Biber et al. (Section 4.5.6 [pp. 291--22]) ˡ̾ñʣ٤˴ؤ뵭Ҥ롥Ѹˤ绨ĤʬۤǤϤ뤬LSWE Corpus 500쥵֥ѥѤǤͤʤΤǻͤޤǤ˥⤷Ƥޤƥ֥ѥ100˴ƤΥդκƸʿͥǡͿƤʤäΤǥդ鳵ɤäƤκƸˡ

(1) conversation transcription (CONV), fiction text (FICT), newspaper text (NEWS), academic text (ACAD) 4֥ѥ֤κ㤷
- §ȤʣȤʤԲĻ̾ޤƤȤϤ٤ƤΥ֥ѥñʣ٤⤤
- äǤñ٤Ū⤤
- դǤäդʣ٤3--4ܤ⤤
(2) ġ̾Ǥߤȡ¿̾줬ñ뤤ʣΤ줫ؤζФ
(3) 㤨С̾75%ʾγñȤ롥ex. car, god, government, grandmother, head, house, theory.
(4) 㤨С̾75%ʾγʣȤ롥ex. grandchildren, parents, socks, circumstances, eyebrows, onlookers, employees, perks.
(1) ˴ؤơñŪ¿ȼΤϤޤäԻĤǤϤʤҤΤ褦ԲĻ̾ϸ§ȤñʤޤۤȤɤβĻ̾Ǥñ lemma ΤΤǤ뤷̵ɸη֤Ǥ⤢롥ۤˤϡγǰΩ硤㤨 hand in hand, from time to time ʤɤδɽˤƤϡñѤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(2)--(4) ˴ؤơ̾ˤäñʣؤФȤΤäʤ줾θ췲įС "the communicative needs of the language user" (291) ȿǤƤ뤳ȤϤäʬ̾Τʤ餻С֥ߥ˥ɬפñФꤽȤȤľ롥
ǤϡäñλѤ¿ȤΤϡɤ櫓Biber et al. (291--92) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In general, the high frequency of singular nouns in conversation probably follows from the concern of speakers with individuals: a person, a thing, an event. Writers of academic prose, on the other hand, are more preoccupied with generalizations that are valid more widely (for people, things, events, etc.). This same tendency applies not only to nouns, but also to determiners and pronouns (4.4.3.1, 4.12.1, 4.14.1, 4.15.2.1).
ѥΤȤƤϡʣϰ̾2٤ʤȤˤʤ롥ʣθȤʤĤޤʣʤ٤¿ʤФʤʤ˻ˤȤäƤϡʤʤͤʤ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
̤ˡѸưϲʬηˡˤ礭§ѲưԵ§Ѳưʬ롥ζʬϡñ˷ֲŪ1Τߤܤ롥ʬθ <-ed> ղä뤫ݤȤǤ롥θȤƤ /-d, -t, -ɪd/ 3ब뤬δΤˤ줫Τޤղä뤫ʵ§Ѳưˡ뤤ϤʳԵ§ѲưˤȤ绨ĤʶʬǤ롥ԤϤ˷ֲŪ˺ʬΤ̤ǤϺˤΩʤˡ-<ed> ̵ͭˤ붦Ūʬˡפ̾դʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| -ed ʵ§Ѳ | called, looked, visited |
| non-ed Ե§Ѳ | bought, came, got, made, sent, set, went |
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| Ѳ | bought, called, looked, made, sent, set, visited, went |
| Ѳ | came, got |
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| ̵Ѱ | set |
| ԴѰ | called, looked, visited; bought, came, got, made; sent |
| ???????? | went |
| Type | Examples |
|---|---|
| ̵Ѱ | carp, fish, hundred, sheep |
| ԴѰ | books, dogs, watches; children, oxen; feet, men; alumni, phenomena |
| ???????? | people (for persons) |
[2009-06-01-1]εǡѸ thumb ֻ˴ޤޤ츻Ū reverse spelling <b> ˤĤOED εҤȤơ13źáפȵOED ˤȡ1290ǯ The South English Legendary Strongue is þe þoumbe I-cleoped ȤʤäƤ롥¾μ츻ŵ⤳ OED εҤƧƤ褦MED, "thoume" ˤȡ<b> ޤϡ12ȾФ The Peterborough Chronicle 1137ǯεϿ˸ȤǤ롥Clark Ǥ鳺սֻϰѼԡˡ
Me henged bi the þumbes other bi the hefed 7 hengen bryniges on ˈherˈ fet. (1137, l. 22)
Clark (p. 94) ˤȡPChron ᤤĢ the Doomsday Book ˡOxfordshire ̾ Thomley ɽ魯Ȥ Tvmbeleia ѤƤȤ<b> ϡOED εҤ⤺äѸκǽˤǤ˸줿ȤȤǤ롥
[2009-06-01-1]Ǥϡcrumb, limb, numb ȹ碌 thumb <b> ˾ /b/ Ȥȯ줿ᤷʤȽҤ٤thumb ˤĤƤϤȯ٤⤷ʤ1112ᤤˤμ reverse spelling ۻ ( silent letter ) Ƴ줿ȤϹͤˤ嵭 Tvmbeleia Τ褦ˡ/m/ ¾β³Ķǡ錄겻 ( glide ) Ȥ /b/ ΤĴŪ˼Ǥ롥¾θˤĤƤ⡤<b> ϶ѸˤƤΤȤ֤ȯ ( spelling pronunciation ) ڤʤäȤȡϳΤ褦ʤ˾ /b/ Ȥȯ줿ᤷʤפȤΤϼĥȤƤ϶⤷ʤĥǤΤϡ /b/ ޤȯȯŪˤꤨȤƤ⡤פѼˤ /b/ ޤޤʤȯ椷ͥʸطǤäȤϤʤפ餤ΤΤ
ʤthumb θűѸ þūma Ѳ̾ˤäΤǡѸǤͽۤʣʼʤгʡˤ -n ķ֤PChron ǤϤǤ -s ʣ þumbes Ǥ롥䤬Ĵ٤ϰϤǤϡѸ쥳ѥǤθ줬ʣ -s ȤϤ줬ͣΤΤǤ롥
Clark, Cecily, ed. The Peterborough Chronicle 1070-1154. London: OUP, 1958.
餫δǽñΥꥹȤŪ٤ν¤ؤȤ롥㤨С[2011-03-22-1]褦ˡ٤Ե§ʿȤδطĴ٤ȤˡܤʷˤΰŪ٤Τɬפ롥Ūˤϡ[2010-03-01-1]ǾҲ𤷤褦絬Ϥѥѥ˴ŤɽͭѤǤ롥BNC lemma-pos list (122KB) ANC word-tagset list (7.2MB) ʤɤθĤҤȤĸٿٽ̤Ĵ٤Ƥ椱Ф褤¿ˤݤǡ嵭2Ĥɽ顤Ϥʷˤ٤Ƚ̤Ф CGI
ԤǤ⥹ڡǤ⥫ޤǤ褤Τڤ줿ñꥹȤʲΥܥåϤ"Frequency Sort Go!" å롥Ϸ̤ٽ̤ι⤤˥Ȥˤϡ"sort by rank?" ˤʥǥեȤǥդˤȡϽ˽Ϥˡ㤨СɸѸ˻Ĥ i-mutation ʣϰʲ7ΤߤǤʣ졤ʣ[2011-04-01-1]ˤ sister(e)n ϽˡԡƥܥåϤ롥
foot, goose, louse, man, mouse, tooth, woman
ɸθϡ֡ʥӥ졤ȥ륳졤ڥ륷Ρԡפ̣롥OED θϡ"An interpreter; strictly applied to a man who acts as guide and interpreter in countries where Arabic, Turkish, or Persian is spoken." Ǥ롥츻ϥӥ tarjumān ԡפǡ͡ʸͳե줫Ѹ drugeman Ȥ14˼Ѥ줿 MED ȡˡϡޤǶɤǤ Kyng Alisaunder ȤΤǡʲ˰Ѥ롥Alexander οʷФơDarius ΤȤ Salome ˷褦¥̡Smithers ǤꡥֻϰѼԡ
For Alisaunder is ypassed Achaye, And is ycome to Arabye, And is on þis half þe flum Jordan, And so me seide a drugeman. Haue we þe feld ar he, We scullen hym wynne, hym maugre.' (B 3395--400)
θ줬⤷Τϡ츻Ūˤ man Ȥ̵طˤ⤫餺man ޤʣȸäʬϤ졤dragomen ʤʣ鸽Ƥ뤳ȤμǤ⡤ʣȤ dragomans ˲ä dragomen ܤƤ롥Quirk et al. (306) Ǥ⡤". . . the irregular plural can be found also in nouns that are not 'true' compounds with -man; eg: dragoman ? dragomans or dragomen." ȤƸڤƤ롥 German *Germen, human *humen ʣƤޤפʬ ( metanalysis ) ˴ŤѤȤ뤬ѤˤĹ˵ܤۤɤ˰̲ȤȤBNC θǤϡdragomans 3㡤dragomen 1㤢ä
̾̾ʣηƯ ( analogy ) ϡ¿ -s ʣؤΰĤȤƯ٤Ե§ i-mutation ˤʣǤäƤ⡤Ȥ櫓٤ι⤤ men ε۰Ϥ˶ȹͤ ([2011-03-22-1]) ѸäˤƥפοȤưŪʵ۰Ϥؤ -s μΤʤǡñΤ٤Ȥ˹⤤۰Ϥͭ men ʤȿƤ---ʹޤ뤫⤷ʤʤʤߤˡѸ̾ʣθǤϡʣ20496ȡΤ2431ȡ man ʣäμȤΥͥ륮 11.86% men ƤȻפϫ
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ε[2011-03-31-1]ǡűѸο²̾ζɽbrethren εˤĤƤڤȴϢƿ²̾줪դ ( analogy ) ⤦ĵ褦brethren Ȥ sister(e)n Ȥʣ롥MED εҤˤ褦ˡѸǤ -(e)n Ϥ̤Ǥꡤ-s ̲Τ brother ξƱʹߤǤ롥դϻΰʤΤǡܺ٤ʥǡäƤ롥ѸǤ⥤ɤǤ -s ͥǤϤλ sister ʣϸ§Ȥ -n 뤤첻θݤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ ( Hotta, p. 256 )
ơsister(e)n ϸѸĤäƤ뤬brethren Ȱۤʤꡤ̾MˤϵܤƤʤBNC ( The British National Corpus ) ǤҥåȤʤäCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ), COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English ) ǤϤ줾4㡤1519ȾʹߤˤҥåȤäѤ饢ꥫѸʹ뤳Ȥʬ롥COCA 1ĵ롥Ƥ "CNN Crossfire" ǤֻϰѼԡˡ
Well, you know, I hate to correct you, but you made the same mistake many of your liberal brethren and sisteren, have said in analyzing this dissent by Judge Stevens.
COCA, COHA ξѥη19Τ16ޤǤ brethren and sister(e)n ȤƸ졤˥եѤ졤dear my ԤƤӤλȤ¿brethren Ʊͤ˽ŪȹŪʸ̮ǸƤ褦ꤵ줿ȤƤΤۤʸŪʸ̤⤢Τ⤷ʤϢơOED sister θ5ѤƤ"In the vocative, as a mode of address, chiefly in transferred senses. Also colloq. as a mode of address to an unrelated woman, esp. one whose name is not known."
äѤ饢ꥫѸѤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡMencken (502) Ƥ롥
Sisteren or sistern, now confined to the Christians, white and black, of the Get-Right-with-God country, was common in Middle English and is just as respectable, etymologically speaking, as brethren.
sister(e)n Ȥʣ˴ؤŪϡḽ奢ꥫѸǤλѤѸη³ȤƤȤ館٤뤤ϥꥫѸDzƤ⤿餵줿ȤƤȤ館٤Ǥ롥OED ˤȡsister(e)n ϰŪʸϸȤƤ16ȾФѤ줿Ȥ롥Ѹ䥤ꥹѸޤĴʤʬʤ(1) brethren Ȥϻ鷺ꤽǤ뤳ȡ(2) brethren ȵӱƧΤǸƤӤʤɸä˹ޤ줽Ǥ뤳ȡ2饢ꥫѸǤκƷȹͤΤǤϤʤѸ츻Ū sister(e)n Ф줿餤顤ѸDzƺ줿ȤƤԻĤϤʤ
sister(e)n ̾μˤϺܤäƤʤ餤Υ쥢ʣbrethren, children, oxen (but see [2010-08-22-1]) Ʊ˻Ĥ뾯 -en ʣ֤Ƥ롥
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
[2011-03-26-1], [2011-03-27-1]εǡ5Ĥο²̾ father, mother, brother, sister, daughter η֤ˤĤ²̾ϤƴŪʸäǤꡤŪˤʣˤäƤ뤿ˡ˼夲뤳Ȥ¿١űѸη֤ƤʲϡWest-Saxon ǤμʶɽǤ Campbell, pp. 255--56; Davis, p. 15 )

5ΤǸߤѤʬŪ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥѻ롥ߤ̩ܤʸ췲ʤΤǡ츻Ūʷ֤Ǥ뤫Ǥˤ褯ʬʤʤäƤ롥
űѸǤȸκθС¾ˤ۷롥㤨 brother ʣȤ Anglian ˤ i-mutation([2009-10-01-1]) Ф brōēþre Ԥʤ줿첻ϸѸ brethren ˺פĤƤ롥brethren θ -en ϡchildren ˸ΤƱǡűѸ졤ѸǹԤʤ줿ʣͳ褹롥η֤ i-mutation -en Ʊ˸ʣ ( double plural; see [2009-12-01-1] ) Ǥ롥brethren ϡֿ֡(ץƥȤʡɤ)һաƱȹơ (˻)ͧפθѤ brother üʣǡǤϤ뤬Ǥ롥ʹߤ brothers ͥˤʤޤǤϡbrethren ϡַפθǤ̤ʣǤꡤȤƤѸǤ MED ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡ-s ʣϵäΤǤ롥
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Davis, Norman. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1953.
Ѹˤϡ-th ǽϡ̵ͭΤɤƤ㤨Сseventh, ninth, tenth ʤɤǤ /ð/ ԤʤƤȤ, p. 383 ˡȼäʣ -s ղäȯ /θs/ /ðz/ ΤɤƤ褦p. 372 ˡɤϸѸǤäƤʤQuirk et al. Ǥϡ"There is considerable indeterminacy between voicing and nonvoicing in many nouns ending in -th." (305) Ȥ롥
Ѹ -th ̾ʣ -s ղä -ths ȯĴ٤ƤߤȤΤϡ˥ꥹѸˤĤƵŪʸڤΤ Longman Pronunciation Dictionary ( LPD ) , Fowler's Modern English Usage ( MEU, p. 770 ) , A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language ( CGEL, pp. 305--06 ) 3Ǥ롥ϡʣǸǽνʬˤ̾˸¤äɽǡ"Ts" /θs/ "Dz" /ðz/ 줾ɽ魯ߥθϥꥫȯLPD MEU ǤϡŪ˵㤤Τ () ǤꡤǧȯΤΤ (()) Ǥä
| LPD | MEU | CGEL | |
|---|---|---|---|
| baths | Dz ((Ts)) | Dz (Ts) | |
| berths | Ts (Dz); Ts | Ts | Ts |
| births | Ts | Ts | Ts |
| breaths | Ts | Ts | |
| broths | Ts (Dz); Ts | ||
| cloths | Ts (Dz); Dz (Ts) | Ts (Dz) | Ts |
| deaths | Ts | Ts | Ts |
| faiths | Ts | Ts | |
| fourths | Ts | Ts | |
| girths | Ts | Ts | |
| growths | Ts | Ts | |
| hearths | Ts (Dz); Ts | Ts (Dz) | |
| heaths | Ts | Ts (Dz) | Ts |
| laths | Ts (Dz); Dz (Ts) | Ts (Dz) | |
| lengths | Ts | Ts | |
| moths | Ts; Dz (Ts) | Ts; Dz (Ts) | Ts |
| mouths | Dz ((Ts)) | Dz | |
| myths | Ts | Ts | |
| oaths | Dz (Ts) | Dz | Ts, Dz |
| paths | Dz (Ts) | Dz | Dz |
| sheaths | Dz (Ts) | Dz (Ts) | Ts, Dz |
| smiths | Ts | Ts | |
| truths | Dz (Ts) | Dz (Ts) | Ts, Dz |
| wraiths | Ts | Ts (Dz) | |
| wreaths | Dz (Ts) | Ts, Dz | |
| youths | Dz (Ts); Ts (Dz) | Dz | Ts, Dz |
Ѹ˸¤餺ˤ٤ι⤤̯ʿ ([2009-09-20-1]) ѸǤϡưβʬ졤̾ʣƻ졦ӵ顦ǾԵ§ʿΤˤϡٸ줬Τ¿̾ʣäʤȡѸ̤ˤǹͤ men, children, feet, teeth ʤɤ˻פ⤫֡geese, mice, oxen, sheep ʤɤϤϤƤۤɹٸȤ[2010-03-01-1]ǾҲ𤷤ٸꥹȤ BNC lemma į¤ꡤgoose ox ʤɤϾ6318äƤʤ oxen ˤĤƤ[2010-08-22-1]ȡ
geese oxen ⤫ĤƤϸȶưʪǤꡤ٤⤫äȻפ롥줬ȶǤʤʤäƤˤԵ§ݻƤΤȹͤ夢뤤ϲˤ٤ˡԵ§ʸݤηŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤ٤ȵ§δط̵뤷ʤȤϳΤǤ롥Ϣ McMahon (73) Ѥ롥
It has been suggested that residual words are often the most frequently occurring, which will be heard and learned earliest by the child and which are furthermore most susceptible to correction if the child does produce a regularised form like **foots. Some objections can be raised; for instance, ox is not a particularly common noun in modern English - although it probably occurred rather frequently in Middle English. Ox might have been expected to regularise as it became less common, but this decrease in frequency probably overlapped with the rise of literacy, which tends to slow down analogical change. In general, the connection of resistance to analogy with frequency seems to hold.
̾ʣθƤȡŤѸäѸˤΥƥȤ˸ưʪ̾ҴȿƤޤ Kyng Alisaunder ɤǤơΤ褦ʸϤ˽Ф路ޥɥ˥Alisaunder Philippe Τ Bulcifal ԤѤȤ뤳Ȥᡤζ˿ʪȤ̤Ǥ롥ε[2011-03-21-1]Ʊ͡Smithers Ǥ B (MS. Laud Misc. 622 of the Bodleian Library, Oxford) L (MS. 150 of the Library of Lincoln's Inn, London) 2СӤʤѤưʪʣֻ̾Ȥˡ
Oxen, sheep, and ek ken, many on he dude slen, And after he bad his goddes feyre He most wyte of his eyre, Of Alisaunder and Philippoun, Who shulde haue þe regioun. (B 759--64) Oxen schep and eke kuyn
Monyon he dude slen
And after he bad his godus faire
He moste y witen of his aire
Of Alisaundre or of Philipoun
Whiche schold haue þe regioun (L 756--61)
⤦1ĤϡAlexander Darius 臘˽Ƥ̡
Hij charged many a selcouþe beeste
Of olifauntz, and ek camayles,
Wiþ armure and ek vitayles,
Longe cartes wiþ pauylounes,
Hors and oxen wiþ venisounes,
Assen and mulen wiþ her stouers; (B 1860--65)
Y chargid mony a selcouþ beste
Olifauns and eke camailes
Wiþ armure and eke vitailes
Long cartes wiþ pauelouns
Hors and oxen wiþ vensounes
Assen and muylyn wiþ heore stoueris (L 1854--59)
ˤ⤦1ġDarius οʷξ̤ꡥ
Ycharged olifauntz and camaile,
Dromedarien, and ek oxen,
Mo þan ȝe connen asken. (B 3402--04)
And charged olifans and camailes
Dromedaries assen and oxen
Mo þan ȝe can askyn (L 3385--87)
Τ褦ưʪ̾줬ȡѸˤϤưʪʾʤȤʪˤơˤ˿ȶǤäǧǤȤȤˡε§ʣιԵ§ʣݻμŪİ뤳ȤǤ롥
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Smithers, G. V. ed. Kyng Alisaunder. 2 vols. EETS os 227 and 237. 1952--57.
ѲΤʤǤξüϤȤ櫓ŪʸݤǤ롥ǤŪĴΥͥ륮Τǡ夤ȯȤʤ꤬Ǥ롥̵ͭˤʤ롥첻Ǥۣ첻 schwa [ə] ͳƾüҲǤƾü롥ʹ֤˴ŤθݤǤ롥
üޤּΡײѲȤäơ߳˿ʹԤȤϸ¤ʤ19ɥĤǯʸˡ ( Neogrammarians ) οäƼĥƤΤΡºݤˤϡѲθäФưΧȤϸ¤ʤषǶóȻ ( lexical diffusion ) ȤƤ褦ˡѲˤϸä˥褦ˤƽ˿ʹԤ⾯ʤʤüˤĤƤСäФưΧ˺ѤϤΤ褦˸ơ֤в᤹ˤäƷ֥饹֤ǾüοƩΨ®٤˺ФƤ㤬롥֥饹Ǥû֤Ǿüλ뤬̤η֥饹ǤϾüٱ䤷ꡤޤ̤η֥饹ǤϾüɤθ褹ʤɤȤȤ⤢ꤦ롥Τ褦ʲѲǤϡ쳰ŪʡŪʡװˤ곫Ϥ줿Ѳ֥饹ζ̤ȤŪʡʵǽŪʡװˤäĴȤȤˤʤ롥
ѸˤλȤƤϡߤ˴Ϣ2Ĥθü롥
(1) űѸ줫Ѹ˻Ϥޤä -n ξüΧ˻Ϥޤä褦˸ơѸˤϷ֥饹Ȥ˿ʹԤλۤʤäƤѲ̾ñƻǤ -n ξü®䤫äѲ̾ʣǤ٤줿 (Moore, "Loss")ѸǤϡ̾ʣȤƤ -n Ͼü٤줿Ф꤫षĥۤɤǤ (Hotta 218)
(2) ƱűѸ줫Ѹ˻Ϥޤä첻ֻǤ̾ <e> ֤졤[ə] ȯ줿ˤξüΧ˻Ϥޤä褦˸ơѸοʹԤλϷ֥饹Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤ̾ζޤǤϸ첻Ϥ褯ü[2010-10-11-1]εǸ褦˷ƻζʣȼѲñˤȤơޤ餯ưˤƤ⡤14ޤŪ褯ݤ줿 (Minkova, "Forms" 166; Ϣ Moore, "Earliest" ⻲)
(1), (2) ξǡ̾졦ƻʣɸȤ䤬̤ƤΤ⤷(2) ˴ؤơMinkova (186) Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The analysis proposed here assumes that the status of the final -e as a grammatical marker is stable in the plural, for both diachronic inflexional types. Yet in maintaining the syntactically based strong - weak distinction in the singular, -e is no longer independently viable. As a plural signal it is still salient, possibly because of the morphological stability of the category of number in all nouns, so that there is phrase-internal number concord within the adjectival noun phrases. Another argument supporting the survival of plural -e comes from the continuing number agreement between subject noun phrases and the predicate, in other words a morphologically explicit opposition between the singular and the plural continues to be realized across the system.
ȳʤѸˤܼۤΤƵäΥƥϸߤޤǷ³ƤѸˤͤȤθüȷ֥饹δϢ϶̣
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Minkova, Donka. "The Forms of Speech" A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 159--75.
Minkova, Donka. The History of Final Vowels in English: The Sound of Muting. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991.
Moore, Samuel. "Loss of Final n in Inflectional Syllables of Middle English." Language 3 (1927): 232--59.
Moore, Samuel. "Earliest Morphological Changes in Middle English." Language 4 (1928): 238--66.
[2010-11-03-1]εǸűѸ bōc "book" ζɽθϡʣμʡгʡʤñ°ʡͿʡˤ i-mutation κѤŵŪʥޥɤ athematic declension Ǥ롥űѸǤϸʣ books हǤϤʤ촴첻ѲȼäƸҲ ( palatalise ) bēċ ʤ֤ѤƤ⤷ˤˤä -s 뤳ȤʤäʤСη֤ *beech ȤƸäƤϤǤ롥
"books" бȤƤ *beech ϳΤ˸ʤäbeech Ȥϡ֥֥ʡסʥ֥ʲʥ֥°ˤΰդǸѸ¸ߤƤ롥beech book Ϸ־夿ޤطƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ˸츻Ūʴط롥ξ硤ԤԤ줿ȤƤ롥Ĥƥ֥ʤγdz餫ʼĤ˥롼ʸ줿Ȥ顤֥ʤʸܤξħȤʤäΤǤ롥
beech ֥֥ʡפϰĸ *bhāgos ̤롥Ǥη֤ȡGerman Buche ( Old High German buohha ), Dutch beuk ( Middle Dutch boeke ), Old Norse bóc; Latin fāgus; Greek phāgós / phēgós "edible oak"; Old Slavonic buzū "elm" ʤɡ
Ѹ beech beech-tree, beech-wood ʤɤñʣΤۤ첻Ѳ֤ buckwheat ֥Сסʼ郎֥ʤμ¤˻Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ1ǤȤƤǧ롥
ơ beech ϤĤӸؤȤ롥Ӹػ˾̾⤤֥֥ ( Buchenargument ) ϡӸؤΥޥ̱²δħȤƸˤޤǵƤ롥Ρ֥֥פȤϲεǡ
[2010-11-23-1]εdz⤷褦ˡŪ punctuation λѤˤϸŤʤ'פɽ蘆뵭 apostrophe ˤŪε16˥ե줫Ѥ졤17˹ޤä衤apostrophe ˤ3ĤˡȯŸƤ
(1) ʸξά: cannot can't, government gov't, I am I'm, never ne'er, 1999 '99
(2) ͭ: boy's, boys', Jusus'
(3) ʸʣ: two l's, three 7's, four MP's
(2) (3) ˡ⡤(1) ʸξάˡ˵ĤȤ롥ͭʸʣ -s Ѹ -es ʤˤϸűѸ -es -asˤͳ褷<e> ɽ蘆첻ȼäƤ e άɽȤѤ줿Τ -'s ääơξάɽϽͭʤˤʣˤƱͤŬѤʣǤ (3) ˵üʾƤϽ˻ѤʤʤäͭʤǤ⡤䤬 e ξάȤ䤫ΩŪ e 礤Ƥ men's ʤɤˤղä졤ߤν˽ͭʤɽ魯ˡؤȯŸƤäߤ apostrophe εϤ18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯ΩΤǡϤޤηŪѤƤʤä䡤ʹߤ⸽ߤ˻ޤǡŪʵϤϴˤϳΩƤʤȤäƤ褯ѸѼԤΤ˺³Ƥ롥
㤨[2009-11-11-1]εǤߤ褦 its it's ˸ apostrophe λѤ˴ؤ뺮ӻǤ롥its, hers, ours, yours, theirs ʤ̾νͭʤͭ̾Ǥ apostrophe ĤʤȤ㤬뤷one's Τ褦̾ξϤϤ apostrophe ĤȤʤ⤢롥ԤŹβʤɤǤ Harrods, Lloyds ˤ apostrophe ղäʤMacy's ˤղäȤäǤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 203
( analogy ) ϶ŬϰϤιǤ롥ֲˡ§㳰ʤפ19ӸؼԤ㳰ݤߤϤ٤Ƽ ( borrowing ) ( analogy ) ˵ȤʹߡϲǤƤޤˡȢиѲΥȢȤͤ褦ˤʤäƤޤä롥ޤ¿θѲȤŤ뤿ˡäΤȤʤäƤޤä褦˻פ뤬ν̵뤹뤳ȤϤǤʤޤϡCrystal analogy
A term used in HISTORICAL and COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS, and in LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, referring to a process of regularization which affects the exceptional forms in the GRAMMAR of a language. The influence of the REGULAR pattern of plural formation in English, for example, can be heard in the treatment of irregular forms in the early UTTERANCES of children, e.g. mens, mans, mouses: the children are producing these forms 'on analogy with' the regular pattern. (24)
ˤ⤢褦ˡѸ analogy ɽȤ̾ʣη뤳Ȥ¿ѸԵ§ʣɽʤϡfoot (sg.) / feet (pl.) ˸褦Ū i-mutation ͿƤǤ ( see [2009-10-01-1] ) i-mutation θ̤ϡűѸǤ bōc "book" ˤ⸽Ƥꡤʣʡʣгʡʵڤñ°ʡñͿʡˤη֤ bēc "books" Ǥäߤθʣϡ¿̾ˤʤä books -s ѤƵ§Ū˷ΤǡŪˤ analogy Ưȹͤ롥
ŵŪ analogy ˤϡºݤˤ2 sub-analogy Ȥ⤤äƤ롥2 sub-analogy extension ֳĥפ levelling ֿʿפȸƤФ졤ŪˤʬªƤʤȤ¿ֲȤƤ϶̤ƹͤ٤Ǥ롥extension ϡűѸμñ bōc ͥʶޥѥʶŪˤ a-stem strong masculine declension ˤȤơʣʡʵڤʣгʡˤɸǤ -as ȤŬѤbōces ʤɤФؤextension "the application of a process outside its original domain" ( Lass, p. 96 ) Ť
դΤϡ嵭εҤϤޤǼñȼʣη֤δط˸ꤷǤ롥ºݤˤϡűѸǤϲζɽ˸褦ñǤʣǤʤ˱Ʒ֤Ѳi-mutation ñ°ʡñͿʤǤѤƤΤǤꡤʣ˺ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤݡʣǤ°ʤͿʤˤϺѤƤʤäñ bookʣ books Ȥߤñʬۤ˹Ԥ夯ޤǤˤϡñʣΤʤǤͥʷ֡̾ϼʷ֡ˤؤΰ층뤤Ͽʿ ( levelling ) ȤɬפäΤǤ롥̤Ȥơñʿ book ʣʿ books 줾μʷ֤ǥȤ analogy levelling ȤȤˤʤ롥Lass ˤСlevelling Ȥ "the ironing out of allomorphy within the paradigm" (96) Ǥ롥

ޥѥ༫Τ¾ͥʶޥѥफƶ analogy ( = extension ) ȡޥѥ analogy ( = levelling ) ȤϡΤ褦˶̤ƹͤƤɬפ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
[2009-08-26-1]εǡoctopus ʣȤƤϵ§Ū octopuses ̤Ǥꡤoctopi octopodes ʤɤΡָŵ˴ŤԵ§ʣϡߤǤʳŪŪʶ̤ˤѤʤȹͤƤ褤ΤȤϡ¿γؽԱѱѼŵ octopuses ΤߤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥פȽҤ٤ octopodes ˤĤƤoctopi ˤĤƤϽפ褦
־ǡ֥λפ˴ؤ뵭Ĥε̾ Owning Octopi Ǥ롥ʣ octopi ˼椫ɤǤߤ顤Ƥ⤪⤷äΤʾ341ۤɤεΤʤˤ⤦1 octopi ƤΤǴʤä§ octopuses Ϥ¿5ۤɻȤƤoctopi ϳΤ˥ޥʡ֤ǤϤ뤬̾˺ѤƤȤȤյCOD11 ( The Concise Oxford English Dictionary 11th ed. ) ˤ octopi ϸѤȤƤΤѤȤСޥʡ֤Ǥ뤳ȡɼԤ椭Ĥ̾˵뿷Ȥϸߤ˲餫δطΤ⤷ʤ1٤ octopi ƤսˤĤơʤ octopi ʤΤϤ褯狼ʤƱ octopuses ѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ñĴäƤʸŪưŤΤ⤷ʤ
Sealing the tank is crucial because octopuses are deft at escaping from even the smallest opening. Because octopi have no skeletal structure, they can fit through practically any gap and can even lift many lids. Sealing a tank is crucial to keeping your octopus safe. Octopuses escape in order to feed their desire to hunt. These aggressive hunters are best served by being fed live crustaceans to quell their hunger and desire to hunt.
ޤ¿γؽԱѡ octopuses ƤʤȤˤĤƤ⽤ɬפOxford, Collins COBUILD, Macmillan μˤϳΤ octopi ϵܤƤʤLongman, Cambridge, Merriam-Webster μˤ octopi ʣȤƵܤƤ롥¼ϤǤ octopi ϵܤƤ롥
˥ѥĴ٤ƤߤBNC ǤΥҥåȿˤĤƤ[2009-08-26-1]ǾҲ𤷤̤Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA) Ǥ octopuses 128octopi 36줿OANC (Open American National Corpus) Ǥ octopuses 4octopi 2Ǥ롥 OANC γƷ֤1㤺Ĥ octopi θѤλŦȤʸ̮ǸƤ롥ä COCA Ǥߤ¤ꡤǶϤʤ˻ȤƤ褦
Ϣʸǡ20Ⱦʸˡ伭ӤƥƥͳԵ§ʣ̻Ū˵§Ƥ椯Ĵ٤Ȥ뤬20Ⱦˤ octopi ϳ̵ǤϤʤޤΩʤ¸ߤäʸˡǤ Jespersen ˸ڤä餤Ǥ롥⤷20ȾʤκǶλ octopi λѤƤȤȤͤ롥-s ؤε§ʤǡԵ§ʣ minor trend Ȥ褹ή줬ƤΤ⤷ʤ
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Thesauri or Thesauruses? A Diachronic Distribution of Plural Forms for Latin-Derived Nouns Ending in -us." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 106 (2010): 117--36.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.
Ѹ˻ĤοʤԵ§ʣ1Ĥ ox ͺפʣ oxen 롥ɸѼǤϡűѸμѲ̾ľܤͳ褹ͣʣǤ롥ȤǶᥢꥫѸ oxes ϤƤ롥ѤȤƤǤϤʤإ˥缭ŵ٤ˤ ox θ2ȤƼΤ褦ˤꡤθǤʣˤ oxes ⤢ꤦȤ
2 Τ褦(϶), ꤷ, Τޤο // a dumb ox ((ά))(ΤǤ)Τ.
OED ˤȤŪʰ̣16餢롥ߤǤϥꥫѸǤ ox ϤθʳˤϤޤѤʤ褦ǤϤȤȤǡBritish National Corpus (BYU-BNC) Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA) Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
BNC Ǥ oxes 2ҥåȤ뤬 ox Ե§ʣ̾ȶǶƤȤʸ̮ oxes ѤȤƾҲ𤷤ƤʤΤǡ¾奼ȹͤƤ褤
COCA ǤϴͿ㤬6㤢ääդ˥塼ѸǡŪʸ̮ˤƻȤƤꡤgore ֡ʳѤǡͤɤĤפȤưоݤȤѤƤ롥㤨СʲΤȤǤ롥
Now our oxes are being gored more directly, not with malice, but out of some perverse ego game.
The establishment, we are sometimes -- you knows, in some cases, convenient oxes to gore. But I think there's no question they represent an important political constituency in the country.
gore (one's) ox Ȥǥϡ¯ "to goad or intentionally try to piss someone off" ͤäĤƤ롤餻פȤ̣ɽꥫѸͭΤ褦Ǥ롥 ox ϥǥΰȤѤƤꡤäˡ֤ΤפȤ̣ǤϤʤʥǥΰ̣ˤĤƤ ȡΥǥʣ oxes Ǥʤ oxen ѤƤ㤬4㤢뤳Ȥ顤ɽŪʣ oxes νи˲̤ƤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ϡưʪȤƤǤʤԥ塼ޥʣȤƤ mouses 䡤ФȤƤǤʤƥʤʣ antennas ʤɡŪȯỴ̈˵§Ūʣ -s ղäΤ븽ݤgore (one's) ox ox ϸΡͺפΥäƤꡤ줬 oxes Ȥ֤뤳ȤǽˤƤΤǤϤʤΤȤͺפΰ̣ʣȤ oxes ƤȤڵϡʸѰʳˤϡˤʤ褦
ϺǤ롥ϤƤΤ⤢ꡤָζФǤ롥ޤǤʤϻ뤫褤櫓åȥα桤եåȤΤФˤäϡδߤΤ鵨ᴶʤ餭ο֤ʤ餺֨ΩƤϤʤⲿʤ襤ʤʤȻפäΤǤ롥μबۤʤΤ
֤פϥꥹǤŤΤƤ롥ΰȤƤ cirisbēam ֺڡפȤƸűѸ줫¸ߤƤߤ cherry ˤĤʤ֤1300ǯ餤ˤϥե줫ѤƤⲿȿƤ߿ñ졤¤ϱѸˤǤΰʬ ( numerical metanalysis ) ȤˤΤܤ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹ Old Norman French η֤ cherise Ǥꡤ<s> ϤȤȸ촴˴ޤޤƤ롥Ȥڤ줿Ѹ¦ <s> ʣ <s> ȸäʬϤƤޤ<s> Ȥ夵Ƥޤä줬cherry ΥᥤǤ롥ʤߤˡե cerise ֤ܿʤΡˡפΰ̣19˱ѸäΤǡcherry cerise Ÿ ( doublet ) δطˤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
촴 <s> ʣ <s> ȼ㤨ƿñФ¾ˤ⤢롥pea ֥ɥޥפŪñ pease ( < OE pise < LL pīsa ) <s> ʣȴְ㤨줿̡pea ñȤ߽Ф줿Ʊͤˡsherry ֥פϥڥ Xeres ͳ褷Ѹؤ16 sherris Ȥä17ˤϰʬϤ sherry ȤФʥϤФƤκߤƤҤɤܤˤäΤǡޤˤˤϥȥ饦Ū롥
νҤ٤ numerical metanalysis ϡθ촴ΰڤǤ뤫顤 ( back-formation ) ΰȤ⤤롥ˤĤƤ back_formation γƵȡ
إեѸˡ١ҤĤ˼1996ǯ111--12ǡ
ޤѸˤܤΤʤǷ֤Ѥ롤ŤѸǽ줿ȤΤĤ¸ߤ롥äѥå缡Υ֥ɲäƤ popular_passage ʤɤȤΤȤǰǤȡѤΤˤȻפäǡϡפɽѸ̾ʣɤˤĤ Caxton 1490ǯ Eneydos νʸǵƤäҲ𤹤롥пȤȤܤͤZealand ظϩ˥ȳߤΤȤȤΩꡤͤȤǤ롥
And one of theym named Sheffelde, a mercer, cam in-to an hows and axed for mete; and specyally axed after eggys. And the goode wyf answerde, that she coude speke no frenshe. And the marchaunt was angry, for he also coude speke no frensche, but wolde have hadde egges, and she understode hym not. And thenne at laste a nother sayd that he wolde have eyren. Then the gode wyf sayd that she understode hym wel. Loo, what sholde a man in thyse dayes wryte, egges or eyren?
[2009-11-06-1]ʤɤǿ줿ȤꡤѸλǤ롥ɳϤ¸ߤʥɥǤ顪ɸȤƤϰ̤ΩƤʤääơ㤨пȤüԤпȤüԤȤäˤϡ줾줬ʬݽФˤäΤǤꡤ˥ߥ˥ΩʤȤ⤢ꤨΰäǤϡפʣǤ eyrenǤ egges äˡ顤ߤˤ狼礨ʤä꤬̤Ƥ롥
ѸʣɽƤΤ eyren Ǥ롥űѸǤϡפɽ̾ñʤ ǣg Ȥ֤ä r-stem ȸƤФޥʡʶޥפ°̾ǡʣʷ ǣgru Τ褦 -r- Ƥchild / children ƱפǤ ( see [2009-09-19-1], [2009-09-20-1], [2009-12-01-1] )
ѸޤǤϡ -(e)n ղä줿۷֤ޤơűѸͳ r ķ֤ʤƤ14顤ťΥɸͳιŤ <g> ķ֤˸Ϥβ桹ΤäƤȤꡤǽŪɸѸĤäΤο eggs ΤۤǤ뤫ˤϤ⤷
ֻˤĤƤCaxton ϡѤо줷ƶֻθ경θǽǤ뤬([2010-02-18-1])ûΤʤǤ eggys, egges ȸ˰֤꤬롥ֻɸಽϡ150ǯʾ夫ơ1718ޤǡäȿʹԤƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥
ʰʲ嵭2025/01/19(Sun)
heldio #183. egges/eyren륭㥯ȥͭ̾ʰá
[2009-08-26-1] octopus ʣϲȤä rhinoceros /raɪnˈɑsərəs/ ֺԡפʣϲȤʬꤿ
θϥꥷˤΤܤꡤrhīno- "nose" + -kerōs "horned" ʣǤ롥Ѹˤ1300ǯ˼Ѥ줿
θϡ䤬ΤäƤñΤʤǡʣ֤μबǤ¿Ǥ롥ޤ OED Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡ8ʣʬ롥
rhinoceros, rhinocerons, rhinocerontes, rhinoceroes, rhinocero's, rhinoceri, rhinoceroses, rhinocerotes
ȤƤĤʤʤΤǡJespersen ʸˡʤɤǤꤢƤ뤷رѸǯ٤ˤ롥ˤϡ˺ԤӤäꤷƤ뤳Ȥ
ܳεˤС1905ǯ Sir Charles Eliot ʤʪƬǺޤƤȤϿ롥rhinocerotes ʳŪǤꡤȤä rhinoceroses ϸĴɤʤǤξά rhinos ǤϰҸʤñʣƱ rhinoceros ǤƤ˲ʤȤ
ޤ1938ǯˤ Julian Huxley ʤʪؼԤrhinoceri ϸѤǤꡤrhinoceroses äȤʤǤʳŪʶؤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤƤ rhinos ʣȤ褦ƤƤ롥
ͤεϿƶ¤˼ƹͤƤߤ褦1905ǯλ rhinocerotes ˤϤǤʳŪʶäȤȤֵ§ʣפ rhinoceroses ˤäʳŪʶäȤϿƤʤ1938ǯˤ rhinoceroses ǤʳŪˤʤäƤȤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥餳rhinos Ƥ櫓Ǥ롥
Ȥȡ1938ǯޤǤοܤνϰʲΤ褦˿ǤΤǤϤʤޤrhinocerotes ޤ¿ΡԵ§ʣפ20ƬˤϤǤʳŪäǡֵ§ʣפ rhinoceroses Ūˤʤ꤫ĴͳǤǽŪˤϹޤ줺ݤˤϤʤΤΡά˵§Ū -s դ rhinos ̲Ф
ܳΤ褦ˡ30ǯ;δ֤ˤֺԡפʣοܤϡJespersen Τ simplification monosyllabism ȤѸ̻ŪɽΤ褦˻פ rhinos ξ硤̩ˤ monosyllabism ؤѲȤϤʤθǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤˡޤԵ§§Ǥ˰ꤺڤ ( clipping ) ˤ
ơߤäܤܳε1938ǯΤΤǤꡤ줫鸽ߤޤǤˡֺԡפʣϤɤΤ褦ѲBNC ( The British National Corpus ) ñ㸡ˤȡԵ§ʣפΥҥåȤϳ̵äʥդǤϤʤᡤñʣƱ rhinoceros ʣȤƤΥҥåȿˤĤƤ̤ǧˡ§ˤĤƤϡҥåȿϰʲ̤ꡥ
| rhinoceroses | 13 |
| rhinos | 100 |
μȤϤޤꡤΥǻȤäͥǤ̥⡼ɤΤۤ䤹Ȼפޤ뤤ϡPDFΥ饤ɤȤȤɤ
[2009-09-19-1]˰³children ꡥchildren ϡѸؽν˽вĶԵ§ʣɽʤΤ褦ʷ֤äƤΤ-ren ղäʣϡѸθùȤɡθǤ롥
[2009-05-11-1]ǴϢ˿줿ѸԵ§ʣεϸűѸˤΤܤ롥Ѹǵ§ʣ -s ϳΤ˸űѸǤⰵŪͥǤϤä¾ˤ -en̵Ѳˡi-mutation ʤɤˤʣ̤˸줿ߤǤϱƤʣ⡤űѸǤϽʬˡֵ§ŪפȸƤӤŪôäƤ
ơʸűѸˤƤƤʣȤ -ru Ȥ¸ߤϡӸؤsȸƤФ̾ˤƤϵ§Ūʶä cild "child" Ϥޤˤθ°ƤΤǤ롥¾ȤƤϡǣg "egg", cealf "calf", lamb "lamb" ʤɤꡤ -ru ղäʣäˡŪ -s ˤ뵬§ʣؤ ( analogy ) ΰϤ˶ơߤǤƵ§ʣƤޤä̾ʣ˸¤餺ٸԵ§Ӥ褦ˡcildru ΤߤűѸ̱ƤĤΤȤƸ˻ĤäƤ롥
ʤߤˡƱޥ֤ǤɥĸǤϡs̾դ -r ϥɥĸλ۾ȯã뤲 ( Prokosch 183 )s°Ƥʤä̾˹äФ꤫̾ˤޤߡߤǤ100ʾ̾ղä롤פʣΰĤȤʤäƤ롥children ˤĤʤäѸȤϤ֤ۤʤäˤΤǤ롥
äϤޤʤűѸʣ cildru ϡ˸ѸäƤС*childre *childer Ȥ֤ˤʤäƤʤΤºݤˤ children -n ղäƤ롥ϡűѸ줫Ѹˤ -s ʣ˼Ϥͭ -n ʣղäǤ롥 -r(u) ʣɸǤ櫓Ǥꡤξˤʣ -n ղäΤ餹;פ̤ȤƤΤ褦ʣ ( double plural ) η֤夷Ƥޤä-r(u) ʣɸǽϡѸˤϤǤ˱ƤʤäƤȹͤ롥
⤷ȤˡܸΡֻҶפʣǤ롥ʣΡֻҡפޤäơֻҶפȤʤäϤˡֻҶפȤɽޤƤ롥
ʤϿͤ˻ȤäƤ child children Ȥˤ⡤Homorganic Lengthening double plural 顤θѲĤޤäƤ롥Ѹˤϡ⤷
Prokosch, E. The Sounds and History of the German Language. New York: Holt, 1916.
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