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terminology - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-29 20:50

2013-07-14 Sun

#1539. ethnie [sociolinguistics][geolinguistics][terminology]

ͼ²̱²ȡʤɤߴطʣǤ롥ʣλ򤭤ۤꡤɤΤ褦ޤäƤΤͻΤҲؤλŻΤˤϤ줾γǰбʹֽĤɽ魯ɽɬפǤ롥ͼ²̱²ȤȤΤ򤷤䤹ȤϤʤüԽĤȤ춦ƱΤȸƤ֤ȤϤǤ뤬äüŪɽߤǡˡ (ethnie) ȤѸ줬߽Ф줿֥ȥ (51) ˤСˡȤƾΤϡʲνĤФͿ٤Ǥ롥

Ūñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򤽤ħȤȯεŪˤ뽸ġʿͼˤȤϰۤʤΡ˿²طˤӤĤʻ²²ˤǤʤޤʸŪħʣΡ̱²ˤǤŪħʣΡʹ̱ˤǤʤ褦ʽĤФƤǤ롥̩ʰ̣ǥˡϡؼԤ̱²ؼԤθԶ콸 (G.L.M.)ա⤦ۣʤǤϡ̱²콸ġդ⤷ϡԸ춦ƱΡդƱΤǤ롥äƥˡȤϡοŪŪŪ°ɤǤ졤ƱĸġͤνΤȤȤˤʤ롥


λ򤵤Ƥж콸 (G.L.M. = "groupe de langue maternelle") 춦ƱΤȤƾΤǤ褤֥ˡפȤɽdzǰ򥫥ץ벽ƤޤгΤǤ롥ˤꡤ衤ֱѸüԽġפƤ "native (or L1) speakers of English" ϡֱѸ쥨ˡפüŪȤǤ롥
̩ǤϥˡϤȤäĤؤ2ȤƤüԽĤޤ᤿ˤѤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤξˤüԤʤΤüԤʤΤʬΤŬڤʤȤ֥ȥ (52) ϡԤ ethnophone ̱²üԡˡԤ allophone ̱²üԡˤȸƤǤ롥ѸˤС"native (or L1) speakers of English" ϡֱѸ쥨Υե̡ס"L2 speakers of English" ϡֱѸ쥢ե̡פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ơξԹ碌 "speakers of English" ϡˤ̣ǤΡֱѸ쥨ˡפȤƸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
ۤʤ륨ˡ֤θưҲŪˤĤưƱĴ٤ȤäؤβФ륢ץޤ줿ǰǤѸǤ롥ѤǤ

󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ

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2013-07-12 Fri

#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ [sociolinguistics][terminology][linguistic_right]

פϸؤѸȤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ˤؤˤ⹭ȤƤ롥Ѹ "mother tongue", ե󥹸 "langue maternelle", ɥĸ "Muttersprache" ǤꡤθפȤƱǤ롥ŵŪƤ齬롤üԤˤȤäƤ1ΤȤǤꡤʸƾΤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤפȤѸˤϤĤ꤬ޤޤƤ롥Ǥ夷ƤѸǤꡤȤΤ򹵤ȤΤ񤷤ŦƤȤϽפ
1ܤϡѸˤޤĤɽŪǤ롥줫Ȥ᡼ϾŪǤϤ뤬¤ˤʳʹΤϤǤ⤢롥ȤϤޤܰԤ̾ǤȤϼȤƤ⡤#1495. ä٤ޥʸ multilingualism ([2013-05-31-1]) Ǽ褦ˡҲ٤Ȥθ줬1Ȥʤ褦ʸ¸ߤ롥ξˤϡषפθƾΤդ路
2ܤϡˤĤƤǤ롥Ǥ1ȤɽѤ줬ްդΤϡȤüԤǽ˽ؤȤȤǤ롥ۤȤɤξ硤ǤޤˤäޤȿŪºߤȤƤȤפʤޤˤ뤫⤷ʤ֥ȥ (34--35) ˤʲʸϤ򻲾ȡ

ȤĴ»ܤ뤿ͿƤ¿ͤʡΡϡŪȿŪȤ2ĤεΤԤĤ뤿餤ȿǤƤ롥ԤϤĤޤꡤϺǽθǤȤȤǤꡤԤϡͤä³ʤ󤺤ǻ׹ͤ줬ǤȤ櫓Ǥ롥ǯȤǯˤƽȤȤҴŪǤϰ̤˺ǤפȤƤʥɡᥭեԥ󡤥ʥ⡼ꥷ㥹ʤɡˡ¿ѤκĥΤ褦ʹϡȤϼʬ֤褯狼äƤȿĤǻ׹ͤȤȤΤ˼Ƥ롥ʤѤ褦Ȥ⡤줿餷ƤܼŪ˽פʲͤȡ줬ĿͤμҲʸŪ°˴ؤƽפʻɸǤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ̤˸ΰפ򸫤Ƥ롥


3ܤˡܼŪüԸĿͤ°ȤƤ줬ѸȤƼҲŪʸ̮˸ȤۤȤɵդ뤳Ȥʤΰ̣ƤҲ񲽤졤椬ƤޤȤ꤬롥㤨СUNESCO 1953 ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ơǤζεʸƤ롥

On educational grounds we recommend that the use of the mother tongue be extended to as late a stage in education as possible. In particular, pupils should begin their schooling through the medium of the mother tongue, because they understand it best and because to begin their school life in the mother tongue will make the break between home and school as small as possible.


տޤȤɿŪǤꡤݤˤϻǤ롥"the mother tongue" ȤѸ줬ȤҲŪʸ̮Ѥ뤳ȤˤꡤŪüԸĿͤȷӤĤƤϤ꤬ҲؤȤؤ줨褦˻פ롥
üԸĿͤˤȤäȤΤʶʤŪºߤȤƤ⡤θ줬ҲŪΩȤǧΤƤ뤫ɤǤ롥㤨Сθ줬ҿ1Ȥư֤ŤƤˤΩȤ̾ͿƤʤǽ롥ξˤϡüԤǤζεͿ뤳ȤϤʤޤüܿͤθ򿽹𤹤ݤˡ򿽹𤷤ʤǽ⤢롥Romain (37) ˤСꥹˤơ Panjabi äѥϤο͡ϡ Panjabi üԤǤϤʤѥιǤ Urdu üԤǤȿ𤹤ȤˤϸιŪŪװǤ롥
Ū˸Ŀͤ°ȤơʤĿ͸ (idiolect) ȤƲ᤹ΤǤСǤζȤüԤοब뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦˶ܤȤ󸽼ŪǡݲѼ (variety) ȤªΤǤСѼϸʤΤʤΤȤƬˤҲŪ˵ꤷƤޤҲŪʸ̮Ѥ줿ȤѸϡǤ˼Ҳ񲽤줿̣ƤäƤޤäƤΤǤ롥

󡦥֥ȥ ͵ ظء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1988ǯ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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2013-06-28 Fri

#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language [terminology][sociolinguistics][language_or_dialect]

ε#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ǡζ̤Ȥ뤿οǰѸƳϴϢơѼ郎 (heteronomous) ǤϤʤ (autonomous) ǧꤵ뤿ˡ2ĤΰۤʤबȤȤ
ɥĤμҲؼ Heinz Kloss Ƴгǰˡɸ Abstand language Ausbau language 롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ˤС줾켡Τ褦롥

Ausbau language (German /ˈausbau/) A concept due to the German sociolinguist Heinz Kloss. A variety which derives its status as a language, rather than a dialect, not so much from its linguistic characteristics, like an Abstand language, but from its social, cultural and political characteristics. These characteristics will normally involve autonomy and standardisation. Norwegian and Swedish are regarded as distinct languages, not because they are linguistically very different from one another --- there is clear mutual intelligibility --- but because they are associated with two separate, independent nation states, and because they have traditions involving different writing systems, grammar books and dictionaries. Ausbau is the German word for 'extension' or 'building up'. Note that when new Ausbau languages are being developed through language planning, planners will often make the most of what Abstand is available. For example, Ivar Aasen, the developer of the form of Standard Norwegian now known as Nynorsk deliberately modelled it on those (western) dialects which were least like Danish, which had hitherto been the standard language of Norway. There is no widely used English equivalent for this term, but 'language by extension' is sometimes employed. (11--12)


Abstand language (German /ˈapʃtant/) A concept developed by the German sociolinguist Heinz Kloss. A variety of language which is regarded as a language in its own right, rather than a dialect, by virtue of being very different in its linguistic characteristics from all other languages. The degree of linguistic distance (German 'Abstand') between this variety and other languages is such that, unlike Ausbau languages, there can be no dispute as to its language status. Basque, the language spoken in northern Spain and southwestern France, is a good example of an Abstand language. It is clearly a single language, because its dialects are similar. And it is clearly a language rather than a dialect because, since it is not related historically to any other European language, it is completely different in its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation from the neighbouring languages, French and Spanish . . . . There is no widely used English equivalent for this term, but 'language by distance' is sometimes employed. (1--2)


гǰѸˤ˱ѤǤͤȡ㤨󥰥ɤˤƥƥե󥹸줬ҤäƤҲŪˤäơѸϡҲŪΩ줳夫äΤΡï⤬ǧ1ĤΩ (autonomous) ǤϤäʤʤСñ˱Ѹϥƥե󥹸ȤϤޤǻĤʤ Abstand language Ȥե󥹸ϥ󥰥ɤˤƤѸϰ̤⤫äե󥹤ˤƤϥƥαƤˤäƤषѸξ٤Ωϴäե󥹸ϸҤƥȤޤ˻Ƥꡤ˽° (heteronomous) ؤȹ߳ʤͤʤե󥹸ϡƥˤäƼ autonomy 򿯤줫ͤAusbau language ȤΩϰ̤ɬפäΤǤ롥#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡƥȥե󥹸θŪʶᤵäƤȤʤꡤֻκѤ etymological_respelling Ѹˤʾˤ˵äƤȤϡƥФξδطۤʤäƤʤε Abstand Ausbau гǰळȤǤΤǤϤʤ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2013-06-27 Thu

#1522. autonomy heteronomy [sociolinguistics][dialect][variety][terminology][language_or_dialect][dialect_continuum]

ؤӼҲؤθŵŪ1Ĥˡ (language) (dialect) ζȤ꤬롥ζŪ뤳Ȥϡ¿ξ硤񤷤[2013-06-05-1]ε#1500. Ϣ³פ򻲾ȡˡζ̤򤢤ƤĤʤƺѤ褦 "a linguistic variety" ʸѼˤȤʽѸ줬¸ߤΤҲŪˤƳǰζ̤ĤȤ⤢롥ξ硤ѸȤƼ´ȼäָפȡפȤѸۤäƻȤ³ƤޤȤˡ⤢뤬ǤϳŪˤƶ̤ĤȤĥޤäƤޤ餤롥
ʤΤɸ autonomy heteronomy ȤФγǰautonomous ѼȤϡ⤫ϽѼΤʤǤȤ櫓ҤѼȤƤߤʤ졤ΩȤơʤ۲νѼ«ͤפѼؤheteronomous ѼȤϡ⤫⳰ΩȤƤϰ̤դ줺̤ˤ autonomous Ѽ˽°ѼؤŪˤСautonomy Ȥϱߤ濴ǤꡤߤΤǤ⤢Ȥheteronomy ȤϤαߤ濴ʳˤäơ濴ظɽǤ롥
гǰ褯Ǥ褦ˡTrudgill Ѹ콸򼨤

autonomy A term, associated with the work of the Norwegian-American linguist Einar Haugen, which means independence and is thus the opposite of heteronomy. Autonomy is a characteristic of a variety of a language that has been subject to standardisation and codification, and is therefore regarded as having an independent existence. An autonomous variety is one whose speakers and writers are not socially, culturally or educationally dependent on any other variety of that language, and is normally the variety which is used in writing in the community in question. Standard English is a dialect which has the characteristic of autonomy, whereas Cockney does not have this feature. (12)


heteronomy A term associated with the work of the Norwegian-American linguist Einar Haugen. Dependence --- the opposite of autonomy. Heteronomy is a characteristic of a variety of a language that has not been subject to standardisation, and which is not regarded as having an existence independent of a corresponding autonomous standard. A heteronomous variety is typically a nonstandard variety whose speakers and writers are socially, culturally and educationally dependent on an autonomous variety of the same language, and who look to the standard autonomous variety as the one which naturally corresponds to their vernacular. (58)


ѸȤƤΡָפȡפؼΤ򤽤줾 autonomy vs heteronomy ȤФƻ autonomous vs heteronomous ȤƵҤǤ褦ˤΤοǰѸζ̡ɸѼɸѼζ̤Ȥ򡤼ҲŪΩȰ¸ȤȤ館ľɾ롥ϢơRomain (14--15) βͭѡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.

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2013-06-25 Tue

#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ [terminology][verb][passive][category][sobokunagimon]

ѸǼư֤ "passive voice"ǽư֤ "active voice" ȸƤ֤ʤ֡פ "voice" бΤʸˡƤϼŪʤɤʸǤưɽ魯ưȤɤΤ褦˴ؤ뤫ɽ魯ΤǤꡤưλѤͭ͡ʡ֡ˤɸ뵡ǽäƤ롥Τ褦ܸΡ֡פȤѸϤ򤵤뤫⤷ʤʤѸǤ "voice" ɽΤǤ롥ǡĴ٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤ
ޤϡOED 顥voice, n. θ13ˤȡʸˡѸȤƤ "voice" ν15ȾǤΦʸǤϽФ16ʤΤǡѸǤλѤΤۤᤤȤˤʤˡǽ2ĵ󤲤褦

c1425 in C. R. Bland Teaching Gram. in Late Medieval Eng. (1991) 160 (MED), Þo secund coniugaciun..of passyf wowus, þat as -e- long befor þo -ris indecatyf, as doceris.

a1450 (a1397) Prol. Old Test. in Bible (Wycliffite, L.V.) (Cambr. Mm. II. 15) (1850) xv. 57 A participle of a present tens, either preterit, of actif vois, eithir passif.


MED voice (n.) 6(a) ˤС15ʸˡѸȤơ㤬³ȵ󤬤롥̣Ȥˡ̾Ρֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Τ voice ѤƤ㤬롥ޤ OED voice, n. θ14ˤϡѤǤϤ뤬ֿ;Ρ (person) Ȥ⤢롥ĤޤȤvoice ϡˤơФưΡ֡פɽ魯ۤȤˤ̾ưζƤ⹭ɽ魯ȤǤ餷
Ϣơƥʸˡǡ֡פ "genus" ȸƤФ뤬̾ƤǤ "gender" ȤƱǤ롥Ѹ줬ʻˤ餺ʬŽդ٥ȤƶѤ뤳Ȥ롤⤦1ĤȤƲǤ롥ʸˡѸλȤʸˡȤ°ήɤˤ¸뤿ᡤΰŪѸȸƱꤹˤʸˡˤμɬפȤʤˤϤμϤʤΤǡܺ٤Ω뤳ȤǤʤ
ˤĤơۤ˼꤬Ϥʤȸؼŵ¾äƤߤƹԤäΤճʤȤ Lyons (371--72)

8.3.1 The term 'voice'
The term 'voice' (Latin vox) was originally used by Roman grammarians in two distinguishable, but related, senses: (i) In the sense of 'sound' (as used in the 'pronunciation' of human language: translating the Greek term phōnē, especially of the 'sounds' produced by the vibration of the 'vocal cords': hence the term 'vowel' (from Latin sonus vocalis, 'a sound produced with voice', via Old French vowel). (ii) Of the 'form' of a word (that is, what it 'sounded' like) as opposed to its 'meaning' . . . . the first of these two senses is still current in linguistics in the distinction between voiced and voiceless 'sounds' (whether as phonetic or phonological units . . .). In the second sense, 'voice' has disappeared from modern linguistic theory. Instead, the term has developed a third sense, derived ultimately from (ii) above, in which it refers to the active and passive 'forms' of the verb. (the traditional Latin term for this third sense was species or genus. In the course of time, genus was restricted to the nominal category of 'gender'; and the somewhat artificial classification of the 'forms' of the different parts of speech in terms of genera and species was abandoned.) The traditional Greek term for 'voice' as a category of the verb was diathesis, 'state', 'disposition', 'function', etc.; and some linguists prefer to use 'diathesis', rather than 'voice', in this sense of the term. However, the risk of confusion between the phonetic or phonological sense of 'voice' and its grammatical sense is very small.


voice ˤ衤case ˤ衤gender ˤ衤ʸˡƤѸθ츻̣õäƤ⤢ޤǼ椫ʤΤϡɤΤȤ줾ʸˡƤεǽǤϵҤǤʤʪǤꡤʤСּפַפɽ魯夨ƤޤȤ̾դФˤ٤뤫餫⤷ʤ
ʤΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤ֡פȤʸˡƤɽ魯Τˡvoice Τۤ˥ꥷͳ diathesis ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥 dia- (between) + thesis (position) Ȥǡ֡פۤɤθǤ롥

Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.

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2013-06-18 Tue

#1513. ʹ [phonetics][phoneme][sonority][syllable][terminology][phonotactics]

(syllable) ˤ͡Ϳ줦뤬ƤΤȤơʬ᲻βŪʹ (sonority) ˰¸롥ʹ٤ΤΤϡ"the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration" (Crystal 442) Τ褦롥ʬ᲻Ūˤʹ䤹٤ȲǤ롥
ʬ᲻ʹ٤¬͡ˤʤƤꡤͤˤĤƤϼ¸Ȥ˾ܺ٤ϰۤʤ뤫⤷ʤޤʬ̤ˤĤƤϸԤΤǰפߤƤ롥1ȤơHogg and McCully (33) ˵󤲤ƤѸʬ᲻ sonority scale 򼨤

SoundsSonority valuesExamples
low vowels10/a, ɑ/
mid vowels9/e, o/
high vowels8/i, u/
flaps7/r/
laterals6/l/
nasals5/n, m, ŋ/
voiced fricatives4/v, ð, z/
voiceless fricatives3/f, θ, s/
voiced stops2/b, d, g/
voiceless stops1/p, t, k/


̤ˡҲ첻Τ̵ۤͭΤۤγ礭ۤʹ٤Ϲ⤤ҲˤĤƤСҲζ٤ʹ٤ȿδطǤꡤ٤㤤ʡ夤ʹ٤ι⤤˻ҲϡŪפü䤹
ơʹ٤ΤͭʤΤϡʬ᲻Ϣ³ˤʹ٤ĺ (peak) ãȤγ (syllabic nucleus) Ȱפ뤫Ǥ롥ʬ᲻Ϣ³ʬʬ᲻ʹ٤꿶ȡ1İʾʹ٤ĺ롥ĺοθβȤȤˤʤ롥벻٤Ȥζܤɤ뤫ŪޤǤ뤬ʤȤⲻγˡĺˤϡΤ褦ʹ٤ʬϤ뤳ȤǵŪޤΤԹ礬ɤ
ʲˡĤθʹʬϤ򼨤

WordPronunciationSonority valuesPeaks = Syllables
modest/modest/5-9-2-9-3-12
complain/compleːn/1-9-5-1-6-9-52
petty/peti/1-9-1-82
elastic/əlæstik/8-6-10-3-1-8-13
elasticity/iːlæstisiti/9-6-10-3-1-8-3-8-1-85
petrol/petrəl/1-9-1-7-9-62
button/bʌtn/2-9-1-52
bottle/botl/2-9-1-62


Ǹ button bottle ǤϺǽҲʹ٤ȤĺʤΤǡγˤȤƵǽƤ롥벻粻ŪҲǤ롥
˶̣ΤϡϢʬ᲻ʹ٤˴ؤ뤢ˡ§򼨤ȤǤ롥 "Sonority Sequencing Generalisation" (SSG) ȸƤФ븶§ǡΤ褦꼰롥

[I]n any syllable, there is a segment constituting a sonority peak that is preceded and/or followed by a sequence of segments with progressively decreasing sonority values. (Crystal 442)


ˤäƻĺι⤵ϤޤޤŵŪˡëëפΤ줤ʬۤˤʤȤȤSSG ϼƤ롥onset s ǻϤޤҲ (ex. sp-, st-, sk-) ξʤɤǤϤθ§ϵ§Ūˤ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬 SSG ϱѸˤ˰ꤷ§Ǥ롥

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. Metrical Phonology: A Coursebook. Cambridge: CUP, 1987.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-28-1] [2013-06-19-1]

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2013-06-08 Sat

#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ [variation][syntax][lexicon][variety][sociolinguistics][terminology][linguistic_area]

ޤǤεǤܡ (linguistic item) ȤѸѤƤѰۤ򼨤뤢ñ̤ؤνѸȤơHudson (21--22) ˤäƳ줿ΤǤ롥ŪʸѸǤ "lexical items" ñ, "sounds" ȯ, "constructions" ʹʸˤʤɤñ̤̤Ƥ뤬ҲŪѰۤ򼨤Ȥǰ㤤Ϥʤñ̤Ǥ졤ؼǤѸ줬ߤȤ櫓Ǥ롥
Ƹܤ嵭3Ĥñ̤˶̤ơ줾ñ̤ˤѰۤļҲŪʵǽͤȤ˺ϤΤĤޤꡤñѰۡȯѰۡʸѰۤȤ٤ȡҲŪˤߤơѰۤμ˰㤤ϤΤ
ͻˤäơܸǤѸǤ⡤ȯѰۤñ乽ʸѰۤȤϰۤʤ밷䤹Ȥ¤ŦƤϰˤĤˤȤ̤ˡäʸˡΰ㤤⡤ȯΰ㤤Ŧ뤳Ȥ¿¤ (accent) ȤƸڤΤǤ롥ѸαƺǤ⡤äˤʸˡˤϤ뤬줾ѼüԤϡޤȯˤäѼǧ롥ʪŪʸݤȤľŪѰۤΥǥåȤߤʤ䤹Ȥ𤬤ꤽǡȯüԤνм򼨤ҲŪʵǽ¾ñ̤⶯äƤȲꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡФƸä乽ʸѰۤϤɤΤ褦ʵǽäƤȲǤ뤫
Hudson (44--45) ϡХ륫Ⱦɤ (linguistic area) ˤơʸˡܤγۤƹäƤ󤲤ʤ顤ʸʤɤʸˡܤϸäȯ٤Ѱ̤ۤʤȤΩƤƤ롥θǤϡäѰۤϼҲŪʺۤɽ魯Τͭ˳ѤƤ롥顤Hudson (45) ϸܤ3Ĥñ̤ˤĤơŪʲ󵯤

A very tentative hypothesis thus emerges regarding the different types of linguistic items and their relations to society, according to which syntax is the marker of cohesion in society, with individuals trying to eliminate alternatives in syntax from their individual language. In contrast, vocabulary is a marker of divisions in society, and individuals may actively cultivate alternatives in order to make more subtle social distinctions. Pronunciation reflects the permanent social group with which the speaker identifies.


ķɽ魯ʸɽ魯áǥƥƥɽ魯ȯڤ٤Ȥơ¤˶̣򤽤롥

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-06-05 Wed

#1500. Ϣ³ [dialect_continuum][dialect][geography][isogloss][map][terminology][language_or_dialect]

ɤζʤ뤤ϻ˸ɤζˤϡɬΤ˰Ȥϸ¤ʤݡ¿ξ硤¿쾯ʤŪǤ롥#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡ isogloss «ʤȤ˶ȤΤŪǤϤ뤬ŪʴϤʤȤäƤ褤
ιԼԤŪϢ³ΤʤA¼Z¼ؤ⤤Ƥ椯ιȡA¼θB¼θȤ϶ϾʺʤB¼C¼C¼D¼ƱͤιԼԤϡơθŪʺۤˤϤۤȤɵդ⤤ƹԤĤZ¼ã롥ȤҴŪA¼Z¼θ٤ȡ餫礭ʺۤΤǤ롥¼¼ؤθ캹ϥǥǤϤʤʥǤꡤιԼԤθΤϢ³ (dialect continuum) ˤۤʤʤϤϢ³Τ¸ߤ뤬衼åѤ򸫤ƤʣϢ³Τ롥ʲϡRomain (12) οޤ򻲹ͤˤƺäϢ³ΤϿޤǤ롥

Map of Dialect Continua in Europe

Ͽޤϡ㤨ХꥢüեΥ졼ޤǡ뤤ϥॹƥफ饦ޤǡϢ³Τι뤳ȤǤȤȤ̣롥
Ϣ³Τ򼨤ϰθ³ϡǼ줿Ȱפ뤳Ȥ⤢аפƤʤȤ⤢롥ϡ٤礦2Ĥ¼񶭤򶴤Ǥ뤫Ȥäơɬ礭ۤʤѤƤȤ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤ򼨤ƱˡˤäƤƱ٤礦2Ĥ¼Ǥ䤬ȤȤ򼨤
Ϣ³Τ˴ؤƤϡŪ꤬롥A, B, C, . . . Z¼Ϣ³ΤƤꤷ硤줾¼Ǥϰͤʸ줬ԤʤƤȹͤƤ褤Τ뤤ϡ¼üüȤǤϥߥϢ³Τ¸ߤƤΤ⤷A¼B¼줾Ū˰ͤȲꤹʤСA¼1Ĥϰ (dialect area) B¼Ϥ⤦1ĤϰȤȤˤʤꡤA¼B¼δ֤ˤϢ³ΤǤϤʤʤ䤬ꤵȤȤˤʤʤϢ³ΤȤǰϰȤǰϤɤΤ褦˴ϢƤΤŪϡChambers and Trudgill ȤơHeeringa and Nerbonne ˤäƼ夲Ƥ롥

Chambers and Trudgill (1998) introduced an interesting puzzle, one that is related to whether dialects should be viewed as organized by areas or via a geographic continuum. They observed that a traveller walking in a straight line notices successive small changes from village to village, but seldom, if ever, observes large differences. This sounds like a justification of the continuum view . . . . (376)


Ϣ³Τ뤫ʤ¸ߤΤȤˤĤƤϡ#1303. ʤ¸ߤΤ --- Ⱦǥˤ ([2012-11-20-1]) ε⻲ȡ

Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Heeringa, Wilbert and John Nerbonne. "Dialect Areas and Dialect Continua." Language Variation and Change 13 (2001): 375--400.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-06-27-1] [2013-06-06-1]

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2013-05-29 Wed

#1493. Ѹʤ̱ [latin][borrowing][semantic_change][word_formation][sign][loan_translation][lexicology][terminology][neo-latin][morphology][romancisation][false_friend][waseieigo]

ε#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 ([2013-05-28-1]) ǡѸȸƤФˤĤ̻ŪŪξͻ¤ΤȤιͻϱѸäˤۤȤɤΤޤƤϤޤ롥ܸȱѸδطϱѸȥƥδط
ѸˤˤơǤĹؤäƤϥƥǤ롥Φˤäޥλƥ줫äѤƤűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƥƥѸäΰӤ뤲ʹߤϥꥷȤȤ˼Ȥ neo-classical compounding Ȥ̤ơѸä˱ƶڤܤ³Ƥ (##1437,32,120,1211,478γƵ򻲾) ơѸϤĹܿˤΤʤǡƥθ§򼫤η˼Ǥ[2013-02-08-1]ε#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§סˡ
ơε (1) Ǥϡ˥ǥȤʤ signe ¸ߤĤ줬Ȥ줿ɤǡѸ줫Ѹ줫̤ȽҤ٤ƱȤϡѸȥƥˤĤƤ롥Ѹ줬ηϤⲽƥ쵬§˴Ťȼ˥ƥñ夲硤ϱǤ[2010-05-24-1]ε#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽פ򻲾ȡˡƥ˴¸Υǥ򻲾ȤƼϡƥѸǤ롥ξüδ֤Ūʥ졼󤬹äƤΤܸξƱͤǤ롥ܸξϡεǡֱѸ첣ʸʥʡ˸פȤ٥¨ʤ󼨤Ѹξ "Latinate word" ʥƥñˤȤѸ줬ѰդƤ롥ϱޤषƥѸޤषΤ狼ʤƥγäޤࡥ
ε (2) Ǥϡ֤¦̤顤ѸδĤƷ줿ܸñ4ĤʬषƱͤˡƥδĤƷ줿ñ4Ĥʬष褦

(a) ƥб signe ¸ߤ륿סʼѸŵŪ
(b) ƥб signifié ¸ߤ뤬 signifiant ϰۤʤ륿סѸŵŪ
(c) ƥб signifiant ¸ߤ뤬 signifié ϰۤʤ륿ס"false friends" 뤤 "faux amis" ŵŪ
(d) ƥб signe ¸ߤʤסʱŵŪ

Ѹ򤵤ʤƥüԤꤹȡüԤϱѸüԤˤäȯ줿 (c) (d) Τ褦ʸʹȡƬξ˥ϥƥʤ⤫֤ȤϡѸüԤѸʹȤƱȿǤ롥ѸˤƤ⡤Ѹ˰̣㤨Ƥ (c) Ǥ tradition ([2011-11-27-1]ε#944. ration reasonפ򻲾ȡˤ䡤(d) Ǥ antidisestablishmentarianism [2010-05-24-1]ε#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽פ򻲾ȡˤΤ褦ʸä䤷Ƥ椯Ȥˤäơ˭ɽϤ˻äΤǤ롥
ܸꡥ¾줫θüѤŪǤˤäƤϡ(a)--(d) Τ٤ƤΥפ¿쾯ʤ츫ΤʤΤǤϤʤѸϡ̣򤽤ȥԥåȤƤФм夲뤬̸ŪˤϷ褷ðۤʸݤǤϤʤΤ

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2013-05-28 Tue

#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 [japanese][borrowing][semantic_change][word_formation][terminology][sign][loan_translation][lexicology][morphology][false_friend][waseieigo]

#1471. golden ߽ФѲ ([2013-05-07-1]) εǡ֥ǥ󥦥 (Golden Week) Ȥܸɽ˿줿ȤѸȤƾҲ𤷤ƱؤΥȤꡤѸ춵˴ؤͭȤIs ǥ󥦥 wasei-eigo?ȤؤΥ󥯤򤤤ʤ꤬ȤޤˡεˤȡGoogle Books Ngram Viewer (see [2010-12-25-1]) Ǹ򤫤ȡgolden week Ȥɽ1951ǯ˱Ѹ¸ߤȤȤ狼Υڡ򻲾ȡˡ[2010-12-25-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡľΤȤ Google Books ΥѥȤƤɾϤˤȹͤƤ뤬ʤȤƱ¸ߤϻ¤ǤȼƤ褤Ѹ golden week ˡ緿Ϣ١פʤä櫓ǤϤʤޤǡ֡ʲΤ褦ˡ餷֡פۤɤΰ̣ѤƤ褦ơΤ褦ʾ˴դߤơϤܸΡ֥ǥ󥦥פѸȤߤʤƤ褤Τɤ
䤤ˤ͡¦̤Ȼפ뤬 (1) ̻֤¦̤ (2) ֤¦̤롥֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫ɤȤ䤤ϡäѤ (1) λȯ䤤Ǥꡤܸûˤܸ츻ؤˤƤϽפ(2) λϤ䤤ϤޤܼŪǤϤʤΤΡŪܸŪꤲȤǤƱ餤̣ʲ (1) (2) Τ줾ˤĤƵ

(1) ̻֤¦
ܸѸȤѸθ̩ǤΤϤĤѸ켭ŵ򻲾ȤƤȽȤʤäѸŵȤƵ󤲤֥ʥס֥Хåߥ顼פΤ褦㤫餽ħФСֱѸͳˤηǤѸε§˳§äȤ߹碌뤳ȤˤäƷܸȤƤθפȤȤˤʤꤽϡ (signifiant) ܸηǹԤʤƤѸΥǥ򻲾ȤƤʤ˾ƤǤ롥ޤϡθ̣ѲɤѸصռѤ줿ɤʤɤθȯŸˤϸڤʤǤꡤäѤܤȤ롥
ѸΩϡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥Ѹ¦ΥǥȤʤ뵭 (signe) 򻲾ȤۤܤΤޤܸηϤΤʤ˼Ǥ롥
ơѸܸ礬ѸǤ뤫ѸѸǤ뤫ϡ¸αѸǥ򻲾ȤɤˤäƤ롥֥ǥ󥦥פǤСѸˤǤ¸ߤƤ餷ǥ golden week 򻲾ȤѤΤ뤤ϱѸ¦Υǥ̵ͭϤɤǤ졤Ȥܸȼ˺夲ΤʤΤѸ¦˥ǥ뤬ʾ塤򻲾ȤȹͤΤȻפ줫⤷ʤɬ⤽ȤϤʤnighter ʤɤηֵ§ΤޤΤȤϰۤʤꡤgolden week 쵬§ΤޤΤǤꡤΤ褦ŪɽѸ¦ܸ¦ΩȯǽϽʬˤ롥θó׿Ԥǥ¸ߤΤʤäȤǽΤƤʤΤǤϤʤɤΤȤؤϡθó׿ԤѸǥ¸ߤΤäƤꡤ򻲾ȤݤȤˤäƤΤǤꡤΤ뤳ȤŪˤ񤷤ʾ塤䤤ˤϡ֤狼ʤפȤ褦ʤˤСθó׿Ԥǥ¸ߤΤäƤ뤫ݤ⡤ºݤΤȤyes no ڤʬǤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ golden week ɤǸʹȤ褦ʡȤܤʵˤʤ⤷ʤ⤽ѸˤϤäȥǥ뤬ꤽȤФѸηƧڤˤϽʬʤΤǤ롥
츻ؾ塤֥ǥ󥦥פܸǤηȹͤ뤫Ѹ줫μѤӰ̣ü첽ȹͤ뤫礭ʰ㤤Ǥ롥츻˽񤯤٤ȤѤäƤ뤫Ѹ˥ǥ뤬¸ߤʤ֥ʥפΤ褦ˡ餫Ѹ㤬üˤ롥Ѳ狼äƤ֥ѥפΤ褦ˡ餫ʼѤ㤬¾üˤ롥ξüδ֤ˡŪ𤬤褯狼ʤ졼󤬹äƤꡤɿŪʸ츻ؼԤǤ̵ˤɤ餫˽°뤳ȤˤˡѸ줫Ѹؤ³Ϣ³ΤΤΤ˲٥ƤȤΤ1Ĥβˡˤʤ뤫⤷ʤǥ뻲Ȥ̵ͭˤ餺 signifiant ѸǤȤΤǡֱѸ첣ʸʥʡ˸פʤɤȤƤΤ̵񤫤⤷ʤ

(2) ֤¦
δ֥ǥ󥦥פͤȡҤȤϰäǽˤʤ롥ѸδĤƷ줿ϡ (signe) δ4ĤΥפʬव롥

(a) Ѹб signe ¸ߤ륿סʼѸŵŪ
(b) Ѹб signifié ¸ߤ뤬 signifiant ϰۤʤ륿סѸŵŪ
(c) Ѹб signifiant ¸ߤ뤬 signifié ϰۤʤ륿ס"false friends" 뤤 "faux amis" ŵŪ
(d) Ѹб signe ¸ߤʤסѸŵŪ

(c) "false friends" Ȥϡ춵ʤɤǻŦƤֽ֤ǡ֤б뤬̣ϰۤʤ뤿դפפǤ롥ԴʼѲ䡤Ѹ̣ѲˤäƤ⤿餵뤳Ȥ¿ǥ¸ߤ˵Ť˺줿ѸʤɤǤΥפ°Τ뤫⤷ʤ
ѸˤޤȤĤ᡼ȤơֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפ뤬ºݤˤϡֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפϡ(c) (d) ˶̤ªƤɬפ롥(c) ˤϡ֡ʼư֤Ρ˥ϥɥסȤ򥵥ܤΰդǤΡ֥פס˿ڤˤؤ֥եߥ˥ȡפʤɤ(d) ˤϡ֥꡼ޥס֥Хåס֥٥åɥס֥Сȡפʤɤꡤ̤ʤμۤʤ롥෿˽С֥ǥ󥦥פ (c) Ȥʤ෿ϤޤǶŪ෿Ǥꡤ(1) ǰä˽Ť֤̻ŪʴȤоȤդ줿

ǤϡĤγ٤Ѹ¾θáʲˤŪ˰֤Ť褦ȻߤƤ˵ɬפѸפȤܼŪ (1) δ̾դ줿ѸǤ餷Ȥ狼äƤֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפȤϡ(2) °Ǥ롥ѸפȡֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפȤϡ̻֤ȶ֤ζ̤ƱͤˡäڤʬƵۤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
ϡϢѸ夲롥

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2013-05-22 Wed

#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer [sociolinguistics][bilingualism][me][terminology][chaucer][reestablishment_of_english][diglossia]

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) ǡѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia ȤƸڤؤν񤭸դ˥ƥե󥹸줬ؤäդ˱Ѹ줬ѤȤλȤʬΤʸǤ롥3줬ؤäƤΤ triglossia ȸƤ֤ΤΤ⤷ʤ
diglossia ȤǰѸǽƳΤϡҲؼ Ferguson Ǥ롥Ferguson (336) ˤѤ褦

DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.


ˤȤꡤFerguson diglossia 12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طȰ֤ŤƤȤơŵӥӥ졤ɸɥĸȥɥĸ졤襮ꥷ̱ꥷ ([2013-04-20-1]ε#1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡפ򻲾ȡˡե󥹸ȥϥ쥪4󤲤
diglossia γǰ᤿ˡ12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طˤȤɤޤ餺ۤʤ2줫ʤ岼طޤ diglossia γǥ뤬 Fishman ˤäƼȡ碌ƹ褦ˤʤäѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia ϡγ diglossia ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŵŪ diglossia ˤƤϡⶵֵ⡤ǥʸؤˤƾѼ (high variety) Ѥ졤ϫƯԤ侤ȤؤλؼФǤβá̱Ūʥ饸ȡ̡衤̱¯ʸؤˤƲѼ (low variety) ѤȤ롥⤷üԤλȤʬ餺դ路ʤǤդ路ʤѼѤȡˤϰ´Τߤʤ餺ˤäƤϴ롥󥰥ɤˤƤδ򤢤˯Chaucer äѼǤѸǡϾѼʬäʸؤ񤤤ΤǤ롥Wardhaugh (86) ϡChaucer diglossia ˤˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

You do not use an H variety in circumstances calling for an L variety, e.g., for addressing a servant; nor do you usually use an L variety when an H is called for, e.g., for writing a 'serious' work of literature. You may indeed do the latter, but it may be a risky endeavor; it is the kind of thing that Chaucer did for the English of his day, and it requires a certain willingness, on the part of both the writer and others, to break away from a diglossic situation by extending the L variety into functions normally associated only with the H. For about three centuries after the Norman Conquest of 1066, English and Norman French coexisted in England in a diglossic situation with Norman French the H variety and English the L. However, gradually the L variety assumed more and more functions associated with the H so that by Chaucer's time it had become possible to use the L variety for a major literary work.


Τˤ Chaucer Ϥ diglossia ˤäȤϡChaucer λޤǤˡdiglossia ˤ줦ޤǤ˱Ѹ줬̱ĤĤä򤹤Τ
ʤdiglossia ˴ؤƤϡ1960--90ǯˤ3000ʸ蘆줿ȤسȤƤϲŪʳǰäȤʥp. 31ˡ

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.
륤᥸󡦥ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2013-04-15 Mon

#1449. ˤơ [category][number][gender][tense][aspect][person][mode][terminology][sapir-whorf_hypothesis][linguistic_relativism]

ؤǤ (category) ȤѸ줬Ѥ롥ȤȤůѸǤꡤܸΡơפϡΡؽС٤Ρֹ϶ơפȤȤФȤˡѸ category ɥĸ Kategorie ȤơůؤΰˡůϺʰˤäΤȤ롥ϥꥷ katēgoríā Ǥꡤư katēgoreîn kata- (against) + agoreúein (to speak in the assembly) 롥ָξǾǧ줦Ūʳǰβߤʤפۤɤθ˴Ťơꥹȥƥ쥹ϡʬκǤŪʵꡤʤǹ೵ǰפθȯŸʹߡŪʰŪʸƱΤΤν°ࡦפȯŸƤ
Ѹ category ⡤ޤ16ůѸȤƥƥ줫Ƴ졤17դѸȤƻȤФߤǤϡOALD8 "a group of people or things with particular features in common" ȤꡤﲽѸȹͤƤ褤
ǤϡؤѤơפȤϲѸȤäơŪñʤࡦפθǻȤ櫓ǤϤʤǤϡŪƤζ򸫤Ƥߤ褦ʸˡǤʸˡ (grammatical category) ȤȤ뤬㤨п (number) ; (person) (tense) ˡ (mode) ʤɤ󤲤롥ư濴ȤŪޤˤƤ (gender or sex) ʤɸŪʤΤ⤢뤷ꡦ (definiteness) (aspect) ʤɤŪʤΤ⤢롥Ƥϱʸˡκܤˤ븶ǤꡤʸˡҤ˷礫ʤǰȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ褦ʵϤ뤬ǤϡŪƤ򤺤ФȤ񤷤Τ褷ƤΤϡBloomfield Ǥ롥ʲ˰Ѥ褦

Large form-classes which completely subdivide either the whole lexicon or some important form-class into form-classes of approximately equal size, are called categories. (270)


ʸˡ (gender) ǹͤƤߤȤ狼䤹̾ȤýȤȡ㤨Хե󥹸ˤϷŪŪʿ񤤤˱ơϤ礭ۤʤʤ2ʬ礬̤롥̾̾դ¾̾̾դζ̤δΤȤƤƤ֡Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥
category θŪˡŪˡǤϤʤůŪˡܶᤷƤ뤳ȤϡŪƤΤθ׹ͼľ뤷䤹Ǥ롥ˤĤƤ⡤Bloomfield Ф餷

The categories of a language, especially those which affect morphology (book : books, he : she), are so pervasive that anyone who reflects upon his language at all, is sure to notice them. In the ordinary case, this person, knowing only his native language, or perhaps some others closely akin to it, may mistake his categories for universal forms of speech, or of "human thought," or of the universe itself. This is why a good deal of what passes for "logic" or "metaphysics" is merely an incompetent restating of the chief categories of the philosopher's language. A task for linguists of the future will be to compare the categories of different languages and see what features are universal or at least widespread. (270)


Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

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2013-02-21 Thu

#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ [variety][elf][model_of_englishes][wsse][terminology][sociolinguistics][sobokunagimon]

2ȤƱѸؽݤɸȤѸѼ (the target variety of English) ϡۤȤɤξ硤"Standard English" ɸѸˤϤΤˤ "the Standard variety of English" ɽǤʤ¸ߤΤȻפǤ롥#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1]) ǸȤꡤvariety ȤǰΤޤʤΤ顤the Standard variety λؤΤƤȤʤ餶򤨤ʤȤϼǤ롥#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) εͽ̤ۤꡤɸѸʤѼޤ fiction Ǥ롥
fiction Ǥ뤳ȤˡɸѸ򲾤ꤹ뤳Ȥˤϰ̣롥Ȥ⡤Τ褦Ѽ¸ߤ򿮤Ƥդ򤷤ʤСѸؽɸŪ⡤Ѹ츦оݤޤ餺«ʤ㤨СQuirk et al. Ѹ쵭ҤΥåȤȤƤΤ "the common core" ȸƤǤΤǤꡤɸѸפȻؼƤΤ礭Ťʤ[2009-12-10-1]ε#227. ѸѼΥǥפ򻲾ȡˡޤǯELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ȤǰΩѸΥǥ˴ؤ (model_of_englishes) WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) ʤѼоȤ夬äƤʤǡɸѸȤ򤱤̤ʤ
λؼоݤª¸ߤΤǤ뤫顤ɸѸȤΤϻζȤTrudgill ϼΤ褦Ϳ

Standard English is that variety of English which is usually used in print, and which is normally taught in schools and to non-native speakers learning the language. It is also the variety which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts and other similar situations. The difference between standard and nonstandard, it should be noted, has nothing in principle to do with differences between formal and colloquial language, or with concepts such as 'bad language'. Standard English has colloquial as well as formal variants, and Standard English speakers swear much as others. (5--6)


ɤɤۤªɤʤΤȤꤢϤդŶ򤷤ƤۤʤαѸѲƤ븽ˤơɸѸϤޤޤ񤷤

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2013-02-05 Tue

#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics [sociolinguistics][terminology]

ε#1379. 2012ǯ٤Ф줿´ܡ ([2013-02-04-1]) ǡҲ (sociolinguistics) Τʤ macro-sociolinguistics ȸƤФ벼ʬ뤳Ȥ򼨺ФΤ micro-sociolinguistics 뤤϶ sociolinguistics ȤȤˤʤ뤬ΩᤰäƤϻξ롥
Ԥ macro-sociolinguistics sociology of language ȤΤ褦ˡȤδϢǤߤҲˤĤƤγؤǤ롥СʤȤƼҲλȤߤ餫ˤȤݤǤ롥Ԥ micro-linguistics 뤤϶Ǥ sociolinguistics ϡҲȤδϢǤߤγؤǤ롥ϡҲȤƸλȤߤ餫ˤ뤳ȤŪȤƤ롥Wardhaugh (12--13) ˰ѤƤ Coulmas (2) ɽڤСΰ㤤ϼΤ褦˸ľȤǤ롥

[M]icro-sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influences the way people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such as class, sex, and age. Macro-linguistics, on the other hand, studies what societies do with their languages, that is, attitudes and attachments that account for the functional distribution of speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, and replacement, the delimitation and interaction of speech communities.


⤦Ūˤߤȡmacro-linguistics ȤƤϡLabov (30) Ҥ٤褦ˡΤ褦ʤΤWardhaugh, p. 13 ¹ˡ

[Macro-linguistics] deals with large-scale social factors, and their mutual interaction with languages and dialects. There are many open questions, and many practical problems associated with the decay and assimilation of minority languages, the development of stable bilingualism, the standardization of languages and the planning of language development in newly emerging nations. The linguistic input for such studies is primarily that a given person or group uses language X in a social context or domain Y.


Ҳؤٳ Trudgill micro-linguistics macro-linguistics Τ˶̤褦ȤԤWardhaugh ξԤΩˤϲŪCoulmas (3) ˻դ򼨤ʤ顤ΰƤ (Wardhaugh 13)

There is no sharp dividing line between the two, but a large area of common concern. Although sociolinguistic research centers about a number of different key issues, any rigid micro-macro compartmentalization seems quite contrived and unnecessary in the present state of knowledge about the complex interrelationships between linguistic and social structures. Contributions to a better understanding of language as a necessary condition and product of social life will continue to come from both quarters.


ؤҲؤȯŸӾǤꡤ줬Ȥ߹蘆äҲؤϤʤ餽Ǥ롥ȤäơҲؤξץѡظФƤϤʤȤȤˤϤʤʤषĤʤȤ˱٤ǤϤʤ̵˶̤褦ȤƳؼԴ֤ս㤬ФƤƤȤ⤢ꡤ micro-linguistics macro-linguistics ϴˤϢ³ΤȤȤ館Ƥۤ褤褦˻פ롥
ʤܸؤʬǤϡָ ȤʬȤ˰ޤƤΤθؤǤϤޤڤʤʬǤꡤmacro-linguistics °ΰȤƥˡ¸ߤǤʲƣۤpp. 259--60ˡ

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Coulmas, F., ed. The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
Labov, W. "The Study of Language in its Social Context." Studium Generale 23 (1970): 30--87.
ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ

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2013-02-01 Fri

#1376. ﴱο [phonetics][terminology]

ȤʤɤǤλѤˡﴱ (speech organs) Ĵ (places of articulation) οޤǺܡؤ䲻ؤΤɤζʽˤǺܤƤ뤬ʲΥΥǤ O'Grady et al. p. 19 p. 23 ꡤ顼Ǥ Britannica "articulation: physical points of articulation" ꡥۤˤϡGoogle "vocal tract" դ̵οޤɤ

Vocal Tract
Sound-Producing System
Places of Articulation

ʲ˼ʲﴱνѸƤ

common namescientific nameadjective
lipslabialabial
teeth
dental
alveolar ridge
alveolar
(hard) palate
palatal
soft palatevelumvelar
uvula
uvular
upper throatpharynxpharyngeal
voiceboxlarynxlaryngeal
tongue tipapexapical
tongue bladelaminalaminal
tongue bodydorsum (back)dorsal
tongue root
radical


O'Grady, William, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, Janie Rees-Miller. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. (Companion Site based on the 5th edition available here.)
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-04-14-1]

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2013-01-29 Tue

#1373. variety Ȥϲ [variety][sociolinguistics][terminology]

ҲؤκǽפΥɤ1Ĥ variety Ѽ) 롥variety ˤĤƤϡvariety γƵȤ櫓#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ǵϼҲؼԤˤ򤤤ĤߤƤߤ褦
Wardhaugh (23) ¹Hudson (22) ˤ "a variety of language" ϡ"a set of linguistic items with similar distribution" Ǥ롥ˡFerguson (30) ϡ"any body of human speech patterns which is sufficiently homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic description and which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements or processes with broad enough semantic scope to function in all formal contexts of communication" 롥Ǥ⡤"similar" "sufficiently homogeneous" ȤɽѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤܤˤ錄봰Ʊ׵ᤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǴˤ䤫˻̤äƤ "variety" ȸƤФʤꡤˤ٤ variation ѰۡˤޤޤƤ뤳ȤϤषȤƤΤδ餹С¿ѼҲѤܤΤ⡤ʣ줫äƤˤ⤫餺 "a variety" Ǥ뤷⾮ñ̡㤨Ф¼θ䤢²θ "a variety" Ǥ롥
ʼҲ˸ؤǾѤƤ "variety" ȤϡˤǰǤ롥ޤ˴ˤơȤʤäƤ "a variety" ⤽¸ߤΤȤȤ顤ˤʤꤦۤɤǤ⡤Algeo #415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ȽҤ٤̤ꡤ Wardhaugh (23) ⼡ΰѤΤʤǧ̤ꡤ"variety" ȤѸͭѤϵʤ

[I]f we can identify such a unique set of items or patterns for each group in question, it might be possible to say there are such varieties as Standard English, Cockney, lower-class New York City speech, Oxford English, legalese, cocktail party talk, and so on. One important task, then, in sociolinguistics is to determine if such unique sets of items or patterns actually do exist. As we proceed we will encounter certain difficulties, but it is unlikely that we will easily abandon the concept of 'variety,' no matter how serious these difficulties prove to be.


Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ferguson, C. A. Language Structure and Language Use. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1972.

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2013-01-13 Sun

#1357. lexeme ʸǡˤȤϲ [lexeme][terminology][semantics][morphology][word][idiom][word][morpheme]

lexeme ʸǡˤϤΥ֥Ǥ⤿ޤ˽ФƤѸΤ褦Ȥ񤷤#22. ǥȱѸˡ ([2009-05-20-1]) ǤƤϡФȤޤǤϤʤĤαѸؼŵ򻲾ȤơɤΤ褦ʸñ̤Ǥ뤫lexeme ˤϤĤΥץ롥

(1) morpheme ʷǡˤ word ʸˤӤñ̤Ȥơmorpheme ϡ#886. ǤˤޤĤ̻Ū ([2011-09-30-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϤʤBloomfield θŵŪˤ "a linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to any other form" (Section 10.2) Ǥ롥word ϡ##910,911,912,921,922 Ǽ夲褦ˡ񤷤̣ͭŪñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥˤϰ㤤ʤlexeme Ʊͤ˷ñ̤Ǥ롥ηˤϰ̣տ路Ƥ뤬lexeme ϤޤǤηỌ̇̄ͻΤǤ뵭ΤηʬؤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τΰ㤤ϤɤˤΤ㤨Сunderstand 12Ĥη under- -stand Ȥ롥θΰ̣2ĤηǤΰ̣¤ˤϤʤäƤ餺̣ΤȤ1ĤβȸʤʤǤϡñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤Ȥ줤бƤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ʊͤˡput up with Ȥǥϡ3Ǥ3줫äƤ뤬̣ñ̤ȤƤϤϤ1ĤβǤ롥Ǥ⡤ñ̤Ọ̇̄ñ̤ȤäƤ롥ǡunderstand put up with ʬǤʤ1Ĥΰ̣ĤΤ顤Ūˤб1Ĥñ̤ꤹΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥줬 lexeme Ǥ롥 UNDERSTAND PUT UP WITH ϡ줾1Ĥ lexeme ȤƻȤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤälexeme ʸɽΤˡ
(2) 1ĤθΤߤ°Ȥơwater ˤ̾ư줬롥ĤޤꡤƱǤϤ뤬ۤʤ2Ĥθ°Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥̾ȤƤ water ưȤƤ water ̰뤳ȤǤ褦ˡword Ȥϰۤʤ lexeme Ȥñ̤ΩƤǤ롥ñ water ʣ waters ̾ lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥꡤ waterñ waters watered-ing watering ʤɤư lexeme ȤƤ WATER μ¸Ǥ롥
(3) ¸ۤʤޤȤᤢ뤿ɽȤơgo, goes, went, going, going Ϥ줾֤ۤʤ뤬ˤ lexeme GO Ǥ롥δ lexeme ϡheadword, citation form, lemma ʤɤȸƤؤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥

ľŪˤСˤơФ뤤ɤ߸ФȤϿƤꡤ̣ͿƤȻפ褦ʷñ̤ȤäƤФ褵̩񤷤ؼԡʳɡˤˤä͡󵯤ƤȤǤϡmorpheme, word, lexeme Τ褦ʸñ̤ɽ魯ѸΰǤ롥ʤlexeme Ȥñ̤ռԻ줿ŪʳؽѱѱѼȤơCambridge International Dictionary of English (1995) 󤲤Ƥ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-05-1]

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2012-12-18 Tue

#1331. äαƺ뤿νѸ [terminology][ame_bre][lexicology][lexeme]

äαƺˤϡ͡ʼΤϡ[2010-04-19-1]ε#357. American English or British English?פ򻲾ȡˡθäαƺ̡ڤΤˡ췲νѸƳȹͤʲ褦
ѸˤϱƤѼ郎̤ȸ롥Ѽ򤽤줾 "the British variety of English", "the American variety of English" ȸƤ֤Ȥˤ褦ʤû̷줾 "British English" Ǥ "American English" Ǥˡ2ĤѼδ֤ˤ¿ "lexical variation" ʸŪѰۡˤѻ롥ѰۤΰĤҤȤĤ "a (lexical) variable" ʡʸŪѹˤȸƤ֤Ȥˤ롥㤨С"a rest of time" ʵٲˡˤ̣ΤˡŵŪ˥ꥹѸǤ holiday Ѥ뤬ꥫѸǤ vacation Ѥ롥ΤȤΰ̣˴ؤѼ֤ variable ϡ "the British variant" ʥꥹѸǤΰ۷ holiday ȡ"the American variant" ʥꥫѸǤΰ۷ vacation 2Ĥΰ۷ΤɤȤƵҤǤ롥򼡤1Τ褦ʵˡɽ魯Ȥˤ褦

1. ("a time of rest"): BrE holiday ~ AmE vacation


Ūѹˤ̼ΤΤ⤢롥pants ȤϡꥹѸǤ "underpants" ʲˤ̣뤬ꥫѸǤ "trousers" ʥܥˤ̣롥ϼ2Τ褦˵ҤǤ롥

2. (pants): BrE "underpants" ~ AmE "trousers"


ξѹ ( ) ǰϤळȤȤΤʸ "signifiant" 򡤰Ǥäʸ "signifié" ɽ魯ΤȤ롥뤤ϡ̤ѸƳСΤʸ "lexeme" ʸǡˤ򡤰Ǥäʸ "sememe" ʰյǡˤɽ魯ΤȤ롥
ŪѰۤΤʤǤ⡤1ΥפѹϡƱ sememe Фưۤʤ lexeme ѼбΤǡ"a synonymic variable" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥2ΥפѹϡƱ lexeme Фưۤʤ sememe ѼбΤǡ"a homonymic variable" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
ۤˤ⡤underground subway δطΤ褦ˡѼ֤ǤȤ "synonymic variables" Ǥ⤢ "homonymic variables" Ǥ⤢褦ʸ췲뤬Τ褦ʸ췲 "a lexical class (field) of variables" ƤɽǤfirst floor, second floor, third floor ⡤˴ؤ "a lexical class of variables" ȸƤǤ褤
ʾΤ褦ˡ"variation", "a (lexical) variable", "a variant", "a lexeme", "a sememe", "a synonymic variable", "a homonymic variable", "a lexical class of variables" ȤѸƳ뤳Ȥǡäαƺʣʾ뤳ȤΩĤΤǤϤʤʤǤ lexeme sememe ȤѸˡϡ̣Ѥݤȸ̩ˤϰۤʤäƤǽ뤬Ԥ variant ˤ signifiant 򡤸Ԥ signifié ؤΤȤäλ򤷤ƤСбȤ˻Ȥ "word" ʸˤȤѸѤ"lexeme" ʤɤФΤϡɬפǤС#22. ǥȱѸˡ ([2009-05-20-1]) ǿ줿褦˥ǥΤ褦ñ̤ˤб뤫Ǥ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2015-04-22-1] [2012-12-30-1]

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2012-11-23 Fri

#1306. for the nonce [etymology][inflection][metanalysis][terminology][sir_orfeo][oed][dative][genitive][ormulum]

for the nonce ʤäơ¤ϡʬˤȤ礬롥The team is called "the Lions," at least for the nonce. Τ褦˻Ȥ롥ɽˤϡ괧 the ΤĤƤζ޷̾Ĥߤ졤츻Ū˶̣
ߤη֤ľܤˤĤʤϡ1200ǯ餤κȤ Ormulum ˤ forr þe naness ȤƸ롥3θƬ n ϡľ괧νѸǤñͿʶ޷ þen θ n ʬ (metanalysis) 줿ΤǤꡤ촴ΰȺƲᤵƸߤ˻äƤ롥ĤƤñͿʶ޸ճʤȤDzŪĤäƤǤ롥
ζϡŪˤ̣Ūˤ⸽ѸǤ *for the once б뤫Τ褦˸뤬Ūˤ3 onceone's [2009-07-18-1]ε#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲפ򻲾ȡˤѸ°ʤ˴Ťɽľͳ褹Ȳ򤹤ˤ롥OED ˤС°ʷϳΤ˴ŪˤϴͿζϡषűѸ˸ to þam anum νѸ to þan ane ʤɤӤ٤one ͿʤޤɽȤƻϤޤäΤǤϤʤȤ夷°ʷϡͿʷִ줿Τȹͤ롥ִͳȤƤϡְ١פ̣Τ°ʤͳ褹 anes, ones ¤ǡͿʤͳ褹 ane, ene Ѥ줿Ȥ顤ξԤθؤäΤǤϤʤ
ѸǤϡʬϤη֤η֤¸ƤꡤMED ˤ ōnes (adv.) θ5 nōnes (n.(1)) θ1ξˡζ礬ϿƤ롥ԤˤСߤ׻ˡפȡ¤ϡפθΤۤˡոȤ "indeed" ۤɤθ䡤ΧŪȤƤΰ̣δˡȵܤƤ롥դ뤤ȤƤBliss Sir Orfeo (Auchinleck MS, ll. 51--56)

Þe king hadde a quen of priis
Þat was y-cleped Dame Heurodis,
Þe fairest leuedi, for þe nones,
Þat miȝt gon on bodi & bones,
Ful of loue & of godenisse;
Ac no man may telle hir fairnise.


Ȥưʳˤ⡤nonce ˤϡ׻ΡפȤƻȤƤˡ롥̾ȤȤ˰ʣơؤνѸȤ nonce-word ׻ˡnonce-form ׻ˤʤɤȻȤˡνϡOED Ի James Murray 1884ǯ OED Ǥ񤭤ѤȤǤ롥

1884 N.E.D. Fasc. 1, p. x, Words apparently employed only for the nonce, are, when inserted in the Dictionary, marked nonce-wd.


OED ˤλݤܤܤƤΤ顤OED ˤ뼫ˡȤäƤ褤

Bliss, A. J., ed. Sir Orfeo. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1966.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-16-1] [2014-11-11-1]

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2012-10-06 Sat

#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ [terminology][verb][grammar][history_of_linguistics][etymology][dionysius_thrax][sobokunagimon]

ε#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1]) ˰³ʸˡѸˤĤơѸ̤ˤ뤳ȤʸˡѸˤϰ̣ǤʤΤ¿㤨С¾ư "transitive verb" ư "intransitive verb" ȸƤǤ뤬transitive ȤϲΤȤؤΤ
transitive ϡ츻Ūˤϥƥ transitīvus ̤ꡤδΤȤʤư transīre (trans- "over" + īre "to go") Ǥ롥transitive ϡΤȤ "going over, passing over" ۤɤΰ̣Ȥʤ롥OED "transitive, a. (n.)" θӤʸ1ĤǧȡΤ褦ˤä

2. a. Gram. Of verbs and their construction: Expressing an action which passes over to an object; taking a direct object to complete the sense.
. . . .
1590 J. Stockwood Rules Constr. 64 A verbe transitiue .. is such .. as passeth ouer his signification into some other thing, as when I say, 'I loue God'.


顤ưɽ魯ưαƶ¾ΤΡŪλؼΡˤءֵڤ֡ספȤǡ"going over, passing over" ʤΤȤ狼롥
verbum transitīvum "transitive verb" ȤѸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤȤ⡤ưΤΤȤ館ϡ2˸奮ꥷʸˡ路 Apollonius Dyscolus ˵롥Dionysius Thrax Techne Grammatike Ѿ Priscian Υƥʸˡˤ礭ʱƶͿʸˡؼԤǤ롥Dyscolus ϡ̾ʤγʡˤưδطܤưˡ transitive, intransitive, passive ؤʬषػˤˤ Dyscolus ɾRobins (47) ѤƤ

Syntax was dealt with extensively by Apollonius Dyscolus writing in Alexandria in the second century A. D. He wrote a large number of books, only some of which survive, and it would appear that despite earlier writings on Greek syntax his was the first attempt at a comprehensive syntactic description and analysis of the Greek language. His importance, together with that of the Téchnē, was realized by his successors, and the great Latin grammarian, Priscian, some three centuries later referred to him as 'the greatest authority on grammar', and explicitly imposed Apollonian methods on his own full-scale description of the Latin language.


Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.

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