metaphor ȤƻϤޤä˻ȤŤƾȤʤꡤϤ metaphor Ȥƴʤʤä褦ɽϡ"dead metaphor" ʻեˤȸƤФ롥ִεӡפܡפȤȤΡֵӡפܡפϡοʹ֡ʤ뤤ưʪˤΤ̤ؤΤžѤǤȤФϴǤ롥ŪˤϡŪʸۤΩ̤θȤƤȻפ롥Ѹ the legs of a table the foot of the mountain ƱͤĤƤȤ metaphor ȤƵǽƤΤȤȤ˿ (fading) 뤤æե (demetaphorization) ФơвΤȤġp. 127ˡ
ΥեϴˡֻǤפ櫓ǤϤʤդ⤷ʤεӤȿʹ֤εӤȤϥȤưפˤĤʤ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫äȡֻǤȤơpupil 롥θθθϡ̡ƸפƷ˱Ǥ뼫ʬҶΤ褦˸ȤžơƷפθΰ̣ŪʤĤʤϸߤǤϸ츻ؼԤǤʤ¤ꡤռˤϤΤܤ餺Ūˤ̤ñȤƤ롥ȤϡǤˤۤܡֻǤפȤäƤ褤
ֻǤ٤κϤ졤μ dead metaphor ϸƤ롥#2187. ΰ̣եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) 褦ˡȤñ̤ǹͤƤ⡤θ츻ҤȤС¿θΰ̣ dead metaphor Ȥ¸ߤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥advert, comprehend ʤɡǤ¿ΥƥͳθϡѸؤμѤʤ줿ǡǤ˶Ū dead metaphor Ǥꡤֻե͢ʡסġp. 127ˤȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ
ҲؤǤ variety ѼˤȤѸ褯Ѥ뤬Ȥ˻褦ʻȤ lect ȤѸʹ롥 dialect sociolect lect ФΤѸλȤʬΤ˻פTrudgill Ѹ콸äƤߤ줾ιܤѤ롥
variety A neutral term used to refer to any kind of language --- a dialect, accent, sociolect, style or register --- that a linguist happens to want to discuss as a separate entity for some particular purpose. Such a variety can be very general, such as 'American English', or very specific, such as 'the lower working-class dialect of the Lower East Side of New York City'. See also lect
lect Another term for variety or 'kind of language' which is neutral with respect to whether the variety is a sociolect or a (geographical) dialect. The term was coined by the American linguist Charles-James Bailey who, as part of his work in variation theory, has been particularly interested in the arrangement of lects in implicational tables, and the diffusion of linguistic changes from one linguistic environment to another and one lect to another. He has also been particularly concerned to define lects in terms of their linguistic characteristics rather than their geographical or social origins.
ƤꡤξȤ "a kind of language" ۤɤǤۤƱΤ褦variety ΤۤŪѤȤϤäƤ褤lect ϸѲˤƤब lect A lect B ؤʬۤƤʤɤݤ˻Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿褦Ĥޤꡤlect ϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) 褤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʤ lect ιǻȤƤ Charles-James Bailey ϡ#1906. ѲΥ塼ϸŪĶȤ˰ۤʤ뤫 ([2014-07-16-1]) ǰѤ褦ˡΤ˸óȻѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤŪ˰äƤҲؼԤǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#2555. 塼ˤζ֤̻֡ ([2016-04-25-1]) ǡ֤̻֤ζ̤ˤĤˤȤǡSaussure (116--17) Cours ǡ̻֤ȶ֤ν̤⤤ľˡɸ2ĤθؤθƾΤˤĤƼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Voilà pourquoi nous distinguons deux linguistiques. Comment les désignerons-nous? Les termes qui s'offrent ne sont pas tous également propres à marquer cette distinction. Ainsi histoire et «linguistique historique» ne sont pas utilisables, car ils appellent des idées trop vagues; comme l'histoire politique comprend la description des époques aussi bien que la narration des événements, on pourrait s'imaginer qu'en décrivant des états de la langue succesifs on étudie la langue selon l'axe du temps; pour cela, il faudrait envisager séparément les phénomènes qui font passer la langue d'un état à un autre. Les termes d'évolution et de linguistique évolutive sont plus précis, et nous les emploierons souvent; par opposition on peut parler de la science des états de langue ou linguistique statique.
Mais pour mieux marquer cette opposition et ce croisement de deux ordres de phénomènes relatifs au même objet, nous préfèrons parler de linguistique synchronique et de linguistique diachronique. Est synchronique tout ce qui se rapporte à l'aspect statique de notre science, diachronique tout ce qui a trait aux évolutions. De même synchronie et diachronie désigneront respectivement un état de langue et une phase d'évolution.
Saussure ѸؤΤƤ롥Saussure ˡ (linguistique historique) ǤۣȤΤϡּΰۤʤˤ֤ȵҤ뤳ȤˡפǤС붦ŪηϤ̤ζŪηϤؤȻּ˱äƿʤޤƤ븽ݤˤĤƸ뤳ȤˡפǤ뤫Ԥΰ̣ɽ魯ˤϡˡפǤΤǤȤȤǸԤòѸȤ "linguistic historique" "linguistique évolutive" Ф "linguistic statique"ˤѤ뤳Ȥˡ2ĤμΩѸΩ뤿ˡ"linguistique diachronique" Ф "linguistic synchronique") ѤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ʷаޤ̻֤ȶ֤ѸΩΩƤ櫓ʲ ("linguistique évolutive") ָ ("linguistic statique") ȤƾΤ⡤ĿŪˤϤ֤ľŪǼΤƤ롥
Saussure, Ferdinand de. Cours de linguistique générale. Ed. Tullio de Mauro. Paris: Payot & Rivages, 2005.
űѸηƻζѲѲζ̤ˤĤƤϡޥɤθħȤơ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#785. ޥ٤¬뤿10ܡ ([2011-06-21-1])#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) Ǽ夲ѸˤޤοˤĤƤ ilame γƵˤ
ѲȼѲζ̤ϸűѸǤ̾ˤߤ줿Ѳƻζޤ̾ΤȷŪˤ褽ʿԤƤȤäƤ褤㴳κۤ롥Ȥ˷ƻζѲޤǤϡб̾ζѲޤȰۤʤ꤫˸롥Ūˤϡΰ㤤Τսˤ̾ǤϤʤ;̾ (personal_pronoun) ζǤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸηƻ춯Ѳޤϡ̾ޤ̾ޤ礷褦ʤΤȤʤäƤ롥ηаޤˤĤơHogg and Fulk (146) ˼褦
As in other Gmc languages, adjectives in OE have a double declension which is syntactically determined. When an adjective occurs attributively within a noun phrase which is made definite by the presence of a demonstrative, possessive pronoun or possessive noun, then it follows one set of declensional patterns, but when an adjective is in any other noun phrase or occurs predicatively, it follows a different set of patterns . . . . The set of patterns assumed by an adjective in a definite context broadly follows the set of inflexions for the n-stem nouns, whilst the set of patterns taken in other indefinite contexts broadly follows the set of inflexions for a- and ō-stem nouns. For this reason, when adjectives take the first set of inflexions they are traditionally called weak adjectives, and when they take the second set of inflexions they are traditionally called strong adjectives. Such practice, although practically universal, has less to recommend it than may seem to be the case, both historically and synchronically. Historically, . . . some adjectival inflexions derive from pronominal rather than nominal forms; synchronically, the adjectives underwent restructuring at an even swifter pace than the nouns, so that the terminology 'strong' or 'vocalic' versus 'weak' or 'consonantal' becomes misleading. For this reason the two declensions of the adjective are here called 'indefinite' and 'definite' . . . .
Ū˶ѲޤΤɤŪ̾ŪǤϤʤ̾ŪȤȡacc.sg.masc (-ne), dat.sg.masc.neut. (-um), gen.dat.sg.fem (-re), nom.acc.pl.masc. (-e), gen.pl. for all genders (-ra) Ǥ (Hogg and Fulk 150)
ѲѲȤ֤˴ŤޥӸؤŪʶʬѸϡűѸηƻˤĤƤϲȤͭѸʹߤˤϤۤȤ̵̣ȤʤäƤΤǤꡤ̻ŪˤϤӤ졦̣Ūʵǽܤ (definiteness) (definiteness) Ȥ̤Τۤ⤷ʤ
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
塼衤ͻȤưۤʤ2Ĥγ٤̤Ƥ (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) Ǥ롥ܥ֥ǤϤ2ʬˡȤǡ˰͵ꡤ뤤ϲŪ˵ꤷƤͭ̾2ʬˡˤĤơѸ켭ŵʤɤȤơ餿ƳǧƤ
ޤݻΥ塼Ѹ (309--10) ˤϼΤ褦ˤ롥
synchronie/diachronie [̻֡]
ʳؤоݤη (système de valeurs) ȤªȤ֤μΰ̤ˤ (état) ֤ȸƤӡŪ¤ (temps) κѤ̵뤷ƵҤ븦 (linguistique synchronique) ȤϤޤǤˡλǤäơ¤ˤϡηϤϹȰܤѤФ꤫ʣηϤŤʤäƶ¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ˺ƤϤʤʤάФơΰܤѤ뤵ޤޤʳǵҤ줿Ṳ̤̄ӤηΤѲéȤ븦椬̻ (linguistique diachronique) ǤꡤоݤȤͤư (déplacement) ̻֤Ǥ롥
Ʊݻ (73--74) Ǥϡ塼ιͤΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
ָؤˤĤΰۤʤäʳؤ롥֤ޤ϶ؤȡư֤ޤ̻ؤǤסĤζ̤ϡ褽ηϤоݤȤǤɬʤ٤ǤäơȤзкѳؤȷкѻˤƱʳؤΤʤǤϤäʬ줿ʬΤƱˡؤˤƤĤΰ̤٤ǤȤΤ̥塼ͤιͤǤä塼ϤθεҤ (linguistique synchronique)ȤȤѲεҤ̻ (linguistique diachronique) ȸƤǤ롥
Crystal Ѹ켭ŵǤϡpp. 469, 142 ˤ줾츫ФΩƤƤ롥
synchronic (adj.) One of the two main temporal dimensions of LINGUISTIC investigation introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, the other being DIACHRONIC. In synchronic linguistics, languages are studied at a theoretical point in time: one describes a 'state' of the language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. For example, one could carry out a synchronic description of the language of Chaucer, or of the sixteenth century, or of modern-day English. Most synchronic descriptions are of contemporary language states, but their importance as a preliminary to diachronic study has been stressed since Saussure. Linguistic investigations, unless specified to the contrary, are assumed to be synchronic; they display synchronicity.
diachronic (adj.) One of the two main temporal dimensions of LINGUISTIC investigation introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure, the other being SYNCHRONIC. In diachronic linguistics (sometimes called linguistic diachrony), LANGUAGES are studied from the point of view of their historical development --- for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms ('diachronic PHONOLOGY/SYNTAX/SEMANTICS'). An alternative term is HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS. The earlier study of language in historical terms, known as COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, does not differ from diachronic linguistics in subject-matter, but in aims and method. More attention is paid in the latter to the use of synchronic description as a preliminary to historical study, and to the implications of historical work for linguistic theory in general.
ݻ Ϻإ塼뾮ŵ١罤ۡ1985ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
(inflection) ˤϡŪʴߤĸͭ (inherent inflection) ȡŪʴߤʸ̮ (contextual inflection) 2बȤ롥Booij (1) ˤȡ
Inherent inflection is the kind of inflection that is not required by the syntactic context, although it may have syntactic relevance. Examples are the category number for nouns, comparative and superlative degree of the adjective, and tense and aspect for verbs. Other examples of inherent verbal inflection are infinitives and participles. Contextual inflection, on the other hand, is that kind of inflection that is dictated by syntax, such as person and number markers on verbs that agree with subjects and/or objects, agreement markers for adjectives, and structural case markers on nouns.
Τ褦ʶޤ2פζ̤ϡޤǤθǤŦ뤳ȤϤäƥñ urbs ʣ urbes ΰ㤤ϡοΰפˤͿ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ȥựοˤưۤʤ㤤ǤꡤͭޤطƤ롥ʷ urbs гʷ urbem ΰ㤤ϡ̣Ūʰ㤤ͿƤ뤬ȤŪᤵ뺹ۤǤȤǡδͿضȽǤ롥äơǤʸ̮ޤطƤȤ
ѸˤĤƹͤƤ⡤̾οʤɤ˴ؤͭޤϡ̣ŪŪ¦̤äƤ롥бʣΤʤ̾졤бñΤʤ̾pluralia tantum)ñʣŪʰ̣ۤʤʤʤۤʤ2ǤߤСΤȤϼΤǤưʬδ֤ˤδطߤ롥ϡΤ졦ʣδط˶ᤤ
ʸ̮ޤ꿼˴ؤäƤ뤳Ȥϡɸͭޤɸ⳰¦ղä뤳ȤȴͿƤ褦Booij (12) ۩"[C]ontextual inflection tends to be peripheral with respect to inherent inflection. For instance, case is usually external to number, and person and number affixes on verbs are external to tense and aspect morphemes"
콬δ⡤ͭޤʸ̮ޤζ̡äԤԤͥۤȤϻٻ褦ͭޤȼΰ̣Ĥľܤʸ˹뤬ʸ̮ޤΩ⤿ޤŪ˴ŪʰյĤˤʤ
ǤϡѲλˤơ줿褦ʸͭޤʸ̮ޤζ̡ˤԤθԤФͥۤϡɤΤ褦ɽΤѸˤǤߤ褦ˡʸˡŪǽä̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤζüƤäȤˡεǽ顤ζʬ˾üƤäν餫ˤʤСȾ嵭2ĤζޥפȤϢưشطĴ٤뤳ȤǤ⤷ȡѸƻޤλ㤬Ūˡ餫ƶ⤿餷ƤΤǤϤʤȴƤ롥ѸηƻޤˤĤƤϡilame γƵȤ줿
Booij, Geert. "Inherent versus Contextual Inflection and the Split Morphology Hypothesis." Yearbook of Morphology 1995. Ed. Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1996. 1--16.
ε ([2016-04-22-1]) ³¤ŪեϤɥᥤι¤Ṳ̄Υɥᥤ˰ܤΤƤ褤Ūեñ (similarity) ˴ŤɥᥤɥᥤؤΰžȤªƤ褤㤨С
MORE IS UP
HEALTH IS UP
CONTROL or POWER IS UP
ȤϢŪեϡߤˡ־ʲˡפ˴ؤ˴ŤΩäƤȤϡ¿ȡסַǤ뤳ȡסֻۡϤäƤ뤳ȡפʪŪŪʡ־פȶ뤳ȤˤΩäƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤʤȤ (contiguity) Ȥ뤫顤ɤΤȤŪեϡ֥ե (metaphor) Ȥʤ⡤¤ϡ֥ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ʤΤǤϤʤȤ䤬勞2Ĥνˡϡ#2496. metaphor metonymy ([2016-02-26-1]) #2406. metonymy ([2015-11-28-1]) Dz⤷̤ꡤФ֤Ƥ#2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]) Ǥ⸫褦ˡΩǤϤʤͻ¤뤳Ȥ롥δ鳵ǰ֥ե (conceptual_metaphor) ë (79) ȤƲŤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ǰեϡ2Ĥΰۤʤ복ǰ A, B δ֤פޤϡֶפˤä "A is B" ȷӤĤ
ŪʳǰŪʳǰħŤϤ餭
ǰեȤϡ˴Ťȥ˥ߡޤ߹ǤΤȤǤΤǰ֥եפεȤƻϤޤäˤ⤫餺֥ȥ˥ߡפͿƤ뤢ꡤξԤδطϰ̤˸ۤФΤǤϤʤ䤦ΤȤȤ館ۤ褤Τ⤷ʤ
ʤΤ褦2Ĥγǰ䶦ˤäƷӤĤ뤳Ȥե (metaphorical mapping) ȸƤ֡ɽ (synaesthesia) ʤɤϡѤեŬѤǤ롥
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ
ε#2551. ǰեĤɲá ([2016-04-21-1]) ǡ¤Ūե (structural metaphor) Ūե (orientational metaphor) ˿줿ξԤΰ㤤ϡημˤ롥Ԥϡ복ǰȤޤηϤ̤ΤΤؤΰμˤʤԤϤΤ褦Ūηäʣߤ˷դäƤȤ¿ʤΤ
㤨С"TIME IS MONEY" γǰեϡѸʸˤơ֤ˤʤ館ǧΤͼդƤꡤǧΤȿǤɽ¿ѻ뤳ȤʪäƤ롥֤˴ؤ°ϡˤ⤪褽ΤޤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ¿ϡŪˡֻ֢פΰǤꡤȿФǤϤʤȤФ롥δطŪη (internal systematicity) ȸƤǤ
"HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN" γǰեϡ"TIME IS MONEY" ȤϰۼΤ褦˻פ롥ޤб2Ĥ̿ꡤĤޤ "HAPPY IS UP" "SAD IS DOWN" äƤȤǰۤʤ롥ȤϡǸߤ䴰礦طŪηȸƤǤˡΤ褦ʥڥŪ¹Ūʣ뤳ȤǤȤ⤷㤨Сεǵ褦ˡ"HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN", "CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN", "HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN", "HAVING CONTROL or FORCE IS UP; BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL or FORCE IS DOWN", "MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN", "FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE UP (and AHEAD)", "HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN", "GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN", "VIRTUE IS UP; DEPRAVITY IS DOWN", "RATIONAL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN" ʤɤ롥Υڥߤ˴طƤȻפ졤ΤȤƴطξƤ롥СŪηפȤʣꡤߤǷФƤȤŪե¤Ūեȼ㤦ȤΤϤΤȤǤ롥ԤԤⰵŪ˹⼡ʣηŪǤ롥
Lakoff and Johnson (14) ɽξԤΰ㤤ɽСstructural metaphors Ȥ "one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another" Ǥꡤoritentational metaphors "organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another" Ǥ롥
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
ŵȤʤä Lakoff and Johnson ˤꡤǰե (conceptual_metaphor) ȤѸ줬ǧΡ˸ؤǤϹΤ褦ˤʤäǤˡ#2471. ʤޤϵڷʤΤ ([2016-02-01-1]) ǤѸѤǧθؾδܻȤơܵdzǰեҲ𤷤褦
Lakoff and Johnson ǰեιͤϡǤСեȤñˤȤФˤȤɤޤ餺ǧꡤȤ館Υ٥ǤȤȤ̾եȤ "You are my sunshine." Τ褦ˡ"A is B." Τ褦ʹʸŪɽ蘆ȿƤ뤬¤ϤΤ褦ʷȤʤɽΤˡۤȤƴޤޤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ, p. 33ˡ
Lakoff and Johnson ŵˡ"ARGUMENT IS WAR" 롥ѸˤϡȸΩƤȯۤդƤꡤθΩƤɽФƤ롥Lakoff and Johnson (4) ꡤʸ褦
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument.
His criticisms were right on target.
I demolished his argument.
I've never won an argument with him.
You disagree? Okay, shoot!
If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.
He shot down all of my arguments.
ǤϡľŪˤ˴ؤѸȤߤʤ礬ȤƤʤ顤ºݤˤϤ줬˴ؤ뤳ȤФȤƱѤƤ롥ġɽϡ"ARGUMENT IS WAR" Ȥǰե첽줿ΤȲǤȤǤȤΩƤñȯɽˤƤǤϤʤϢɽˤߤ롥
եϡ衤ʸŪʸɽȤŪʵȤ館뷹äºݤˤϤΤ褦θѤ䡤˸첽ǧ٥ˤơˤդ줿ΤǤȤȤLakoff and Johnson ϻŦΤǤ롥
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
סԡˡؿԡǧθإɻŵ١ҡ2013ǯ
ε ([2016-04-01-1]) ˰³"spaghetti junction" ˤĤơϡθݤ˴ؤ Aitchison 1989ǯʸɤΤǡݡȤ롥
Aitchison ϡѥץ˥塼˥ǹä Tok Pisin λꡦˡηϤ͡ʼʤκʤäƤȤȤ˰ӤΤˤʤäƤͻҤѻ "spaghetti junction" θ̤ˤΤTok Pisin ˸뤳Τ褦ηϤѲϡϢʤ¾Υԥ䥯쥪ǤѻƤꡤΤ2ĤΩͤƤȤ1Ĥ Bickerton ʤɤؼԤĥ褦ˡʸˡ˶ŪƯƤꡤѲɬŪˤηϤ˽뤹롤ȤΤΩϡŪҥȤΰҤȤ߹ޤƤꤹ뤿ᡤ"bioprogram" ȸƤФ롥⤦1Ĥιͤϡ졤ǧΡߥ˥˴ؤ͡ʰۤʤߤ˺Ѥ̡ǽŪ˻褦ʲФȤΤΩ줬 "spaghetti junction" Ǥ롥Aitchison (152) ϡ2ܤθʲΤ褦ٻƤ롥
This second approach regards a language at any particular point in time as if it were a spaghetti junction which allows a number of possible exit routes. Given certain recurring communicative requirements, and some fairly general assumptions about language, one can sometimes see why particular options are preferred, and others passed over. In this way, one can not only map out a number of preferred pathways for language, but might also find out that some apparent 'constraints' are simply low probability outcomes. 'No way out' signs on a spaghetti junction may be rare, but only a small proportion of possible exit routes might be selected.
Aitchison (169) ϡ2ĤΩΰ㤤͡ʸɽƤ롥"innate programming" Ф "probable rediscovery" ǤȤѲ "prophylaxis" ͽɡˤФ "therapy" ʼšˤǤʡͽɡפȡּšפˤĤƤϡ#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ȡˡAitchison ϡξΩȿΤȤϡŪ⤷ʤȹͤƤ褦
"spaghetti junction" ΩĤΤǤСθѲβϡФ䤹ƻڡפͽ¬뤫ȤȤˤʤAitchison (170) ϡʸΤ褦äƤ롥
A number of principles combined to account for the pathways taken, principles based jointly on general linguistic capabilities, cognitive abilities, and communicative needs. The route taken is therefore the result of the rediscovery of viable options, rather than the effect of an inevitable bioprogram. At the spaghetti junctions of language, few exits are truly closed. However, a number of converging factors lead speakers to take certain recurrent routes. An overall aim in future research, then, must be to predict and explain the preferred pathways of language evolution.
Τ褦ʸ̤ϸȯȽȯãˤ⿷ʸƤƤ뤫⤷ʤ͡褬ä˽װˤФ䤹ƻڡפѤ졤ˤĤʤηǤΤǤϤʤȡ
Aitchison, Jean. "Spaghetti Junctions and Recurrent Routes: Some Preferred Pathways in Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 151--71.
ε ([2016-04-01-1]) ˰³"spaghetti junction" ˤĤơϡθݤ˴ؤ Aitchison 1989ǯʸɤΤǡݡȤ롥
Aitchison ϡѥץ˥塼˥ǹä Tok Pisin λꡦˡηϤ͡ʼʤκʤäƤȤȤ˰ӤΤˤʤäƤͻҤѻ "spaghetti junction" θ̤ˤΤTok Pisin ˸뤳Τ褦ηϤѲϡϢʤ¾Υԥ䥯쥪ǤѻƤꡤΤ2ĤΩͤƤȤ1Ĥ Bickerton ʤɤؼԤĥ褦ˡʸˡ˶ŪƯƤꡤѲɬŪˤηϤ˽뤹롤ȤΤΩϡŪҥȤΰҤȤ߹ޤƤꤹ뤿ᡤ"bioprogram" ȸƤФ롥⤦1Ĥιͤϡ졤ǧΡߥ˥˴ؤ͡ʰۤʤߤ˺Ѥ̡ǽŪ˻褦ʲФȤΤΩ줬 "spaghetti junction" Ǥ롥Aitchison (152) ϡ2ܤθʲΤ褦ٻƤ롥
This second approach regards a language at any particular point in time as if it were a spaghetti junction which allows a number of possible exit routes. Given certain recurring communicative requirements, and some fairly general assumptions about language, one can sometimes see why particular options are preferred, and others passed over. In this way, one can not only map out a number of preferred pathways for language, but might also find out that some apparent 'constraints' are simply low probability outcomes. 'No way out' signs on a spaghetti junction may be rare, but only a small proportion of possible exit routes might be selected.
Aitchison (169) ϡ2ĤΩΰ㤤͡ʸɽƤ롥"innate programming" Ф "probable rediscovery" ǤȤѲ "prophylaxis" ͽɡˤФ "therapy" ʼšˤǤʡͽɡפȡּšפˤĤƤϡ#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ȡˡAitchison ϡξΩȿΤȤϡŪ⤷ʤȹͤƤ褦
"spaghetti junction" ΩĤΤǤСθѲβϡФ䤹ƻڡפͽ¬뤫ȤȤˤʤAitchison (170) ϡʸΤ褦äƤ롥
A number of principles combined to account for the pathways taken, principles based jointly on general linguistic capabilities, cognitive abilities, and communicative needs. The route taken is therefore the result of the rediscovery of viable options, rather than the effect of an inevitable bioprogram. At the spaghetti junctions of language, few exits are truly closed. However, a number of converging factors lead speakers to take certain recurrent routes. An overall aim in future research, then, must be to predict and explain the preferred pathways of language evolution.
Τ褦ʸ̤ϸȯȽȯãˤ⿷ʸƤƤ뤫⤷ʤ͡褬ä˽װˤФ䤹ƻڡפѤ졤ˤĤʤηǤΤǤϤʤȡ
Aitchison, Jean. "Spaghetti Junctions and Recurrent Routes: Some Preferred Pathways in Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 151--71.
ŪˤΥ줿2ĤΥ쥪줬˻ȯŸɤꡤ˻ħ˻뤳ȤФФ롥Aitchison (233--34) ˤȡΤ "bioprogram" "spaghetti junction" ȤȤԤ Bickerton ξǤꡤʹ֤ˤʪŪ˥ץव줿ļ̿ꡤ쥪ˤߤŪħϤɬŪ߽ФȤ (see #445. ԥȥ쥪ε˴ؤ ([2010-07-16-1])) Ԥϡ¿ƻϩ spaghetti junction Τ褦ˡԥ줫饯쥪줬ȯãˤϡ͡ʲǽ߽ФΤΡǽ褬ˤФޤꡤǽŪˤ1Ĥνиؼ̤Ȥʥꥪ
ŪˤξȤꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤬ĴƤߤȡ٤ƤΥ쥪줬Ʊϩɤ櫓Ǥʤħȯ櫓ǤʤʤΤǡspaghetti junction ⤬ǤȡAitchison (234) Ƥ롥
spaghetti junction ⤬Ѳδ鶽̣Τϡ쥪ȯã˴ؤƤФǤϤʤ̾θѲ˴ؤƤƱ褦ˡꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ̾θѲˤ͡ʷϩΥץȻפ뤬ΨŪˤϡˤ٤ηʤͽ¬ǽʬʤ꤬ѻΤ¤Ǥ롥ΰ̣Ǥϡۤɺ߹äƤʤ spaghetti junction ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ쥪ȯãȰۤʤΤϡȯã®٤ޤ®ⶹʣ¿ spaghetti junction 椷Ƥ褦ˤߤ
̾θѲȥ쥪ȯãΰ㤤⤷Τ褦®٤¸ˤʤΤǤСԤѻ뤳ȤϡԤǤѻ뤳ȤˤۤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥쥪츦ȸѲϡߤˤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ⤷줺ΤξԤϢưդƤɬפ롥Aitchison (234) ۩
. . . the stages by which pidgins develop into creoles seem to be normal processes of change. More of them happen simultaneously, and they happen faster, than in a full language. This makes pidgins and creoles valuable 'laboratories' for the observation of change.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ŪˤΥ줿2ĤΥ쥪줬˻ȯŸɤꡤ˻ħ˻뤳ȤФФ롥Aitchison (233--34) ˤȡΤ "bioprogram" "spaghetti junction" ȤȤԤ Bickerton ξǤꡤʹ֤ˤʪŪ˥ץव줿ļ̿ꡤ쥪ˤߤŪħϤɬŪ߽ФȤ (see #445. ԥȥ쥪ε˴ؤ ([2010-07-16-1])) Ԥϡ¿ƻϩ spaghetti junction Τ褦ˡԥ줫饯쥪줬ȯãˤϡ͡ʲǽ߽ФΤΡǽ褬ˤФޤꡤǽŪˤ1Ĥνиؼ̤Ȥʥꥪ
ŪˤξȤꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤬ĴƤߤȡ٤ƤΥ쥪줬Ʊϩɤ櫓Ǥʤħȯ櫓ǤʤʤΤǡspaghetti junction ⤬ǤȡAitchison (234) Ƥ롥
spaghetti junction ⤬Ѳδ鶽̣Τϡ쥪ȯã˴ؤƤФǤϤʤ̾θѲ˴ؤƤƱ褦ˡꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ̾θѲˤ͡ʷϩΥץȻפ뤬ΨŪˤϡˤ٤ηʤͽ¬ǽʬʤ꤬ѻΤ¤Ǥ롥ΰ̣Ǥϡۤɺ߹äƤʤ spaghetti junction ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ쥪ȯãȰۤʤΤϡȯã®٤ޤ®ⶹʣ¿ spaghetti junction 椷Ƥ褦ˤߤ
̾θѲȥ쥪ȯãΰ㤤⤷Τ褦®٤¸ˤʤΤǤСԤѻ뤳ȤϡԤǤѻ뤳ȤˤۤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥쥪츦ȸѲϡߤˤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ⤷줺ΤξԤϢưդƤɬפ롥Aitchison (234) ۩
. . . the stages by which pidgins develop into creoles seem to be normal processes of change. More of them happen simultaneously, and they happen faster, than in a full language. This makes pidgins and creoles valuable 'laboratories' for the observation of change.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
3֤ε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1], [2016-03-30-1]) ǡѲʬˤ "evolution" ȤѸ줬ˤȤ館ƤͤȤ櫓ǯθؤˤ "evolution" ϡ٤Ѹ˼깤ĤȾϲäȤ˺Ƥ夷ƤǰǤ뤳Ȥǧ1ʾ³ƤȤäƤ褯1Ĥε䤬롥ؼԤγ̿ŪʻۤαƶΤ19ȾʤΤȤ˸ؤʪؤѳפ˸礦ϤѳפФʤäΤʤ100ǯʾ20ȾˤʤäƤ褦䤯 "linguistic evolution" 졤ɾ褦ˤʤäΤδ֤˸ءʼԡˤˤϲäƤΤ
ˤĤơNerlich ʸߤĤɤǤߤNerlich Ϥζλ֤ͳ(1) 19Ⱦ Schleicher ʲȡ(2) 20Ⱦ Saussure ʬŪиŪˤΩäŪؤؤμήȤʤäȡ(3) 20ȾФˤ Bloomfield Chomsky ϤȤ륢ꥫؤ̣¿üԤڻ뤷Ƥȡ3˵Ƥ롥
(1) ˤĤ Nerlich (104) ϡ Schleicher ϥοʲǤָοפŪݡȤȤѤȤˡοʲμ׳ǰǤ "variation, selection and adaptation" ŬѤ˽ƤޤäȤäȤƤ롥ɸ֤ʤ顤μ¡ιͤΥƤʤäΤǤ롥㤨СˤȤäʪμʬϤޤ2ŪʤΤǤꡤ礿ؿѷβäSchleicher ϸʬˤäƤΤθȯιͤȥμοʲȤƱƤȤäƤ褤Schleicher ϡƤʤäȤ롥
(2) ʳ Saussure ɽ붦ŪؼԤ뤬λ˻ޤǤˤ⡤Schleicher θͭǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤꡤȽƤȽϡѲθؤδؿΤ˷ŪѤ뤳ȤϤʤʤȤˡѲ̻֤ȤΤƤ֤Ƥ֤˴ؿ椵̤Ȥʤäޤlangue ؤδؿƤϤ䤵褦ˤʤȡparole °ѤüԤϼ夲뤳ȤʤʤäϰͤǤȤβΤȤǡѲȤȤʤ¿Ѱۤ뤵줿
Τ褦ʶֽŻϡ(3) ˻äĺޤʬۼθؤʸˡϰ̣ȤθƤ֤ΰȤ뤳Ȥ̤夲Ƥä
(3) λȴФơ褦䤯ؼԤϻѡüԡ̣¿ѰۡѲȤȤγ¦˹äƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤΡֵŤפˤĤơNerlich (106--07) ϼΰǤǮҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
Thus meaning, language change and language use became problems and were mainly discarded from the science of language for reasons of theoretical tidiness: meaning and change are rather messy phenomena. Hence autonomy, synchrony and homogeneity finally enclosed language in a kind of magic triangle that defended it against any sort of indeterminacy, fluctuation or change. But outside the static triangle, that ideal domain of structural and generative linguistics, lies the terra incognita of linguistic dynamics, where one can discover the main sources of linguistic change, contextuality, history and heterogeneity, fields of study that are slowly being rediscovered by post-Chomskyan and post-Saussurean linguists. This terra incognita is populated by a curious species, also recently discovered: the language user! S/he acts linguistically and non-linguistically in a heterogenous and ever-changing world, constantly trying to adapt the available linguistic means to her/his ever changing ends and communicative needs. In acting and interacting the speakers are the real vectors of linguistic evolution, and their choices must be studied if we are to understand the nature of language. It is not enough to stop at a static analysis of language as a product, organism or system. The study of evolutionary processes and procedures should help to overcome the sterility of the old dichotomies, such as those between langue/parole, competence/performance and even synchrony/diachrony.
Τ褦ˤ20Ⱦ̻֤ؤδؿꡤѲȤХοʲȤ櫓ǡʲθؤαѤƳΤǤ롥䡤ǽ Schleicher λߤԤäȤСƱѤϤޤäȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
Nerlich, Brigitte. "The Evolution of the Concept of 'Linguistic Evolution' in the 19th and 20th Century." Lingua 77 (1989): 101--12.
2֤ˤ錄ɸε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1]) ˤĤƤ3ơϡevolution 3θߤʪؤǼƤ˸Ѳ˱Ѥ줦뤫ˤĤƹͤ롥McMahon (334) ꡤ3θǧƤ
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ˤʤäƤƤˤ evolution εκüϡޤˤθǤ evolution ȤƤ롥ޤǤ2εǸƤ褦ˡ1920θȾˤơؤˤ evolution ȤѸˤϼ깤ĤƤޤäؤˤơѸϥβʳŪʤ⡤üʲʹѤӤӤƤ뤳ȤŪʥåƥŽƤʪʳءˤȸʳءˤ°פӤƤ椨ǤꡤǫξԤʿʿСͭѤȤǤ³ǽϻĤ롥Ӥκݤ˵äΩĤ٤ evolution Ȥϡ嵭θ evolution Ǥ롥ˤϴޤޤƤʤʪʲʬǹƤ mutation, variation, natural selection, adaptation ʤɤѸ졦ǰ˸Ѳ˱ѤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
McMahon (334--40) ϡʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤιͻΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ߤΰƱ褯ǤСˡ˸ؤˡʪؤؤ֤٤Ȥ¿षԤΤƤΰǤȼĥƤ롥McMahon (340) ϼ̤
[T]he Darwinian theory of biological evolution, with its interplay of mutation, variation and natural selection, has clear parallels in historical linguistics, and may be used to provide enlightening accounts of linguistic change. Having borrowed the core elements of evolutionary theory, we may then also explore novel concepts from biology, such as exaptation, and assess their relevance for linguistic change. Indeed, the establishment of parallels with historical biology may provide one of the most profitable future directions for historical linguistics.
ʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ε ([2016-03-28-1]) ˰³Ѳˤ evolution βˤĤơ evolution Ū (teleology) Ūʴްդ2θ"A series of related changes in a certain direction" ܤä (1) Ⱥθ (2) ϸѲȤˤƶ̤Ƥ뤬(1) ˥٥ˤĹŪʲʹѤȼä˴طΤФơ(2) ϲʹѤѤΤΡѲˤŪˤϱ̿Ť줿Ťȼĥ롥
üŪˤСŪȤ "effects precede (in time) their final causes" ȤȯۤǤ (qtd. in McMahon 325 from p. 312 of Lass, Roger. "Linguistic Orthogenesis? Scots Vowel Length and the English Length Conspiracy." Historical Linguistics. Volume 1: Syntax, Morphology, Internal and Comparative Reconstruction. Ed. John M. Anderson and Charles Jones. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1974. 311--43.) ̾ŪΩ X ³ Y Ȥ̴طʪ뤬ŪˤƤϡ Y 뤳ȤǤ褦 X 롤롥2ϸȿФ1ĤθѲФȤƻȤƤޤȤפǤ롥㤨СΤʳ [mb], [md], [mg], [nb], [nd], [ng], [ŋb], [ŋd], [ŋg] λҲϢ³ƤƤΤʳǤ [mb], [nd], [ŋg] 3路ƤʤʤäȤ롥̾βŪˤСƱﴱƱ (homorganic assimilation) פȤʤ뤬ŪŪѤȡĴ䤹뤿ƱﴱλҲϢ³ȤʤäפȤʤ롥
ػˤˤƤϡ͡ԤŪȤäƤȿԤƱ餤Ƥ㤨 Jakobson ŪԤäθѤŪοǻBloomfield Lass ϡŪΩ˸ȿФƤ롥McMahon (330--31) ⡤ŪŪŪ (teleology of purpose) ȡֵǽŪ (teleology of function) ʬˤ뤳ȤŪŪܤƤơΥˤĤŪŪƱ˲ǽǤȿMcMahon ηѤơ2ΰ̣ evolution ƹͤȤ
There is a useful verdict of Not Proven in the Scottish courts, and this seems the best judgement on teleology. We cannot prove teleological explanations wrong (although this in itself may be an indictment, in a discipline where many regard potentially falsifiable hypotheses as the only valid ones), but nor can we prove them right; they rest on faith in predestination and the omniscient guiding hand. More pragmatically, alleged cases of teleology tend to have equally plausible alternative explanations, and there are valid arguments against the teleological position. Even the weaker teleology of function is flawed because of the numerous cases where it simply does not seem to be applicable. However, this rejection does not make the concept of conspiracy, synchronic or diachronic, any less intriguing, or the perception of directionality . . . any less real.
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ʪؤˤѸ evolution ƱˡؤǻȤƤ evolution ȤѸΰ̣ˤơֿʲפƤİ뤳ȤοǤ롥McMahon 12 "Linguistic evolution?" Τ褯Ҳ𤷤ƤʤξϤˤĤƤϡ#2260. ʲβ ([2015-07-05-1]) ǤƤΤǻȡˡ
McMahon evolution ˤ3ĤθǧȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲϤ Web3 äƤ1ܤ19Ūʥ (pre-Darwinian) 2ܤŪŪ (teleological) ްդä3ܤϸߤʪؾθɽ
(1) Evolution 1 (McMahon 315)
a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler, or worse condition to a higher, more complex, or better state: progressive development.
(2) Evolution 2 (McMahon 325)
A series of related changes in a certain direction.
(3) Evolution 3 (McMahon 334)
the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.
ϡǤŤ (1) ˤĤƹͤƤߤΰ̣Ǥ "evolution" ϡȯۤޤʳŪʳǰɽʪΤ줾μϡˤ¤ (creation) ǤϤʤž (transformation) ФȯƤȤŪʹͤѤƤ뤬ηžθˤĤƤϡֿפפȤäʹּҲβʹѤȿǤΤȤƤ롥19θسǤ̤äͤȤʪʲˤƤΤ褦ʲʹѤޤƤʤĤޤꡤθؼԤʤΤ٤ƤǤϤʤˤϥοʲɸ֤ʤ⡤θؤαѤ˺ݤƤϡ˴Ѥ˴ѤǻȿǤΤǤꡤǤϥθѲѤȤäƤ褤
ΰ̣Ǥ evolution ؼԤɽȤСAugust Schleicher (1821--68) Ǥ롥Schleicher Hegel (1770--1831) αƶϰʲνȯãƤȹͤ (McMahon 320)
a. The physical evolution of man.
b. The evolution of language.
c. History.
a b c ȡֿפƤc ˻äƤޤȡɤͤޤʳǤ뤫顤Τ߽ФʤäơȤϡפʤȤͤǤ롥ޤơߤϤ٤ƤΰӤɤäƤȤΤSchleicher λۤä
ͤ180ٰۤʤ뤬Ʊ褦˲ʹѤƸѲߤΤ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) Ǥ롥Jespersen ϰˤ٤äŽĤΩ줫顤ޤñ㲽Ρֿפȸ (see #1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]), #432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]))
#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1]) McMahon ѤʸϤǤŦƤȤꡤߡ¿˸ؼԤϡ1ΰ̣Ǥ evolution ȤƤʤΰ̣ϡǤ˸ػŪʤΤȤʤäƤ롥
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ɸϡ#2513. Samuels "linguistic evolution" ([2016-03-14-1]) ǰټ夲ƹͤƤߤʤ Samuels ܤ̾ "linguistic change" ǤϤʤ "linguistic evolution" ѤΤSamuels ˤȤäơξԤΰ㤤ϲʤΤ20Ⱦ顤٤ϲäƤοʲȤƤ뤬Samuels ѸȤ뤳ȤϡߤθѲͤΩĤٶǤˤĤƵ뵡ơʤ褦˻פΤǡʲ Samuels ƤȻפ "linguistic evolution" Υå
εǤϡ Samuels ˤȤäƤ "linguistic evolution" ַѾ֤ȸߤɽȤȿΤζѹդݤȤȤͻι⤤֡פǤꡤָѲ˴ؤŪȤϡѲƯŪϳؤؤƤѸפȤߤʤŪʤȤ館ѤäƤʤ䤹뤿˰ʲΤ褦ʿޤƤߤ
language-internal and external factors
conservatism or 'inertia' the pressures that work
towards clearer communication
the inherited forms the expressive needs of the present
(= the old) == equilibrium == (= the new)
a considerable margin of tolerance
ѸˤϤ˸ؤˤؤǤȡФŵ (classical language) ȤѸ˽Ф魯ŵŵŪϡΡʻˡˤθŵʸŵȷӤĤȤƤΥƥ (Latin) ŵꥷ (Ancient Greek) Ǥ롥ŵϸ (modern language) ΩΤǤꡤָŵ (dead language)פȤϢۤ줽ۤñʤΤǤϤʤ (cf. #645. Ѹ ([2011-02-01-1])) ŵ°ȤƤϡ (vitality) ΤۤΧ (autonomy) ɸ (standardisation) פǤ (see #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1])) Trudgill (22) Ѹ콸
classical language A language which has the characteristics of autonomy and standardisation but which does not have the characteristic of vitality, that is, although it used to have native speakers, it no longer does so. Classical European languages include Latin and Ancient Greek. The ancient Indian language Sanskrit, an ancestor of modern North Indian languages such as Hindi and Bengali, is another example of a classical language, as is Classical Arabic. Classical languages generally survive because they are written languages which are known non-natively as a result of being used for purposes of religion or scholarship. Latin has been associated with Catholicism, Sanskrit with Hinduism, and Classical Arabic with Islam.
ܤˤƤϡŤ졤ʸŵȤưƤʸϡߤǤŪѼԤʤȤ̣ vitality 礤Ƥ뤬ˤ autonomy standardisation ǧ졤䡦ۤȶӤĤƤդѼǤ롥
ʤŵΤ⤦1Ĥ°Ȥơΰˤ⼨ƤΤΡŪʸ (historical authority) Ū˲äƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ʲϡǯ˾褦ˤʤäƤѲ˴ѤǤꡤ˸ؤˤ1ĤĬήȤʤäƤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1])#520. ˸ؤϸεȿʲθȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫 ([2010-09-29-1])#2260. ʲβ ([2015-07-05-1]) ۤ evolution γƵǴϢ夲Ƥ
Samuels (1) "linguistic evolution" ƸѲ椷Ԥ1ͤθŵŪƬ "linguistic change" ǤϤʤ "linguistic evolution" ȤѸȥѤͳˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ롥
The title of this book ('Linguistic Evolution') was chosen in preference to 'Linguistic Change' although it is about linguistic change. This is because its purpose is to attempt an examination of the large complex of different factors involved, and the title 'Linguistic Change' might have entailed an oversimplification.
Ѳˤʣװʣ˴ͿƤ (multiple causation of language change)ʣޤñ㲽Ƥ "change" ȤưȤȤȤΤ褦ΰѤ³ơSamuels (1) "linguistic evolution" ȤѸ줬䤹ȤǧƤꡤդ¥Ƥ롥"evolution" ֿ⡤ʡפȤƻŪʴްդĤȤ뤫
Nevertheless 'evolution' is itself open to the misunderstanding that some sort of progress is implied, that a clearer or more effective means of communication has been achieved as a result of it. That meaning of 'evolution' is not intended here. We are not concerned here with the prehistoric origins of human language, and, as has often been pointed out, there is today no such thing as a 'primitive' language, every language is of approximately equal value for the purposes for which it has evolved, whether it belongs to an advanced or a primitive culture.
ǤϡSamuels Τ "linguistic evolution" ȤϤʤΤϡѾ֤ȸߤɽȤȿΤζѹդݤȤȤͻι⤤֤ȤȤΤ褦
. . . it would appear, on the one hand, that both externally and internally in language development an equilibrium must be maintained between the old and the new, between the inherited forms and the expressive needs of the present; but at the same time, that the margin of tolerance and choice in the maintenance of that equilibrium is probably fairly wide, except, that is, for certain especial points of pressure that vary in each era. It is in that sense that 'evolution' is intended here.
Samuels ˤȤäơʤơߤ¿θʲԤˤȤäơˡ"linguistic evolution" ȤϡѲ˴ؤŪȤϡѲƯŪϳؤؤƤѸǤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
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