ɸؾνפƶǤ롥ؤǤϡΰ (dialect area) ʬΤ (isogloss) ϿȤ¿⡤ˤäƶʬ줿ΰ⡤ؽѾΥեˤʤ
ȤμդˤĤƤϡ#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1])#4114. äѸˤɤȤ館뤫 ([2020-08-01-1])#4119. isogloss ʤ heterogloss ([2020-08-06-1])#4120. isogloss heterogloss δط ([2020-08-07-1]) ʤɤεǤ⼨Ƥ
ϡϢƥꥫѸˤĤƹͻ Kretzschmer ʸɤǤߤμݤϼ¤Ǥ롥ΰϡɤΤȤؼԤμŪȽǤ˴ŤƤˤʤȤȤ
. . . through most of the twentieth century maps also commonly employed the interpretive device of the "isogloss," which added a theoretical dimension to the models underlying them which actually (in my view) undercut the validity of the maps. As I have written elsewhere . . . , an isogloss is supposed to be the "limit of occurrence" for a given linguistic feature, but there are problems in deciding what that means. Most often, isogloss users have drawn lines where they thought they ought to go, often when there were "isolated occurrences" of the feature on the wrong side of the line, or even when there was just a change in frequency of occurrence across the line, or when the line was generalized or smoothed in other ways.
Kretzschmer ˤСΰϼΤȤ¸ߤΤǤϤʤޤؾιʪȤȤˤʤ롥Kretzschmer ΰβͤꤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ褦ʳǰѤƤؼԤ¤ҴŪ "describe" ƤΤǤϤʤŪ "interpret" ƤΤƤСäϤʤȤ
夲ƶϰˤĤƤΰ⤤¾θѼˤĤƤŪƤϤޤ٤ƤθѼϥեʤΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1]) ȡ
Kretzschmer, William A., Jr. "Mapping Southern English," American Speech 2 (2003): 130--49.
ε#4119. isogloss ʤ heterogloss ([2020-08-06-1]) ǡisogloss Ф heterogloss ȤؾγǰѸƳФȤʤ륭ɤˤĤƤϡŪ˹ͤƤ٤Ȥꤽ
Chambers and Trudgill (104--05) ˤȡξԤϸߤǽǤꡤʬ˴ؤۤʤɡ줬ͥ줿ȤǤϤʤȵƤ롥μݤ⤹ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ܤƤ2Ĥΰ۷ꡤȤơ¾ȤϿ˥ץåȤ뤳Ȥͤ롥¤ʬۤܤˤơؼԤʬΤ˶Ȥ뤬κݤ2̤ΰǽǤ롥1ĤϡκޤΤ褦˰۷2ΰδ֤ζ֡ʡӶ֡פȸƤǤˤ1⤦1Ĥϡơΰ۷ΰβ¤Ⱦ¤δѻǤ2ܤǤ롥Ԥ isoglossԤ heterogloss ιͤȤȤˤʤ롥
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isogloss |
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(dialectology) Ǥϡΰ۷ (variants) ʬۤϿ˥ץåȤƤߤŪɽФѤ롥۷֤Ĥ礦ȤϡʤϿˤ϶餷ΤФ롥ϡˤʤ館 (isogloss) ȸƤФ롥
㤨С˾ͭ̾1ĤȤơ#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) Ǽɥĸ maken maxen ˴ؤΤ褦Ͽޤܸʬ̤ꡤ2Ҳ (sgcs) ФȷФƤʤ줤ʬ䤵褦˰ܰƤ롥
פϰ츫ʬ䤹ǰѸ¤ϤʤΤԤǤ롥1Ĥˤϡɤñܤ뤫ˤΰۤʤäƤ뤫#1532. ȾóȻްռ (1) ([2013-07-07-1]) ɽǼȤꡤ嵭2Ҳܤ˴ؤϡmaken/maxen ˤȤϿȤʤ뤬ik/ich ˤȤФޤ̤ξ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1]) ƱͤǤ롥ɤñŻ뤹٤ȤˤĤƤϡ#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) 褦ˡ٤λɸϤȤϤǽŪˤؼԤŪȽǤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
⤦1ĤϡñܤǤ顤Ϥ꤭줤1Ͽ˰Ȥϸ¤ʤȤǤ롥㤨Сmaken ǤϤޤäѻʤȤСǤϤʤΤ鷺¦ǤѤƤƱ褦 maxen Τ鷺¦ǤѤƤϤǤ롥ϿǤΤʤ1ƤȤƤ⡤ζϸ¤ˤƤäӤȤ¸ߤƤϤǤ롥ĤޤꡤȤ϶ΰȤäۤ褤ɤ̤ȤơζΰǤξ۷ѤƤ롥
maken maxen λʬۤʬ1ĤȤϡ۲줿Τˤʤ¤ˤ make ¤ maxen ̸¤Ρ碌2ܤꡤξԤ˶ޤ줿Ӥ¸ߤǰƬˤʤФʤʤСӤ֤ɤĤ֤1ܤΤ褦˸ΤȤȤؼԤϡư۷¤̸¤ơΤȤ"isogloss" 椵̣ "heterogloss" ȸƤǤ롥ˤĤơѸؤθ Williamson (489) ˼Ƥߤ褦
An isogloss is a cartographic construct, intended to show the geographical boundary between the distributions of two linguistic features. But the isogloss is problematic: it often distorts what typically happens when the bounds of two distributions meet, by sanitizing or idealizing the co-occurrence of the bounds. There is rarely a clear-cut line between the distributions of features. Rather, they may often overlap, so that there are areas when both forms are used to a greater or lesser extent in neighboring communities or used by the members of one community and understood by those of another. Where the boundaries of features meet, we find zones of transition. It is these zones of transition, shifting across space, which define the dialect continuum.
. . . . An isogloss makes assumptions about what is or is not there. . . . I have resorted to a variant of the isogloss --- the "heterogloss". A heterogloss is a line which attempts to demarcate the bounds of the distribution of a single feature. Where the bounds of the distributions of two features meet, there will be two boundary lines --- one for each feature. Heteroglosses allow us to see where there are overlaps between the distributions.
Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤϢ³ (dialect_continuum) θ¤Ǥ⡤"heterogloss" ȤǰѸƳϽפǤ롥Ϣơ#4114. äѸˤɤȤ館뤫 ([2020-08-01-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Williamson, Keith. "Middle English: Dialects." Chapter 31 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 480--505.
(dialect) ɤߤ뤫ȤϡʼҲ˸ؤθŵŪʥơޤǤ롥ˤϡζ̤Ȥ¦̤⤢СɤζʬȤ¦̤⤢cf. #4031. ָ줫פεåȡ ([2020-05-10-1])#1501. Ϣ³Τϰ褫 ([2013-06-06-1])ˡ⤽ȤϸŪˤǤΤȤܼŪ䤤⤢롥
Ѹ˸ǤѸ (me_dialect) ĴƤߤʬθҤ1ͤȤäƤ褤 Williamson (481) ѸȤϲȤ˿Ū˸ڤƤ롥νȯȤʤꤽƶ٤Ŧ¿ΤǡĤѤƤ
The most significant and paradoxical finding of dialect geography has been the non-existence of dialects, the objects which it purports to study. A "dialect" is a construct: a reification of some assemblage of linguistic features, defined according to criteria established by the dialectologist. These criteria may be linguistic, extra-linguistic, or some combination of these two kinds.
A (Middle English) dialect can be considered to be some assemblage of diatopically coherent linguistic features which co-occur over all or part of their geographical distributions and so delineate an area within the dialect continuum. Adding or taking away a feature from the assemblage is likely to alter the shape of this area: addition might reduce the area's size, subtraction, increase it. Any text which contains that assemblage of features can be considered as having its provenance within that area.
Linguistic variation across space exists because languages undergo change as a natural consequence of use and transmission from generation to generation of speakers. A linguistic change takes place in a community and subsequently becomes disseminated through time and across space as the next generation of speakers and neighboring communities adopt the change. A "dialect continuum" emerges from the language contacts of speakers in neighboring communities as they share some features, but not others. A continuum is thus made up of a set of overlapping distributions of linguistic features with varied geographical extents --- some extensive, some local. A continuum is not static and is constantly shifting more or less rapidly through time.
ä2Ĥ3ĤΰѤϡϢ³ (dialect_continuum) ΤȤʤäƤ롥Ѥϡ#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1]) Ȥ̤
Williamson, Keith. "Middle English: Dialects." Chapter 31 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 480--505.
ϿϿʤľܤβڵĤäƤʤŤθ첻ˤƿꤹ뤫Ȥ䤤ϡѤʵǤʤ顤˸ؤˤȤäܼŪʲǤ롥Ѹˤˤ뤳βˤĤƤϡޤǤŪʴ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2) ([2011-05-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
оݤȤʤˤäƤ⡤ΤѤǤʤˤϰ㤤롥 Smith (40) ȤơȤ櫓ѸȯꤹˡܤƤߤ5ۤɵƤ롥
a) "reconstruction", both comparative (dealing with cognate languages) and internal (dealing with paradigmatic variation);
b) analysis of "residualisms" surviving in modern accents of English;
c) analysis of the writings of spelling-reformers and phoneticians from the Early Modern English period, supplying information about usages closer to the Middle English period than now;
d) analysis of contemporary verse-practices, based on the analysis of rhyme, alliteration and meter; and
e) analysis of spellings.
ս˥ȤäƤe) ΥڥʬϤȤΤȴ뤯餤ΤȤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸɽʸɸ֤ޥե٥åȤѤƽƤʾ塤ñΥڥͤˤΤǤ롥ѸȯȥڥδطͤƤߤʬ褦ˡڥľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤäơѸˤƤⴰľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤȤŪɤƤɬפȤʤ롥ǤľǤϤʤȤϤʤȤŪʷȯɽ綠ȤƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褵ǤꡤɤΤ褦ľǤʤΤɤΤ餤ŪʤΤˤĤƤϡʸηϤ䥹ڥηϤξܺ٤ʬϤ̤Ƥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥
d) ϱʸѤǤ롥ѸαʸϡȤ櫓ˤΦ鿷⤿餵줿ӱ (rhyme) ɤӱξڵϡȤ櫓첻μ̤䶯֤˴ؤ¿ξͿƤ롥űѸδƬ (alliteration) ѸˤϱߤΤΡ濴˺ĤꡤѸλҲ䶯֤˴ؤҥȤͿ³Ƥ롥ޤʸϡ嵭εӱƬȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤫DZΧ (meter) μǤϤȯ˼ͿƤ롥
c) ϡ³Ѹ˻˾ܳŪ˸Ƥ벻ؼԤˤ롤ȯˤĤƤΥȤ˰͵ˡǤ롥ΥȤϤޤǶѸΡʼȤƵŪʡȯˤĤƤ줬Τ˿ǤСȯˤĤƤ礭ʥҥȤȤʤŪʲѲħƤСϡʶѸȯˤջϡѸȯˤǽޤ롥
b) ḽμŪˤϡ˸Ť¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥ּΤܤΤ˶ּäƤ롤ȤˡϢơ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Ǹ a) ϡϢȤ (comparative_linguistics) ˴ŤƷ (reconstruction) ŪƷˤŪʿˡǤ롥ƷȤȡʸΤʤθˡȻפ뤫⤷ʤʸǧűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƤڵηΤ˽ʬѤ롥
Ѹȯθϡ嵭Τ褦ʿμˡǿʤƤƤꡤǤܤȤ餫ˤƤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
#3774. ͧǤιֱֱѸˤ鸫븽ѸפΤΤ餻 ([2019-08-27-1]) ǤΤ餻Ȥꡤ轵ˤ錄äͧˤƱǤäޤ5νʳ鹭ͧĹĹˤϤäˤʤäƤޤϲγޤơȯȿѸ졦ܸˤĤƹäĤȤǤޤ
ˤϡֱѸˤDzѸѤʵȤǤäνΤۤǤϡüԤγŪʡѤʵפꡤˤĤƱѸˤδ顤뤤Ϥ¾δǤޤä˸줴Ȥ˴ѻ֥פȤ֥եפ˴ؤƤϡθκƲβˤޤǻۤơڤäǤޤʸΡ֥եפˤĤƤϡfetishism γƵȡˡ
2ܤˤϡֱѸꤷơȤϲȤŪ꤫ϤᡤܸѸˤɸȽˤĤäޤǤȯʰո⿷ʻ뤳ȤǤޤ
ΤȤơθåӺƲޤޤơä줿Ȱ˱ѸȤϡˤĤơ뤤ܸˤĤơ˸뤳ȤǤȻפޤͭյʲǤƴդޤ
äǤΤǡֱѤ饤ɻåץɤƤޤ
ֱ (1): ѸˤDzѸѤʵ
ֱ (2): Ѹ
831ڡˤ14?1791ˤ10?12ˡͧˤơֱѸˤ鸫븽Ѹפꤹ2ιֱԤʤޤϡYMCAʸ33ǤΰǤ
绨ĤʱǤϤޤϡѸ˴ؤ͡ѤʵŪ˼夲Ѹˤδ褷ƤȤݤäʤͽǤֱθȾˤϡäƤ볧εդ˵ƤȤȤͤƤޤϢơƱݤܥ֥#3677. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵפƤߤޤ ([2019-05-22-1])뤤 sobokunagimon γƵ⤴
2ܤΥåϡѸˤĤƹͤޤ⤽ȤϲȤϤɤۤʤΤȤäϤᡤܸνȤĤġɤäƤ븽ѸϰΤƤߤޤ졦λࡤ̡͡ʱѸ졤ȤƤαѸΤĵῴϤȱϤʤɤ˿ʤ顤ѸˤȤɤޤ餺졦¿ˤĤƹͤƤȻפޤε̤ơ䤿ؤӡѤƤɸѸ줬ˤƤɤΤ褦Ω֤ˤ뤫褯ʬ褦ˤʤȻפޤαѸȤդ礤ͤǻͤˤʤϤǤ˴ؤƤϡdialect world_englishes ʤɤεȤ
49ΤȤˤʤ뤬俷ʹī11̤ˡܸ졡ʿѲפꤹʸǺܤƤԤϡܸؤȤǡ̾ΰͺǤ롥μҲؤιֵ礤˳ؤФƤŪΤʬ̾դˤ긽ݤʬ䤹⤷ƤΤ̥ϤäβǤϡμҲŪͤʬפҲ𤵤ƤֲʤʤʤޤʬबǤפȤääƤλͥϪȤ櫓ʢμȤǤϤäȳФƤޤˡܸμҲŪͤ¤ˤ줤ɽʬǤ롥
| | ؤɾ | Ȥ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ǥо | ? | ޥʥ | ͥ |
| 2 | Ҥо | Ω | ̸ξΩ | |
| 3 | ڤо | ?ʿ | ץ饹 | ̸ͥ |
ȸƤ֤뤤Ϥ̾ɽ蘆ƤϲȤϡҲŪ˿Ǥ롥̾ȡ줬ɤθؼ뤫ȤŪطǤ롥
ܤξ硤̸ȬŻʤɤξ줬Ĥ뤳ȤϾΤǡ¾ָ̾ü̱̾̾²̾פΤ褦˽ǰ̾ܡפǤ줤˰פΤǡܸפȸƤ֤Ȥ˲꤬ʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤcf. #3457. ܤξǴ졦 ([2018-10-14-1])ˡΤ褦˽ǰ̾ۤܰפϡǤȤȤΤäƤɬפ롥
եꥫʿϰϤȤꡤճ˻פ뤫⤷ʤ衼åѽǤ졤üԡȡ̱²ϰפäƤȸƾΤ뤫ȤϡȤ˿ˤʤΤcf. #1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1])ˡȤСܥ֥Ǥϡ#1659. ޥɥ˥μҲء ([2013-11-11-1]) #3429. ޥɥ˥ο̾ ([2018-09-16-1]) ǥޥɥ˥ʸˤˤĤƤ#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]) Ǥϵ桼ν̾夲Ƥ
ܥ֥δؿǤȶʤȤǤСֱѸפȤƾΤؤΤȤȤѲƤűѸˤϡ"English" ϥɤäƤޥ췲νŪ˻ؤƤѸˤϡθüԤϥɰʳǤ⡤ʬŪˤǤϤ쥹åȥɡ륺ɤǤѤ褦ˤʤꡤ"English" λؼоݤŪŪˤޤä˶ѸˤƤϡѸϥ֥ƥ礫ӽФơ͡Ѽޤ "English" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤꡤǤϥꥫѸ䥤ɱѸϤȤϤǹԤʤƤԥѸޤǤ⤬ "English" ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ֱѸפεŪطǯȺȤǤۤʤäƤ롥
ʤ "English" Ȥ̾λؤϰϤѲˤĤƤ semasiological ʹͻդ A ȸƤФƤѼ郎Ȥ B ȸƤФ褦ˤʤäȤ onomasiological Ƥ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤåȥ˺դѸѼϡ15ˤϤޤ "Inglis" 1ѼȤߤʤƤ15Ⱦ "Scottis" ȾΤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥 "Scottis" Ȥϡ衤ѸȤϱ椫ʤȸɤ°륲ؤƤˤ⤫餺Ǥ롥ʿ (57) Ŧ̤ꡤΤ褦ʸ̾θطʤˤϡɬ䤽ôΥǥƥƥѲ롥
ťåĸϡ졻ǯ켷ǯޤǽåĸ졤åĸˤĤäȤ礭Ѳϡ˸Ƥ̾ѤäȡʤꥹƥScottis Scottish θťåĸ۷Scots Scottis ֲάˤȸƤФ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ĤƥƥȤդϤ餫˥ϥɡʤȥɡˤΥؤƤåȥϥȷӤĤƤȤɿͤϡθѼθƤ̾ϥƥǤȼĥϤϤäȤǧžǤäƥϤʸϥʳθؤ褦ˤʤäϥåȥɤθŪʥǥƥƥžȤƤΤǤ롥
ȸ̾εۤɡƼҲŪϤʤ
ʿ رѸθ1500ǯˡ١̼ҡ2016ǯ
λˤĤơ(language_death) γƵˤƤ椬ˤŪʾˤʣ뤬ǧΤƤȤϤʤ1011ȯԤKODOMOʹˡ꤬夲ƤΤǡƤñ˾Ҳ𤷤
졦λϥͥĴǧԤʤäƤ뤬2009ǯˤС̸ϡ־ǤδˤƿפȤƤ롥ߡ̳ƻ13ͤۤɥ̤ο͡餷ƤȤ뤬̸ή礦äΤ10ͰʲȤ롥
ޤ־Ǥδפˤ졦ȤƤϡȬŻ졤Ϳ졤졤Ƭʤˤߡ˸졤졤ܸŸ졤Ȭ줬Ƥ롥ǯNHKϥɥޡɤ٤Ǥϡα̤ǡդ˻뤬դ줿Ȥˤʤä¾̺ҤϤν־ǤδפȤʸģʤɤĴ¸ʤƤ롥
ܤܤȡ졦λϤ˿Ǥ롥ͥˤ7000ۤɤΤʤǡ2500θ줬ǤδˤȤͳȤƤϡҳʶ衤̱ϲԻؤοͤΰưʤɤ졤ưפǤϤʤ100ǯ֤400θ줬Ǥ˾ǤȤ졤ν礵롥
ϢơȤ櫓#276. ˤǴδ٥ ([2010-01-28-1])#277. ʤξǤˤΤ ([2010-01-29-1])#280. Τ˴Ϣ륵ȡ ([2010-02-01-1])#1786. 츢ȸλࡤλ ([2014-03-18-1]) Ȥ줿
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κȤäƤ⡤켫Τˤ͡ʥפ롥ˤäơʸƤۤʤ⤢СΩäꤿγʤɡҲŪ°ۤʤ⤢롥ˤäơΤȯŸƤʸϤΥäƤɽμˤ⡤ˤäư㤤ߤ롥
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头Ȥ˽դôѤäƤǤϤΤΤϡۤԤ䲦²˸¤Ƥϡ깭¯ο͡ˤΤˬ褦ˤʤꡤḽˤƤ϶ȯŸȤȤ˽դϽ̱˳ƤäդôȤ¦̤ˤƤ⡤¬αѸˤȤ
ǤϡΤ褦˻ȤֱѸˡפȤϲؤΤֱѸפΤΤƱ褦ˡֱѸˡפ⡤ʤ١եʤΤȻפѸˤϡñʤѸȤ˴ؤ¤λŪʵҤǤϤʤϸߤ˷ӤĤˤ̵Τ̵٤θɤΤؤȲȤӤĤİ٤ʤΤǤϤʤݥȤϤ˷֤櫓ǤϤʤȤȤˤϡ˸뤿ιפۤ˸ȤȤϡ餯¤β˿ȿǤƤϤȤ˾ʤ顥
18--19 Industrial Revolution ʻȳ̿ˤϡѹҲι¤礭ѤμҲŪʵϡüŪˤ (traditional dialects) ԻѼ (urban varieties) ؤΰܹԤȤäƤ褤̡͢ʤȯãˤꡤ͡ιưͼҲŪͥåȥѤꤷϰˤŪʿʹִطλޤꡤοʿ (dialect_levelling) ȶ̸첽 (koinéization) ʹԤǡϤ˸줿巿ԻԤϰҲεῴϤȤʤꡤʤԻѼ郎ޤƤԻѼϰ°Ҳ궯ȿǤ뷹ǡȤϰۤʤ¸ߤǤ롥
Gramley (181) դλʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
[The Industrial Revolution and the transportation revolution] were among the most significant social changes of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Partly as a prerequisite for and partly as an effect of industrialization there were fundamental changes in transportation. First, in the period after 1750 there was the establishment of turnpikes, then canals, and finally railroads. Among their consequences was the development of regional and supra-regional markets and, concomitant with this, greater labor force mobility in a money rather than barter economy with the potential for consumption. It hardly seems necessary to point out that this led to a weakening of the rural traditional dialects and an upsurge of new urban varieties in the process of dialect leveling or koinéization.
As industrialization continued, new centers in the Northeast (mining) and in the Western Midlands (textiles in Manchester and Birmingham and commerce in Liverpool) began to emerge. Immigration of labor from "abroad" also ensured further language and dialect contact as Irish workers found jobs in the major projects of canal building in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and then in the building of the railways. Enclaves of Irish came into being, especially in Liverpool. Despite linguistic leveling the general distinctions were retained between the North (now divided more clearly than ever between the English North and Scotland), the East Midlands and the now industrializing West Midlands, and the South. The emergence of a new, mostly working-class, urban population in the North in the nineteenth century was accompanied by a literature of its own. Pamphlets, broadsides, and almanacs showed local consciousness and pride in vernacular culture and language. As the novels of Elizabeth Gaskel demonstrate, language --- be it traditional dialect or working-class koiné --- was a marker of class solidarity.
Τ褦ˡѹζḽŪʼҲŪѼΤϡȤƻȳ̿λʪȤäƤ褤
ϢȤơ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])#2028. ܤȥɤˤξ ([2014-11-15-1])#2023. England θѸʬ (3) --- Modern Dialects ([2014-11-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
̤ if ʲΡˤꡥҲؤǤ "Language is a dialect with an army and a navy." ȤƤ褦ˡζ̤ϤФХХå˹ȤĤƤ뤫ݤǷޤ뤳Ȥ¿ź1ˤʤäѼ郎ŪΩˤä1ؤȡ־ʡפȤȤäεդޤä (cf. #2006. ḽ衼åѤǼΧƤ ([2014-10-24-1])) ⤤ĤܹΩȤʤ뤳ȤȤС餿줬θѸȤʤ
ΥͥϻҲؤιֵʤɤǤ褯夲ΤΩ˺ݤƺѤȸޤײ (language_planning) ˤĤơŪĤޤȤϤʤäۤǥ֥饦Ƥ夬⤷ܤΩ٤ȤܤߤĤ p. 58 ˡ̱θؤɽפθѸޤΥߥ졼⤵Ƥ⤷ΤǰѤ褦
ꥸʥλܺȤơѸפȤݤȯۤޤϰˤäƤϤޤäۤʤȤʤ뤳Ȥ顤ĤƤΡ쥳ȥСפäˤɸȤʤƤޤŷȾΤ줿夫顤٤ƤȥꥢǡﮡʤΤˤ뾦Τı߳˿ʤʤ顤¡פ»ʤȤΤʤߥ˥ġȤƵǽ³Ƥ쥳ȥФħ̱ѤȤǤ
ѸˤܹɸѡΩμҲưࡼ˷³̤ؤθդޤƽϸǿƤޤƤ졦Ÿ졦ʤɤϡƽ֤Υߥ˥ǸͤʤǥåȤθơѸ˽ऺ밷ǧ٥ˤȤɤ뤳Ȥˤޤ
ʤߤˡס쥳ȥСסܹɸפˤդƤ롥
ܸ²Ͻܸɤΰɤ2ʬɤʬƤθԤ¿ϡܤʬۤɡܤʬۤ¸ɡ彣ʬۤɤȲΰɤ4ʬɤʬΩȤäƤ롥פ¸ɤΤʤˤ췲ΤƤ̾Ρ쥳ȥС졤ʤɤ롥 (58)
쥳ȥͻϺ桤ṾξͤޤäܺξԡDZ߳˾ԤˡǫۣʸȤȯãΤ쥳ȥСפȤƤ롥˭Ҥ̾ؤܤ٤̾ȤʤäͷӤˤĹǥ徦ͤɽ֤ܤפʤɤΤ롥(58)
ܹɸܹɸϡȺäޤ줿ϰäˤʤäƤ롥NHKˤڤ(59)
ʤ7ĤνޤȤΤϥϥȻȤȤˤʤäƤ2010ǯνǤȤݥȡˡ
Ωͤԡˡ夬⤷ܤΩ١ޥϥ2010ǯ
ʪˤˤĤơĤˤּȤϲפɤߤΤȤʽ˷Ǻܤ褦ʺǤŪʪϡ֤ιβǼͳ˸ۤǤ뽸ġפǤ롥ϰŪΥˤʪŪﳵǰȤ٤ΤǤꡤΤ˼䤹Ȥ
ˤĤդ٤ϡ¸ŪȤϤʤäƤʤȤ (24) Ҥ٤褦ˡʪŪﳵǰϡҤθ뤫ʤȤäŪ뤤ϻŪǰǤäơ¸Ụ̄礤ʳǰǤסѤСҤθƤߤƽơ줬뤫Ԥ뤫ʬȤ̣ǡ¸Ūˤɤ夤ƤʤȤȤǤ롥Ǥϡﳵǰϡ¸ŪˤǤʤȤСŪʳǰȤΤ (22) ۩
ϲޤʹ֤ǧŪʳǰǤäơ¸ŪʳǰǤҴŪʳǰǤʤΤϥ֥ȥॷȥ塞뤤ϥȥ̤μȤǧΤ뤬κݡ2δ֤¸ŪˤĤǤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ơ (32) ϡּФƸ̩ʤΤϡ郎ʲ뤳Ȥɬη̤ʤΤǤפȷǤ롥
ʪؤؤؤڤؤ褦ȸζ̡뤤ϸζ̤ϡʼҲ˸ؤƤǤꡤΤ褦ʶ̤ΩʤǺѤѸȤѼ (variety) ƤƤѼʪˤʤ館ȡ˴ؤƶ¿Ȥ˵Ť㤨СѼʪƱͤ˵ҴŪ뤳ȤϺǤꡤΰ̣ˤ¸ŪʳǰȤϤޤǿʹ֤ǧŪʳǰǤ롤ȸ롥ޤѼФƸ̩ʤΤϡ줬Ѳ뤳Ȥɬη̤Ǥ롤Ȥ롥
ʪˤۤˤƲΤ뤤ϲˤʤΤϤ뤬ŪϢ³ƤоݤΥŪ˥롼ԥƳơ̾դԤʤĤߤȤơʪζʬȸѼζʬϻ̤äƤ롥ʪѼ⡤Ū¸ŪʬβǽꤹΤǤϤʤޤǧŪʳǰʤΤǤ롥
ɧּȤϲסؿʪؤζʽ١Ĭҡ2001ǯ17--30ǡ
ε#2752. dialect ȤѸˤĤơ ([2016-11-08-1]) ˰³ Haugen (923) Ȥʤ顤dialect ȤѸ椷Ĥ language ȤѸˤĤƹͤ롥ξѸ줬褹Τϡ줬ŪŪѸǤƱˡŪ̻ŪѸǤ⤢뤫Haugen (923) ۩
In a descriptive, synchronic sense "language" can refer either to a single linguistic norm, or to a group of related norms. In a historical, diachronic sense "language" can either be a common language on its way to dissolution, or a common language resulting from unification. A "dialect" is then any one of the related norms comprised under the general name "language," historically the result of either divergence or convergence.
Ūˤϡ"language" Ȥϡ1ĤεϤäѼΤ⤢СϢ뵬ϤäʣѼνΤŽĤ줿٥Ǥ⤢롥̻Ūˤϡ"language" Ȥϡ줫¤ʬƤȤ븵ζĸˤĤ줿̾Ǥ⤢Сդ˽Ѽ郎礷ƤȤɸѼθƾΤǤ⤢롥
̻Ūñ˿Сlanguage dialects language dialects . . . פȤʤ뤬"language" ʳڤˤƶŪˤߤСˤ "language" ĺȤơ۲ "dialects" ֤ŤΩƤ"language" ʳǤϡ"language" ͣɹ¸ߤǤꡤ۲ "dialects" ʤΤ¸ߤʤ顤"language" ˤ¿ΤǤ롥Haugen (923) ϡѸ츯ʣΤ褦ɽƤ롥
"Language" as the superordinate term can be used without reference to dialects, but "dialect" is meaningless unless it is implied that there are other dialects and a language to which they can be said to "belong." Hence every dialect is a language, but not every language is a dialect.
ǸΡ֤٤Ƥϸ٤Ƥθ줬ȤϤʤפȤϡ̯Ǥ롥
Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
Haugen (922--23) ˤСdialect Ȥñϡͥ˥ꥷ줫ؽѸȤƼѤ줿Ǥ롥OED ΡפθǤν1566ǯȤʤäƤꡤǤϱѸޤΡפɽ魯ȤѤƤ롥եؤϤΩ16ǯۤä褦ǡǤϥꥷɾ abondante en dialectes ɽƤ롥1577ǯαѸǤϡ"Certeyne Hebrue dialectes" ȸŵ˴ؤΤǤꡤ1614ǯ Sir Walter Raleigh The History of the World Ǥϡꥷ "Æeolic Dialect" ڤƤ롥ѸǤλȤȤƤϡΤ褦˸ŵΡפؤ dialect ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ä褦顤ˤбѼñ̤ˤѤ褦ˤʤäΤ
ꥷä᤹ȡŵˤ줷ɸ८ꥷʤΤϤʤɸŪʽפνΤΤߤäդ٤ϡΡפϡäդȤƤФƤǤϤʤդȤƤФͿ줿̾äȤǤ롥Τˤ̾̾ˤ䤫äΤǤϤäºݾϡˤäƻȤʬդζʬɽ魯Τä㤨С˽ˤ Ionicβλˤ Doricˤ Attic ʤɤȤäǤ (see #1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1]))
Υꥷνդνϡϡäդν˴פäƤ˰㤤ʤԤϡӸŪ˺ƷǤŤʳ "Common Greek" ʬ줷̤νǤ롥ŵȡäդνϾäꡤܼŪ˥ƥͤǤꡤ٤ä koiné ˤä֤Ƥä (= koinéization; see #1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ơ줬ꥷ줽Τ (the Greek language) ǧ褦ˤʤä
ĤޤꡤŵˤޤȤȡ"several Greek dialects" "the Greek language" ȿܤȤˤʤ롥פΰ㤤äơƸŪ줷Ρ줬ָפʤΤǤ롥褳Ūʰ̣٤ dialect ʤ languageˤȤѸ줬˱ѤڤӡѸ츯ʣ⤿餹ȤˤʤäʣˤĤƤϡεǡ
Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
AAVE εˤĤơCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ԤΩƤаޤ˴ؤơ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷡ǴϢʲεƤ
#1886. AAVE ʬ ([2014-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1])
Tagliamonte (9) ꡤξˤĤΤ褯ޤȤƤս꤬äΤǡѤȤ
Among the varieties of English that arose from the colonial southern United States is that spoken by the contemporary descendants of the African populations --- often referred to as African American Vernacular English or by its abbreviation AAVE. This variety is quite distinct from Standard North American English. One of the most vexed questions of modern North American sociolinguistics is why this is the case. Early African American slaves would have acquired their variety of English either en route to the United States or more likely on the plantations and homesteads of the American South. But it is necessary to determine the nature of the varieties to which they were exposed. The fact that AAVE is so different has often been traced to the dialects from Northern Ireland, Scotland and England. However, they have as often been traced to African and Caribbean creoles. There is a long history of overly simplistic dichotomies on this issue which can be summarized as follows: (1) a 'creole origins hypothesis', based on linguistic parallels between AAVE and Caribbean creoles; (2) an 'English dialect hypothesis', based on linguistic parallels with the Irish and British dialects spoken by early plantation staff. In reality, the answer probably lies somewhere in between. Many arguments prevail based on one line of evidence or another. Perhaps the most damning is the lack of evidence of which populations were where and under what circumstances. / The debate over the origins of AAVE still rages on with no consensus in sight . . . .
ƿ̱νʣʸܿȤθŪ;ȤäƤϡ줳100ǯ³Ƥꡤޤ˲ܽ褬ΩäƤʤܿ˴Ϳο͡˴ؤ롤̩˼Ҳؤθ椬ɬפȤƤ롥
Tagliamonte, Sali A. Roots of English: Exploring the History of Dialects. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
#2734. ͭ̾ hers, his, ours, yours, theirs -s ([2016-10-21-1]) εǡ-s -n ġhern, hisn, ourn, yourn, theirn ʤɤŪʽͭ̾˿줿η֤ɸѸˤϻĤʤäǤϺ⸽Ǥ롥Upton and Widdowson (82) ˤ롤hern ʬۤʲ˼ȾʬˡȹʬۤƤ뤳Ȥʬ

-n ˤĤƤϡWright (para. 413) ǤƤꡤ19ˤνǹѤƤȤΤ롥
-n ϡɸŪǤϤ뤬¤ηŪ˹Ƥ롥mine, thine ޤơΩˡνͭ̾줬Ӥ [-n] ǽ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫ष[-n] [-z] ߤƤɸѸηϤϡʬ礤ƤȤ⤤롥
ʤmy mine Τ褦ˡΰ㤤ϡUpton and Widdowson (83) ˤСͭ̾ (attributive possessive pronoun) Ƚҽͭ̾ (predicative possessive pronoun) ȤѸˤäƶ̤Ƥ롥뤤ϡconjunctive possessive pronoun disjunctive possessive pronoun ȤѸȤƤ롥
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Wright, Joseph. The English Dialect Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1905. Repr. 1968.
#868. EDD Online ([2011-09-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡJoseph Wright ˤ The English Dialect Dictionary ŻҲץȤ Innsbruck ؤǿʤƤĤǶᴰȤΤ餻ޤǥ־ΥӥǤϥȼɬפäľܼͳ˥Ǥ褦ˤʤä EDD Online ɤ

ǽ⽼¤Ƥꡤ㤨оΥåȤΤ褦ˡȴϢƼ˸ڤƤϰϿdzǧǤ뵡ǽ롥礦ɸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ˴ؤĴδطǡڤƤϰ褬ϿdzǧǤȻפäƤäΤǡ
ޤΤθ The English Dialect Dictionary ΥڡȤƳǧ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡdialect area, part of speech, phonetic, etymology, usage label, source, morphemic, time span ʤɳƼ參ƥˤ륵ǽ
ѥޥ˥奢ǤΤǡȤʤ餢줳ȤäƤߤ뤳Ȥ᤹롥
Wright, Joseph, ed. The English Dialect Dictionary. 6 vols. Henry Frowde, 1898--1905.
ѸˤƻƱ flat_adverb ñˤλѤˤĤơ#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb ([2012-01-04-1])#983. flat adverb μ ([2012-01-05-1])#993. flat adverb ˤĤƤ줳 ([2012-01-15-1])#996. flat adverb ΤӤӤʡ ([2012-01-18-1])#997. real bad ȡ֤Фס ([2012-01-19-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤƥꥫѸθ졦¯϶ɽȤѤ뷹ȽҤ٤
ɸѸǤ flat adverb ϤۤΩʤȤ뤬ɸѸγܤСλѤ20ȾˤƤ𤵤Ƥ (Tagliamonte 73--74) ФСɸŪסָŪסֶܤΤʤס罰ŪפʤɤΥ졼٥뤬Ž뤬DZΧԹǡֻŪפˤѤ롥˥ԥ졤쥪졤ꥫѸä Appalachian and Ozark EnglishˤǤʹ뤷Tristan da Cunha Channel Islands αѸʤνѼdzǧƤ롥ꥹǤ⡤ʲ˸褦˽Ǥ̤˻ѤƤ뤷Estuary English ǤŵŪʹ롥Ĥޤꡤ¿αѸѼ flat adverb ѤƤΤΤ٤Ƥ1ĤṲ̄ȤϸڤʤŪ flat adverb η³Ȥ륱ϾʤʤȻפ롥
Tagliamonte ϡ"Roots Archive" ȸƤФ륤ꥹˤåѥˤꡤCumnock (south-west Scotland), Cullybackey (Northern Ireland), Maryport (Cumbria) 3Ǥ flat adverb λΨĴflat adverb ٤ȡб -ly ٤Ȥ碌100%761ˤȤȤԤΨϡCumnock 49%Cullybackey 47%Maryport 18%ä (Tagliamonte 77) ˤä flat adverb λΨ˥ХĥϤ뤷ޤ켫Τۤʤ褦ˤƤ褷٤㤯ʤȡޤ flat adverb ϶ŪŪʰ̣Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ȤʬäȤʺǸˤĤƤϡ#1174. Ѹñ -ly Υڥ ([2012-07-14-1]) ȡˡΤ褦ɸѼܤСflat adverb ϸߤߤȤäƤ褵
flat adverb ˤˤĤƤϡ˥ĥäΤۤ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ ([2012-01-06-1])#998. Ѹ flat adverb -ly adverb ([2012-01-20-1])#1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1])#1190. Ѹˤȯã ([2012-07-30-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Tagliamonte, Sali A. Roots of English: Exploring the History of Dialects. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
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