȤͶƳ (invited inference) ŦƤ롥ޤ (analogy) ʬ (reanalysis) Τ褦ʸŤǰФƤ⡤ʸˡΰ⡤ưŤᥫ˥Ȥ顤ƲλߤʤƤƤ롥ȤΤϡʸˡȤϰʬϤǤȤͤ졤ʬϤȤϴ¸ι¤ȤȤ٤ʤƤʤΤȹͤ뤫ǡΥǥȤʸˡꤹȡŬ (Optimality Theory) ˤʬϤȤƤ롥ܿʬϡʸˡμѤȤⰷ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʸˡΰϸ¤ʤȤäƤƤ롥
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Grammaticalization." Chapter 15 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 271--85.
Ѹ but ¿1ĤǤ롥ˡ¿ʻߤƤ³졤ֻ졤̾졤졤̾졤ưޤǤϰϤΤʤȤƤˡܤʸˤ only ΰ̣Ѥ but 롥ʸ褦
He is but a child.
There is but one answer to your question.
There were a lot of famous people there: Tom Hanks and Julia Roberts, to name but two.
I heard it but now.
I don't think we'll manage it. Still, we can but try.
but Τΰ̣ˡŪˤϤɤ褿ΤͤƤߤСHe is but a child. Ȥʸ He is nothing but a child. Ȥ롥ԤǤ but ϡ?ơפΰդֻʬϤΤȤƤ깽¤Ȥʤ뤬Ԥι깽¤Ȼ¾ƱȤʤΤϰ츫ԻĤǤ롥Ūˤ only ΰ̣ but ϡޤ nothing but Τ褦깽¤꼭æ뤳ȤˤäΤǤ롥ṳ̂뤤ϾάλǤ롥Stern (264) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In English, an original ne--butan has been shortened to but: we nabbað her buton fif hlafas and twegen fiscas > we have here but five loafs and two fishes (Horn, Sprachkörper 90), he nis but a child > he is but a child (NED but 6). The immediate cause of the omission of the negation is not quite certain. It is not impossible that influence from other uses of but may have intervened.
OED but, prep., adv., conj., n.3, adj., and pron. θ6aˤƱݤεҤ롥
By the omission of the negative accompanying the preceding verb . . ., but passes into the adverbial sense of: Nought but, no more than, only, merely. (Thus the earlier 'he nis but a child' is now 'he is but a child'; here north. dialects use nobbut prep., conj., and adv. = nought but, not but, 'he is nobbut a child'.)
ʤOED ǤLangland (1393) ˡνȤʤäƤ뤬MED but (conj. (also quasi adj., adv., and prep.)) 2a ˤС13 The Owl and the Nightingale 㤬롥
û̡άݤȤƤϡne butan > but Ѳϡ"negative cycle" Ȥͭ̾ʥե ne . . . pas > pas ѲȤ롥pas ְ (pace) ۤɤΰ̣ǡľܤΰ̣ôƤ ne ȶƯƤne ޤäƼ줿̡pas 켫Τΰ̣ƤޤäΤǤʸˤ Ce n'est pas possible. > C'est pas possible. Ѳȡˡ pas ηФѲϡΰ̣ΰ̣ȤѲǤ뤫顤#1586. ʬβ̶ʬ ([2013-08-30-1]) Ǽ Croft νѸǤ "metanalysis" Ȥ
ΤˡȤȶƤ꼭æǡΰ̣ȤǤ϶̤ƤꡤŪû̡άǤˡ̣δϰ̣ž (meaning transfer) Ȥ (contagion) ȤƤ֤ȤǤbut pas ΥǤϡˤư㤤롥 (115) Ѥ褦ʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ
ne + pas Ǥϡ꼭 ne ΰ̣ pas ΰ̣ҰӤȴ֤줿ΤФơ but ȯãǤϡbutan ΰ̣ϤΤޤݻ졤Τ ne ΰ̣žƤ롥˴ؤƶ̣Τϡ꼭 ne ϲŪ˾äƤޤäΤˡ̣ʤ˴Τ褦˻ĤäƤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ but ˡǤϡά줿Ǥΰ̣žƤ֤but ¾ˡ٤ựʣˤʤäƤ롥
äơbut ηФѲϡCroft Τ "metanalysis" ˤϸ̩ƤϤޤʤ褦˸롥Ĥϡbut ηФѲ (contagion) ǤϤʤûŪ (contractive contagion) ɽpas ѲȤ϶̤Ƥ롥ʤStern ϤΥ̣ѲΤʤ Shortening ʤ٤ ClippingˤȤƵƤʡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ȡˡ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
εǡʬ (reanalysis) ʬ (metanalysis) ȤѸȤ櫓̤ѤƤCroft (82--86) ϸԤԤ1ǤȹͤƤ롥ĤޤꡤʬϤϰʬϤξ̳ǰǤȤƤ롥Croft ˤС"form-function reanalysis" ϢŪ (syntagmatic) 4κʬϤŪ (paradigmatic) 1κʬϤض̤롥ʲơȤȤ˼
(1) hyperanalysis: "[A] speaker ananlyzes out a semantic component from a syntactic element, typically a semantic component that overlaps with that of another element. Hyperanalysis accounts for semantic bleaching and eventually the loss of syntactic element" (82) 㤨СűѸˤ°ʤư줬ꡤư٤гʤ夤ȤгʤȤϰ̣Ūʺۤäȹͤ뤬ưԤǤ¿쾯ʤƱǽͭƤˡѸˤ°ʹ¤Ϥͥгʹ¤˼ä줿Ѳϡ°ʤδްդ졤Ū;Ȥʤꡤ°ʹ¤гʹ¤˵ۼȤɤäƤꡤhyperanalysis 1ȹͤ롥
(2) hypoanalysis: "[A] semantic component is added to a syntactic element, typically one whose distribution has no discriminatory semantic value. Hypoanalysis is the same as exaptation . . . or regrammaticalization . . ." (83) Somerset/Dorset Ǥϡ3ñͳ褹 -s do-periphrasis ȯŸȤ߹蘆뤳ȤˤꡤɸѼˤϸʤζ̤"I sees the doctor tomorrow." 1٤νɽ路"I do see him every day." Ϸ֤νŪʽɽ魯Ǥϡ-s do Ū˼Ѥ줿ǽȤϰۤʤ뵡ǽô蘆褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥
(3) metanalysis: "[A] contextual semantic feature becomes inherent in a syntactic element while an inherent feature is analyzed out; in other words, it is simultaneous hyperanalysis/hypoanalysis. Metanalysis typically takes place when there is a unidirectional correlation of semantic features (one feature frequently occurs with another, but the second often does not occur with the first)." (83) ³ since ˤĤơλŪʰ̣鸶̣߽Ф줿㤬롥"negative cycle" ̤Ǥ롥
(4) cryptanalysis: "[A] covertly marked semantic feature is reanalyzed as not grammatically marked, and a grammatical marker is inserted. Cryptanalysis typically occurs when there is an obligatory transparent grammatical marker available for the covertly marked semantic feature. Cryptanalysis accounts for pleonasm (for example, pleonastic and paratactic negation) and reinforcement." (84) 㤨С"I really miss having a phonologist around the house." "I really miss not having a phonologist around the house." not ̵ͭΰ㤤ˤ⤫餺ƱǤ롥not ϡmiss ˰Ť˴ޤޤƤŪ not ˤäƸ߲˾üԤˤ롤cryptanalysis η̤ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(5) intraference: ƱηǤεǽˤäơ֤̤η֤ƶ㡥Croft ˾ܤϤʤäŪ (analogy) ˶ᤤΤȹͤ롥interference ̤θηϤȤƤȤ館ΤФơintraference ƱηϤΤʤǤȤƤȤ館롥
Τ褦ʺʬϤζʬϡǽΩ줫Ѳ褦Ȥݤ1ĤΥǥȤƻͤˤʤ롥
Croft, William. "Evolutionary Models and Functional-Typological Theories of Language Change." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 68--91.
̾ʬϤˤСall over the world ˤ over ֻȲ졤all the world over Ȳֻ줬֤ƤѸμƵǤ뤫顤ԤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤϤäȤǤ롥ȤϤŪˤ͡ŪʬϤǽǤ롥
ŪˤߤСξɽ礭ʺϤʤ줾ζϡʸ̤ꡤƱɽ over ˽ФƤǤ˽ФƤǤΰ㤤ˤʤűѸѸǤϡֻ줬Ūθ˲ɽ⸫줿Ǥ롥䡤ֻ줬Ūθ˲פȤɽλϻ⤷ʤѸޤǤϡŪ̾ϷŪͿʤгʤʤɤ˳ѲƤꡤŪʵǽŪʵǽΤɽ魯ˡֻ侮ǤǤ졤ź뤳ȤäѸʹߤ˳ʤष̾礽켫ȤdzʤȤǤʤʤȡ̾϶侮ȤȤ˹¤ʤƤȲᤵ뵡ֻŪפ뤤ϡŪֻפȺʬ (reanalysis) 褦ˤʤäȤԤθΤ̤ۤǤäȤϳΤǤ뤷¾ƤǤּפθ礬ŪǤä顤ֻŪפνǸ경ȤϼǤ롥
ˤʤֻ줬˲ŤϿषѸ˻ޤǡˤƤֻθ֤ʤٹ (213--14) εƤƸ褦
While the cock... / Stoutly struts his dames before.---Milton.
For having but thought my heart within. / A treble penance must be done.---Scott.
She must lay her conscious head / A husband's trusting heart beside.---Byron.
His leaves that live December through.---Housman.
As the boat-head wound along / The willowy hills and fields among.---Tennyson.
The corn-sheaves whisper the grave around.---Mrs. Hemans.
ΤۤˤϡŪʶˤƤŤ礬롥ɸ all the world over Ǥꡤall the year around ʤɤƱǤ롥ٹ (214) Ǥϡ¾ȤȤɸζˤĤƼΤ褦ʵҤΤǡͤޤǤ˰ѤƤ
Cp. I'll search all England through.---Anne Brontë; Which they keep all the year through.---Charlotte Brontë; Here I stayed the winter throgh.---Watts-Dunton. Ȳ٤Ǥ뤬ֻ¿ϸưƬˤĤƬʬΥƤޤȤʤꡤ줬žֻȤʤäΤǤ뤫顤ˡΤΤˤϤʤԻĤʤCp. all the world over, all over the world.
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ѸκƵ̾ηįƤȡȻפȤ롥
| ?????? | ???? | |
|---|---|---|
| 1人称 | myself | ourselves |
| 2人称 | yourself | yourselves |
| 3人称 | himself | themselves |
| herself | ||
| itself |
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