¡¡É¸Âê¤Ï¡¤¡Ö#1365. ¸Å±Ñ¸ì¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë¼«ÌIJ»¤Ë¤Ï¤µ¤Þ¤ì¤¿ÌµÀ¼Ë໤²»¤ÎÍÀ¼²½¡× ([2013-01-21-1]) ¤Ç¼è¤ê¾å¤²¡¤¡Ö#1080. ¤Ê¤¼ five ¤Î½ø¿ô»ì¤Ï fifth ¤Ê¤Î¤«¡©¡× ([2012-04-11-1]) ¤ä¡Ö#2948. Ï¢ºÜÂè5²ó¡Öalive ¤ÎÎò»Ë¸À¸ì³Ø¡×¡× ([2017-05-23-1]) ¤Ç¤â¶ñÂÎŪ¤ÊÎã¤òµó¤²¤ÆÀâÌÀ¤·¤¿ÌäÂê¤Î¡¤¤â¤¦1¤Ä¤Î±þÍÑÎã¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥wolf ¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¤¬ wolves ¤È¤Ê¤ë¤Ê¤É¡¤Ã±¿ô·Á /-f/ ¤¬Ê£¿ô·Á /-vz/ ¤Ø¤È°ì¸«ÉÔµ¬Â§¤ËÊѲ½¤¹¤ëÎ㤬¡¤¤¤¤¯¤Ä¤«¤Î̾»ì¤Ë¸«¤é¤ì¤ë¡¥Î㤨¤Ð¡¤calf/calves, elf/elves, half/halves, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves, knife/knives, self/selves, sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives ¤Ê¤É¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤³¤ì¤Ï¤É¤¦¤¤¤Ã¤¿Íýͳ¤À¤í¤¦¤«¡¥
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| ÂÐ³Ê | wulf | wulfas |
| °³Ê | wulfes | wulfa |
| Í¿³Ê | wulfe | wulfum |
¡¡¡Ö#3106. ¤Ê¤¼ -ed ¤ÎÉÕ¤±Êý¤È -(e)s ¤ÎÉÕ¤±Êý¤¬ÄÖ»ú¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ°Û¤Ê¤ë¤Î¤«¡©¡× ([2017-10-28-1]) ¤Ë³¤¤¤Æ¡¤¤³¤Á¤é¤â»÷¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤è¤¦¤Ç´°Á´¤Ë¤ÏÊ¿¹ÔŪ¤Ç¤Ê¤¤¡¤2¤Ä¤Î¶þÀÞÀܼ¤ÎÉÕ¤±Êý¤Ë´Ø¤¹¤ëÄÖ»úÌäÂê¡¥try ¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¡¤-s ¤Ï <y> ¤ò <ie> ¤ËÊѤ¨¤¿¾å¤ÇÉղä·¤Æ tries ¤È¤¹¤ë¤¬¡¤-ing ¤ÎÉղäϤ½¤Î¤Þ¤Þ¤Ç trying ¤È¤Ê¤ë¡¥¤½¤¦¤«¤È»×¤¨¤Ð¡¤die ¤Ç¤Ï¡¤-s ¤ò¤½¤Î¤Þ¤ÞÉÕ¤±¤Æ dies ¤È¤¹¤ë¤¬¡¤-ing ¤Ï <ie> ¤ò <y> ¤ËÊѤ¨¤¿¾å¤ÇÉÕ¤±¤ë¤Î¤Ç dying ¤È¤Ê¤ë¡¥°ì¸«ÉԻ׵Ĥʡ¤¤³¤ì¤é¤ÎÈ¿Âиþ¤¤Îµ¬Â§¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤Ï¡¤²áµî¡Êʬ»ì¡Ë¤Î -ed ¤È¸½ºßʬ»ì¡¦Æ°Ì¾»ì¤Î -ing ¤ÎÏä·¤ò¼ç¤È¤·¤Ê¤¬¤é¡¤¡Ö#3069. Ï¢ºÜÂè9²ó¡Ö¤Ê¤¼ try ¤¬ tried ¤È¤Ê¤ê¡¤die ¤¬ dying ¤È¤Ê¤ë¤Î¤«¡©¡× ([2017-09-21-1]) ¤Ç¹Í¤¨¤¿¡¥
¡¡Carney (73--74) ¤Ï¡¤¸½Âå±Ñ¸ìÄÖ»ú¤ÎËܳÊŪ¤Ê¸¦µæ½ñ¤Î¤Ê¤«¤Ç¡¤McLead ¤Ë¤è¤ëÄÖ»ú¶µ°é¤Î¤¿¤á¤ÎÄÖ»úµ¬Â§¤òÎóµó¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥¤½¤Î¤¦¤Á -(e)s ¤ä -ing ¤ÎÉղäÈľÀÜ¡¦´ÖÀܤ˴ØÍ¿¤¹¤ë¤â¤Î¤È¤·¤Æ°Ê²¼¤Î¤â¤Î¤òµó¤²¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤Ç¡¤°úÍѤ·¤è¤¦¡¥
Rule VII --- Words ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel simply add 's'.
--- an adaptation rule, presumably to form the plural or 3rd pers. pres. sg.: boy -- boys, say -- says, employ -- employs.
. . . .
Rule IX --- If you want to add other letters to a word ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant change 'y' into 'i'.
--- an adaptation rule; it refers in effect to the corresponding <y>¢á/aɪ/ (deny--denial); the restriction 'preceded by a consonant' is intended to rule out betray--betrayal, employ--employer. McLeod points out that it does not apply before <-ing> (denying)
Rule X -- 'i' before another 'i' becomes 'y'.
--- a graphotactic rule; presumably it refers in an oblique way to examples such as die--dying or carrying--carrier--carried; the recent loan-word skiing is an exception.
Rule XI --- Words ending in a hissing sound form their plural by adding 'es' instead of 's'.
--- this has the form of an adaptation rule. It is a recognition that <s>, unlike the <ed> of the past tense, does not represent all the allomorphs /s/, /z/ and /ɪz/ of the plural . . . .
¡¡¾åµ¤Ï¡¤-(e)s, -ed, -ing ¤ÎÉÕ¤±Êý¤Îµ¬Â§¤ò¶¦»þŪ¤Ëµ½Ò¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Ë¤¹¤®¤º¡¤ÄÌ»þŪ¤Ê´ÑÅÀ¤â´Þ¤Þ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤Ê¤±¤ì¤Ð¡¤¤Ê¤¼¤½¤¦¤Ê¤Î¤«¤òÀâÌÀ¤·¤Æ¤â¤¤¤Ê¤¤¡¥¡ÖÄÌ»þŪ¤ÊÀâÌÀ¡×¤³¤½¤¬É¬ÍפȻפï¤ì¤ë¤Î¤À¤¬¡¤¤¢¤Þ¤ê¸«¤¿¤³¤È¤¬¤Ê¤¤¤Î¤Ç¡¤¤ª¤¤¤ª¤¤¹Í¤¨¤Æ¤¤¤¤¿¤¤ÌäÂê¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
¡¡¡¦ McLeod, M. E. "Rules in the Teaching of Spelling." Studies in Spelling. Publications of the Scottish Council for Research In Education XL. Ed. H. J. L. Robbie. London: ULP,1961.
¡¡Æ°»ì¤Î²áµî¡Êʬ»ì¡Ë¤ÎÀÜÈø¼ {-ed} ¤È¡¤Æ°»ì¤Î3ñ¸½¤¢¤ë¤¤¤Ï̾»ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô¤ÎÀÜÈø¼ {-(e)s} ¤È¤Ç¤Ï¡¤ÄÖ»ú¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤ÆÉÕ¤±Êý¤¬°Û¤Ê¤ë¡¥¤ª¤è¤½Ê¿¹ÔŪ¤Ë¿¶¤ëÉñ¤¦¤«¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë¸«¤¨¤Æ¡¤¤¤¤í¤¤¤í¤ÈºÙ¤«¤Ê°ã¤¤¤¬¤¢¤ë¡¥Carney (18--19) ¤¬¶¦»þŪ¤Ê´ÑÅÀ¤«¤é¡¤¤³¤ÎÌäÂê¤ËÇ÷¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤Ç¡¤°úÍѤ·¤è¤¦¡¥
. . . The past tense and participle morpheme {-ed} in regular verbs (ignoring forms such as spelt, spent, dreamt) has a constant <-ed> spelling in spite of the phonemic variation /ɪd/ (waited), /d/ (warned) and /t/ (watched).
There is very similar allomorphic variation in the noun plural and 3rd person present tense of the verb with its variants /ɪz/ (watches), /z/ (warns) and /s/ (waits). The two sets of phonetic variants are often cited together as equivalent examples of morphemic spelling. If we look closely at the details, however we find in fact that they are dealt with rather differently in the writing system (table 5).
Table 5 English plural and past tense inflections
{-ed} ending {-(e)s} ending 1 /-ɪd/ matted /-ɪz/ masses 2 /-ɪd/ mated /-ɪz/ maces 3 /-t/ hopped /-s/ (No *hoppes) 4 /-t/ hoped /-s/ hops, hopes 5 /-d/ planned /-z/ (No *plannes) 6 /-d/ planed /-z/ plans, planes 7 /-d/ hurried /-z/ hurries 8 /-d/ radioed /-z/ radios 9 /-d/ vetoed /-z/ vetoes, or vetos
Table 5 gives examples of each suffix in its three phonemic variants. The words provided as contexts include a preceding long vowel followed by a single consonant, a preceding short vowel followed by a single consonant, and the spelling variation found after <o>. The past tense has a constant <ed> spelling across all these contexts which is only varied by merging with a final <-e> in the long vowel words (e.g. hope -- hoped). The marking of the long vowels is also done indirectly by using <C>-doubling to mark a previous short vowel --- absence of doubling marks the long vowel. This is not done in the noun plural suffix, so there are no equivalents in rows 3 and 5 to <hopped> and <planned>, that is *<hoppes> and *<plannes>. Nor is there a variant spelling *<vetod> to spoil the uniformity of <-ed>. The <e> of <-oes> and <-ies> is best treated as a marker of the long vowel. Grammarians refer to the two inflections as the -s form and the -ed form and this is in accordance with the traditional spelling rule that one adds <-s> and <-ed> respectively to the base form.
If we try to use a consistent <-ed> morphemic spelling in chopping up words into correspondences without any overlap, this lack of symmetry becomes apparent. In scribbles we have /əl/¢á<le> and in scribbled we have /əl/¢á<l>; in hopes we have <e>-marking of the vowel as /əʊ/¢á<o..e>, /p/¢á<p>, /s/¢á<s>, but in hoped we have /əʊ/¢á<o>, /p/¢á<p>, /t/¢á<ed>, while the long vowel is marked by absence of <C>-doubling. In a process description, and indeed for any human speller, this is catered for by 'dovetailing' so that <hope>+<ed> becomes <hoped>, <eight>+<ty> becomes <eighty>, etc.
¡¡Carney ¤Ï¡¤ÄÖ»ú¤Î¸¶Íý¤Ï "a constant spelling for a morpheme" ¤È "the varying pronunciation of the morpheme in different contexts" ¤Î´Ö¤Î¥Ð¥é¥ó¥¹¤Î¾å¤ËÀ®¤êΩ¤Ä¤â¤Î¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡¤¤½¤ì¤¬¸Ä¡¹¤ÎÄÖ»ú¡Êµ¬Â§¡Ë¤Î¤Ê¤«¤ÇÊ£»¨¤ËÇÛʬ¤µ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤³¤È¤ò¼¨º¶¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥¤½¤ÎÇÛʬ¤Î°ã¤¤¤¬¡¤{-ed} ¤È {-s} ¤Ë¤â¸½¤ï¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤È¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤ë¡¥¤·¤«¤·¡¤¤Ê¤¼¤½¤¦¤Ê¤Î¤«¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤Ï¡¤ÄÌ»þŪ¤Ê´ÑÅÀ¤â´Þ¤á¤Æ¤µ¤é¤ËÄ´¤Ù¤ëɬÍפ¬¤¢¤ë¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
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¡¡¡¦ Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
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¡¡¤³¤ÎÌäÂê¤ËÂФ·¤Æ¡¤´ðËÜŪ¤Ë¤Ï¡¤Ã±Ê£¤ò¶èÊ̤¹¤ë¿ô (number) ¤È¤¤¤¦Ê¸Ë¡ÈÏáÆ (category) ¤¬±Ñ¸ì¤Î¸À¸ìÂηϤˤª¤¤¤Æ¤è¤¯Êݼ餵¤ì¤Æ¤¤¿¤«¤é¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¤¤ÈÅú¤¨¤Æ¤ª¤¤¿¤¤¡¥Ì¾»ì¤äÂå̾»ì¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ¤Ï¡¤°õ²¤Áĸ줫¤é¸Å±Ñ¸ì¤ò·Ð¤Æ¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Ë»ê¤ë¤Þ¤Ç°ì´Ó¤·¤Æ¿ô¤Î¶èÊ̤ÏÊݤ¿¤ì¤Æ¤¤¿¤·¡¤¼ç¸ì¤Èư»ì¤Î°ìÃ× (concord) ¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ¤â¡¤¿ô¤È¤¤¤¦ÈÏáÆ¤Ï¾ï¤Ë´ØÍ¿Åª¤Ç¤¢¤ê³¤±¤Æ¤¤¿¡¥·ÁÍÆ»ì¤Ç¤Ï¡¤·ë²ÌŪ¤Ë¶áÂå±Ñ¸ì´ü°Ê¹ß¡¤¿ô¤Îɸ¼¨¤ò¤·¤Ê¤¯¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¤³¤È¤Ï»ö¼Â¤À¤¬¡¤½é´üÃæ±Ñ¸ì´ü¤Î·ã¤·¤¤¸ìÈø¤Î¿åÊ¿²½¤È¾Ã¼º¤ÎĬή¤Î¤Ê¤«¤òÀ¸¤±ä¤Ó¡¤¸å´üÃæ±Ñ¸ì¤Þ¤ÇÊ£¿ô¸ìÈø -e ¤ò¤è¤¯ÊݤäƤ¤¿¤È¤¤¤¦¤³¤È¤Ï¡¤±Ñ¸ì¤Î¸À¸ìÂηϤˤª¤¤¤Æ¿ô¤È¤¤¤¦ÈÏáÆ¤¬º¬¿¼¤¯ÄêÃ夷¤Æ¤¤¤¿¤³¤È¤ò¼¨¤¹¤â¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¡¥¤³¤ÎÅÀ¤Ç¡¤»ä¤Ï°Ê²¼¤Î Minkova (329) ¤Î¸«²ò¤ËƱ°Õ¤¹¤ë¡¥
My analysis assumes that the status of the final -e as a grammatical marker is stable in the plural. Yet in maintaining the syntactically based strong-weak distinction in the singular, it is no longer independently viable. As a plural signal it is still salient, possibly because of the morphological stability of the category of number in all nouns, so that there is phrase-internal number concord within the adjectival NPs. Another argument supporting the survival of plural -e comes from the continuing number agreement between subject NPs and the predicate, in other words the singular-plural opposition continues to be realized across the system.
¡¡¤Ç¤Ï¡¤¤Ê¤¼±Ñ¸ì¤Ç¤Ï¿ô¤È¤¤¤¦Ê¸Ë¡ÈÏáÆ¤¬¤³¤³¤Þ¤Çº¬¶¯¤¯»Ä¤í¤¦¤È¤·¤¿¡Ê¤½¤·¤Æ¸½ºß¤Ç¤â»Ä¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡Ë¤Î¤«¡¥¤³¤ì¤Ï¸À¸ì¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ëʸˡÈÏáÆ¤Î°ìÈÌŪ¤ÊÌäÂê¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡¤µæ¶Ë¤ÎÌäÂê¤È¤¤¤¦¤Ù¤¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤³¤ì¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤ÎµÄÏÀ¤Ï¡¤ÀÛÃø¤Î "Syntactic Agreement" ¤ÈÂꤹ¤ë6.6Àá (141--44) ¤Ç¿¨¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤Ç»²¾È¤µ¤ì¤¿¤¤¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Minkova, Donka. "Adjectival Inflexion Relics and Speech Rhythm in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics, Cambridge, 6--9 April 1987. Ed. Sylvia Adamson, Vivien Law, Nigel Vincent, and Susan Wright. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. 313--36.
¡¡¡¦ Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
¡¡ºòÆü¤Îµ»ö¡Ö#2355. ¥Õ¥é¥ó¥¹¸ì¤Î¸ì×ðʳ°¤Ø¤Î±Æ¶Á --- ¶ç¡¤ÄÖ»ú¡¤ÇÉÀ¸·ÁÂÖÏÀ¡¤¶¯Àª¡× ([2015-10-08-1]) ¤Ç°ú¤¤¤¿ Denison and Hogg (17) ¤«¤é¤Îʸ¾Ï¤Ç¤Ï¡¤±Ñ¸ì¤Î̾»ìÊ£¿ô·Á¤Î -s ¤¬Ãæ±Ñ¸ì´ü¤Ë³ÈÂ礷¤¿Í×°ø¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤¥Õ¥é¥ó¥¹¸ì¤Î±Æ¶Á¤¬¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤ë¤«¤â¤·¤ì¤Ê¤¤¤È¤Î¤³¤È¤À¤Ã¤¿¡¥¤³¤ÎÀâ¤Ï¡¤½ôʸ¸¥¤Ç¤â¤·¤Ð¤·¤Ð¾§¤¨¤é¤ì¤Æ¤¤Æ¤ª¤ê¡¤ºÇ¶á¤Ç¤Ï°Â°æ¡¦µ×ÊÝÅÄ (p.43 fn) ¤Ç¤â¡ÖÊ£¿ô¤Î -s ÅÁÇŤˤϥեé¥ó¥¹¸ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô¤Î·Á¤Î±Æ¶Á¤â¡¤¤¢¤ëÄøÅÙ¡¤¤¢¤º¤«¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤¿¤«¤â¤·¤ì¤Ê¤¤¡×¤È¿¨¤ì¤é¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
¡¡¤·¤«¤·¡¤¤³¤ÎÌäÂê¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤ÆÄ´¤Ù¤¿ Hotta (268) ¤Î¤Ê¤«¤Ç¡¤»ä¤Ï¤³¤ÎÀâ¤ËÂФ·¤Æ¶¯¤¯ÈÝÄêŪ¤ÊΩ¾ì¤ò¼è¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥Jespersen ¤Ëµò¤ê¤Ê¤¬¤é¡¤¼¡¤Î¤è¤¦¤ËµÄÏÀ¤·¤¿¡¥
For the reasons why Old French could not be relevant, refer to Jespersen (Chapters 33). To summarise the main grounds against the hypothesis of Old French influence on the English s-plural:
1. Considering that the genitive singular -s spread earlier and faster than the nominative plural -s, French should first have influenced genitive singular forms, which is however impossible because Old French had no s-ending for the genitive singular.
2. The extension of the s-plural started before the Norman Conquest, making it unnecessary to propose French influence.
3. The fact that -s prevailed earlier in the northern dialects than in the southern is against the expectation if French influence was assumed. Such French influence would have been felt first and foremost in the South.
4. The s-ending was just one of the various plural endings available in Old French, and it was usually an accusative plural ending instead of a nominative plural.
5. In English, adjectives rarely took the s-plural after the Old French model. If French influence had been at work, not only nouns but also adjectives might have been affected.
6. The English s-ending was usually preceded by a vowel typically spelled e, while in Old French such a vowel spelling never occurred. We might note that the forms -es and -s were kept distinct well into Late Middle English.
¡¡¤Ê¤ª¡¤½ÅÍפÊÀè¹Ô¸¦µæ¤Ç¤¢¤ë Roedler ¤â¡¤Ãæ±Ñ¸ì´ü¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë -s Ê£¿ô¤Î³ÈÂç¤Ë´ØÏ¢¤·¤Æ¡¤¡Ê¥Õ¥é¥ó¥¹¸ì¤òǰƬ¤ËÃÖ¤¤Ê¤¬¤é¡Ë¸À¸ì³°Åª¤Ê±Æ¶Á¤Î²ÄǽÀ¤ò "überflüssig" ¤ÈÀڤäƼΤƤƤ¤¤ë¡¥¥Õ¥é¥ó¥¹¸ì±Æ¶ÁÀâ¤Ë¤Ï¤Û¤È¤ó¤ÉÂÅÅöÀ¤¬¤Ê¤¤¡¥
¡¡´ØÏ¢¤·¤Æ¡¤¡Ö#946. ̾»ìÊ£¿ô·Á¤ÎÎò»Ë¤Î³µÍ×¡× ([2011-11-29-1])¡¤¡Ö#1250. Ãæ±Ñ¸ì¤Ï¥¯¥ì¥ª¡¼¥ë¸ì¤«¡© (3)¡× ([2012-09-28-1]) ¤â»²¾È¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
¡¡¡¦ °Â°æ Ì¡¦µ×ÊÝÅÄ Àµ¿Í¡¡¡ØÃΤäƤª¤¤¿¤¤±Ñ¸ì¤ÎÎò»Ë¡Ù¡¡³«Âó¼Ò¡¤2014ǯ¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
¡¡¡¦ Jespersen, Otto. Chapters on English. London: George Allen, 1918. Rpt. of Progress in Language.
¡¡¡¦ Roedler, Eduard. "Die Ausbreitung des 's'-Plurals im Englischen." Vol. 1. PhD thesis, Christian-Albrechts University, 1911; Vol. 2. Anglia 40 (1916): 420--502.
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Adverbial use and adverbial phrases.
For adverbial use of an original genitive singular form, which was later probably apprehended as a plural, see DAYS adv. In prepositional phrases of the noun which occur in adverbial use, it is not always clear to what extent variants with final -s simply show the plural of the noun and how far they reflect the influence of DAYS adv. (especially in early use); compare by days at Phrases 1b(b), on days at Phrases 1d(b), ADAYS adv., NOWADAYS adv.
Beside the regular dative, an endingless dative form also occurs in Old English, especially in adverbial use; compare e.g. forms of TODAY adv.
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¡¡µ¯¸»¤ò¿Ò¤Í¤ë¤È¡¤now ¤ÏͽÁÛÄ̤êÉû»ì¤Î now ¤Ç´Ö°ã¤¤¤Ê¤¤¤¬¡¤a ¤ÏÉÔÄê´§»ì¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¯Á°ÃÖ»ì on ¤Î¼å·Á¤Ë¡¤days ¤ÏÊ£¿ô·Á¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¯Ã±¿ô°³Ê·Á¤ËͳÍ褹¤ë (cf. ¡Ö#81. once ¤ä twice ¤Î -ce ¤È¤Ï²¿¤«¡× ([2009-07-18-1])) ¡¥Ã±¿ô°³Ê·Á¤ËͳÍ褹¤ë days ¤Ï¡¤¸Å±Ñ¸ì¤«¤é¤ß¤é¤ì¤ë¸Å¤¤É½¸½¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡¤¸½ºß¤Ç¤â nights ¡ÊÌëÃæ¤Ë¡Ë¤ÈÂÐÈæ¤·¤ÆÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤ë¤è¤¦¤Ë¡¤Ã±ÆÈ¤ÇÉû»ìŪ¤Ë¡ÖÆüÃæ¤Ë¡× (in the daytime) ¤Î°Õ¤ÇÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤Æ¤¤¿¡¥Ã±ÆÈ¤ÇÉû»ìŪ¤ËÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤ë¤Î¤Ç¤¢¤ì¤ÐÁ°ÃÖ»ì on (> a) ¤Î»Ù¤¨¤ÏɬÍפʤ¤¤Ï¤º¤À¤¬¡¤¡Ö#723. be nihtes¡× ([2011-04-20-1]) ¤Ç¤ß¤¿¤è¤¦¤Ë¡¤Áí¹çŪ¤Ê¸ìË¡¤ÈʬÀÏŪ¤Ê¸ìË¡¤¬º®¹ç¤·¤¿ "on days" ¤ËÁêÅö¤¹¤ëɽ¸½¤âÀ¸¤¸¤¿¡¥¤³¤ì¤éÁ´ÂΤ¬¹ç¤ï¤µ¤Ã¤¿ "now on days" ¤ËÁêÅö¤¹¤ëɽ¸½¤¬¥¤¥Ç¥£¥ª¥à¤È¤·¤ÆÉÑÈˤËÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤ë¤è¤¦¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¤È¡¤È¯²»¤äÄÖ»ú¤Î¾å¤Ç nowadays ¤¬Ê£¹çŪ¤Ë1¸ì¤È¤·¤ÆÇ§¼±¤µ¤ì¤ë¤è¤¦¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¤â¤Î¤È»×¤ï¤ì¤ë¡¥OED ¤Ë¤è¤ë¤È¡¤¢÷now on days ¤ä nowadays, ¤Þ¤¿ ¢÷adays¡¤¤µ¤é¤Ëñ¿ô°³Ê¸ìÈø¤òȼ¤ï¤Ê¤¤ nowaday ¤Ê¤É¤Î´ØÏ¢¤¹¤ë½ô·ÁÂÖ¤¬14À¤µªËö¤Ë¤³¤¾¤Ã¤Æ½é½Ð¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥MED ¤è¤ê nou-a-daies (adv.) (Also nou-daies) ¤È nou-a-day (adv.) ¤â»²¾È¡¥
¡¡¤·¤¿¤¬¤Ã¤Æ¡¤nowadays ¤Î -s ¤Ïµ¯¸»Åª¤Ë¤Ïñ¿ô°³Ê¸ìÈø¤È¤¤¤¦¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¤¬¡¤¸½ºß¤ÎÊì¸ìÏüԤÎľ´¶¤Ç¤ÏÊ£¿ô¸ìÈø¤È¤ß¤Ê¤µ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¤¤À¤í¤¦¤«¡¥ÎàµÁɽ¸½ these days ¤«¤é¤Î±Æ¶Á¤Ê¤É¤â¹Íθ¤¹¤ë¤È¡¤¤½¤Î²ò¼á¤¬ÂÅÅö¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë»×¤ï¤ì¤ë¡¥¤³¤ì¤Ë´Ø¤·¤Æ OED ¤Ï¼¡¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë½Ò¤Ù¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
Adverbial use and adverbial phrases.
For adverbial use of an original genitive singular form, which was later probably apprehended as a plural, see DAYS adv. In prepositional phrases of the noun which occur in adverbial use, it is not always clear to what extent variants with final -s simply show the plural of the noun and how far they reflect the influence of DAYS adv. (especially in early use); compare by days at Phrases 1b(b), on days at Phrases 1d(b), ADAYS adv., NOWADAYS adv.
Beside the regular dative, an endingless dative form also occurs in Old English, especially in adverbial use; compare e.g. forms of TODAY adv.
¡¡¤Ç¤Ï¡¤Ã±¿ô°³Ê·Á¤ËͳÍ褹¤ë nowadays ¤¬¡¤¤Ê¤¼ "these days" ¤Î°ÕÌ£¤ò¤â¤Ä¤è¤¦¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¤«¡¥¸ì¸»¤Ë½¾¤¨¤ÐËÜÍè¤Î°ÕÌ£¤Ï "now in the daytime" ¤Û¤É¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡¤adays ¤ÎÉôʬ¤Ï now ¡Êº£¡¤¸½ºß¡Ë¤ò¸ÂÄꤷ¤Æ¶¯¤á¤ëƯ¤¤ò¤·¤Æ¤¤¤¿¡¥¤Ä¤Þ¤ê¡¤»þ´Ö¤Î°ìÃÏÅÀ¤È¤·¤Æ¤Î¡Ö¤Þ¤µ¤Ëº£¡×¤òɽ¤¹É½¸½¤À¤Ã¤¿¡¥¤È¤³¤í¤¬¡¤¡Ö¤Þ¤µ¤Ëº£¡×¤Î¸·Ì©À¤¬»È¤ï¤ì³¤±¤ë¤Ê¤«¤Ç¡Ö¶¯°ÕÄþ¸º¤Îˡ§¡×¤Î±Â¿©¤È¤Ê¤ê¡¤¡Öº£¤ò´Þ¤àÁ°¸å¤ÎÈϰϡ¨ºÇ¶á¡¤¶áº¢¡×¤È¤¤¤¦´Ë¤¤°ÕÌ£¤òȯŸ¤µ¤»¤¿¤â¤Î¤È¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤ë (cf. ¡Ö#992. ¶¯°Õ¸ì¤È¡Ö¸Â³¦¸úÍÑÄþ¸º¤Îˡ§¡×¡× ([2012-01-14-1]) ¤ä¡Ö#1219. ¶¯°Õ¸ì¤Ï¤Ê¤¼¼ïÎबËÉÙ¤«¡× ([2012-08-28-1]))¡¥¸½ºß¤Î¶¦»þŪ¤Ê´¶³Ð¤È¤·¤Æ¤Ï nowadays ¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë days ¤ÎÉôʬ¤Ï these days ¤ÈƱÎó¤ËÊ£¿ô¤È¤·¤ÆÇ§¼±¤µ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¤¬¡¤Î¾É½¸½¤ÎÄÌ»þŪ¤ÊȯŸ¤Ï·ÁÂÖŪ¤Ë¤â°Ọ̃Ū¤Ë¤â°Û¤Ê¤ë¤³¤È¤ËÃí°Õ¤·¤¿¤¤¡¥
¡¡¡Ö#157. foot ¤ÎÊ£¿ô¤Ï¤Ê¤¼ feet ¤«¡× ([2009-10-01-1]) ¤Ç¡¤ÉÔµ¬Â§Ê£¿ô·Á feet ¤Î·ÁÂ֤ˤĤ¤¤Æ¡¤i-mutation ¤ò´Þ¤à°ìÏ¢¤Î²»±¤ÊѲ½¤Î·ë²Ì¤È¤·¤ÆÀâÌÀ¤·¤¿¡¥¸¶Â§¤È¤·¤ÆÆ±¤¸ÀâÌÀ¤¬ feet ¤Ë¸Â¤é¤ºÂ¾¤ÎÉÔµ¬Â§Ê£¿ô·Á geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women ¤Ë¤âÅö¤Æ¤Ï¤Þ¤ë¤¬¡¤Éü½¬¤¹¤ë¤È¡¤³µÎ¬°Ê²¼¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ê·Ð°Þ¤À¤Ã¤¿¤È¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
¡¡(1) ¥²¥ë¥Þ¥óÁĸ졧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fōt-iz- (pl.)
¡¡(2) Ê£¿ô·Á¤Ç i-mutation ¤¬µ¯¤³¤ë¡§ *fōt- (sg.) / *fēt-iz- (pl.)
¡¡(3) ¸Å±Ñ¸ì´ü¤Þ¤Ç¤Ë *-iz ¤¬¾Ã¼º¡§ fōt- (sg.) / fēt- (pl.)
¡¡¤·¤«¤·¡¤¤³¤Î²áÄø¤ò¤è¤êÀµ³Î¤ËÍý²ò¤¹¤ë¤Ë¤Ï¡¤²»±¤ÊѲ½¤Î¾ÜºÙ¤Ë¤Þ¤ÇƧ¤ß¹þ¤àɬÍפ¬¤¢¤ë¡¥ÆÃ¤Ë (3) ¤Î *-iz ¤¬¾Ã¼º¤¹¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦¤¯¤À¤ê¤Ï¡¤·¡¤ê²¼¤²¤ëɬÍפ¬¤¢¤ë¡¥¤È¤¤¤¦¤Î¤Ï¡¤*-iz ¤Î¾Ã¼º¤Ë¤è¤ê¡¤ËÜÍè¤Ï²»±¤Åª¤Ê°ÕµÁ¤·¤«¤Ê¤«¤Ã¤¿ ō ¤È ē ¤ÎÂÐΩ¤¬¡¤·ÁÂÖŪ¤ÊÌò³ä¤òô¤¦¤è¤¦¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¤«¤é¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
¡¡¸ìÈø *-iz ¤Î¾Ã¼º¤Ï¡¤2¤Ä¤Î²»¤¬°ìµ¤¤Ë¾Ã¼º¤·¤¿¤Î¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¯¡¤Àè¤Ë *z ¤¬¡¤¼¡¤Ë *i ¤¬¾Ã¼º¤·¤¿¤È¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥¥²¥ë¥Þ¥óÁĸì¤Ç¤Ï¡¤foot ¤Ï¸ì´´¤È¶þÀÞ¸ìÈø¤Î´Ö¤ËÊì²»¤Î¤Ê¤¤¤³¤È¤òÆÃħ¤È¤¹¤ë athematic ¤Î¶þÀÞ¥¿¥¤¥×¤Ë°¤·¡¤Ê£¿ô¼ç³Ê¤È¤·¤Æ *-iz ¸ìÈø¡Ê̵¶¯Àª¡Ë¤ò¼è¤Ã¤¿¡¥ËöÈø¤Î *z ¤Ï¡¤°õ²¤Áĸì¤Î *s ¤¬¶¯Àª¤òȼ¤ï¤Ê¤¤²»Àá¤ÎËöÈø¤ÇÍÀ¼²½¤·¤¿¡¤¤¤¤ï¤æ¤ë Verner's Law ¤Î½ÐÎϤǤ¢¤ë (Campbell ¡ø398.2) ¡¥¤³¤Î *z ¤Ï¡¤Æ±¤¸¼å²»Àá¤Î´Ä¶¤Ç¸å¤Ë¾Ã¼º¤·¤¿¡¥¤Ê¤ª¡¤¥²¥ë¥Þ¥óÁĸì¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë a-stem ¤ÎÃËÀ¶¯ÊѲ½¶þÀޤˤª¤±¤ëÊ£¿ô¼ç³Ê¸ìÈø¤Ï¶¯Àª¤ò¤â¤Ä *-ôs ¤Ç¤¢¤Ã¤¿¤¿¤á¡¤*s ¤Ï¼º¤ï¤ì¤ë¤³¤È¤Ê¤¯¡¤¸½ºß¤Ë»ê¤ë¤Þ¤ÇÊ£¿ôɸ¼¨¤Îµ¡Ç½¤òô¤¤Â³¤±¤Æ¤¤¤ë (Campbell ¡ø571) ¡¥¤Ä¤Þ¤ê¡¤feet ¤ÈÎ㤨¤Ð stones ¤Î¤¿¤É¤Ã¤¿·ÁÂÖ¾å¤ÎÎò»Ë¤Ï¡¤Ê£¿ô¼ç³Ê¸ìÈø¤Ë¶¯Àª¤¬¤Ê¤«¤Ã¤¿¤«¡¤¤¢¤Ã¤¿¤«¤Î°ã¤¤¡Êµæ¶ËŪ¤Ë¤Ï¡¤°õ²¤Áĸì¤Ç°¤·¤Æ¤¤¤¿¶þÀÞ¥¿¥¤¥×¤Î°ã¤¤¡Ë¤Ëµ¢¤»¤é¤ì¤ë¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¡¥
¡¡¤µ¤Æ¡¤*z ¤¬Ã¦Í¤ë¤È¡¤¼¡¤Ï¸ìËö¤Î *i ¤â¾Ã¼º¤Ë¤µ¤é¤µ¤ì¤ë¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¡¥¸Å±Ñ¸ì°ÊÁ°¤Î»þ´ü¤Ë¡¤¸ìËö¤Î¼å²»Àá¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë¹âÊì²» *i ¤È *u ¤Ï¡¤Ä¾Á°¤Ë¶¯Àª¤Î¤¢¤ëŤ¤²»À᤬¤¢¤ë´Ä¶¤ÇæÍ¤¿¡¥¤¤¤ï¤æ¤ë¡¤High Vowel Deletion ¤È¸Æ¤Ð¤ì¤ë²»±¤ÊѲ½¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥*fēti ¤Î *i ¤Ï¤³¤Î¾ò·ï¤Ë¹çÃפ·¤Æ¤¤¤¿¤¿¤á¤ËæÍ¤ë¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤¿ (Campbell ¡ø345) ¡¥
¡¡(3) ¤Ç¤Ï°ì¸À¤Ç *-iz ¤¬Ã¦Í¤¿¤È½Ò¤Ù¤¿¤¬¡¤¼ÂºÝ¤Ë¤Ï¾ò·ï¤Å¤±¤é¤ì¤¿°ìÏ¢¤Î²»±¤ÊѲ½¤ÎÏ¢º¿¤Ë¤è¤Ã¤Æ½ç·«¤ê¤ËæÍ¤Æ¤¤¤Ã¤¿¤Î¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥É¸Âê¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ê¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Î¡ÖÁÇËѤʵ¿Ìä¡×¤ËÂФ·¤Æ¤Ç¤¤ë¸Â¤êËþ¤Τ¤¤¯²óÅú¤òÆÀ¤ë¤¿¤á¤Ë¤Ï¡¤¤É¤³¤Þ¤Ç¤âÎò»Ë¤òÁ̤é¤Ê¤±¤ì¤Ð¤Ê¤é¤Ê¤¤¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
¡¡¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Ç¤Ï¡¤¸¶Â§¤È¤·¤ÆÊ£¿ô·Á¤Î s ¤ËÂФ·¤Æ½ñµ¾å apostrophe ¤òÁ°ÃÖ¤¹¤ë¤³¤È¤Ï¤Ê¤¤¡¥¤¿¤À¤·¡¤Îã³°¤Ï¤¢¤ê¡¤µ¬ÈÏŪ¤Ë¤Ï dot your i's ¤Ê¤Éʸ»ú¤½¤Î¤â¤Î¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¡¤1890's ¤Ê¤É¤ÎǯÂ塤PhD's ¤Ê¤É¤Îά¸ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¤Î¾ì¹ç¤Ë¤Ï apostrophe ¤¬ÉÕ¤µ¤ì¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡Ê[2010-11-30-1]¤Îµ»ö¡Ö#582. apostrophe¡×¤ò»²¾È¡Ë¡¥¤·¤«¤·¡¤ºÇ¶á¤Ç¤Ï¡¤¸å¼Ô2¤Ä¤Ç¤Ï apostrophe ¤ò¾Ê¤¤¤Æ 1890s ¤ä PhDs ¤È¤¹¤ë¤³¤È¤¬Â¿¤¯¤Ê¤Ã¤Æ¤¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥¤«¤Ä¤Æ¤Ï°ìÈ̤Î̾»ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¤Ë¤â -'s ¤ÎÄÖ»ú¤¬¸«¤é¤ì¤¿¤¬¡¤¸½ºß¤Ç¤Ï¤Û¤Ü»à¤ËÀ䤨¤¿Àµ½ñË¡¤È¤¤¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤¤¤À¤í¤¦¡¥
¡¡¤·¤«¤·¡¤µ¬ÈϤ«¤é°ï¤ì¤¿Èóɸ½àŪ¤Ê¾ìÌ̤ǡ¤Ê£¿ô·Á¤Î -'s ¤¬»ÈÍѤµ¤ì¤ë¤³¤È¤¬¤¢¤ë¡¥¤¤¤ä¡¤¤à¤·¤í¤½¤³¤Ç¤ÏÀ¸¤À¸¤¤È»ÈÍѤµ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤À¡¥¤³¤ì¤Ï "greengrocer's apostrophe" ¤È¸À¤ï¤ì¤ë¡¥Horobin (12) ¤Ë¤è¤ì¤Ð¡¤
. . . the apostrophe is used before a plural -s ending; so-called because it is thought to be particularly prevalent in greengrocers' signs advertising apple's, pear's, and orange's. As Keith Waterhouse notes in his book English our English (1991): 'Greengrocers, for some reason, are extremely generous with their apostrophes---banana's, tomatoe's (or tom's), orange's, etc. Perhaps these come over in crates of fruit, like exotic spiders' (p. 43).
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¡¡¤À¤¬¡¤¤³¤Î greengrocer's apostrophe ¤¬²Ì¤¿¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ëÌò³ä¤Ï²¿¤Ê¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¤«¡¥Ã±¤Ê¤ë¸íÍѤȤ¤¤¦²ò¼á¤â¤¢¤ë¤è¤¦¤À¤¬¡¤¤½¤ì¤Ð¤«¤ê¤È¤Ï¸À¤¤ÀÚ¤ì¤Ê¤¤¡¥1¤Ä¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤ë¤³¤È¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤greengrocer's apostrophe ¤Ï¡¤È¬É´²°¡Ê¤Ë¸Â¤é¤Ê¤¤¤¬¡Ë¤È·ë¤Ó¤Ä¤±¤é¤ì¤ë¤â¤Î¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤¡ÖȬɴ²°¡×Ū¤Ê»ÈÍѰè (register) ¤¢¤ë¤¤¤ÏʸÂÎ (style) ¤òɽ¤ï¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¤¤«¡¥¡ÖȬɴ²°¡×Ū¤È¤Ï²¿¤«Åª³Î¤Ë½Ò¤Ù¤ë¤Î¤ÏÆñ¤·¤¤¤¬¡¤Æü¾ï¤Î¿©¤Ùʪ¤òÇä¤ëŹ¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤·Á¼°Åª¤Ê¼Ò²ñŪµ¬ÈϤ«¤éÎ¥¤ì¤¿¡¤½î̱À¤äÀ¤Â¯À¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ê¤â¤Î¤òÂ轤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¤¤«¡¥¤â¤Ã¤È°ìÈ̲½¤·¤Æ¸À¤¨¤Ð¡¤É¸½àŪ¤Çµ¬ÈÏŪ¤ÊɽµË¡¤«¤é°ï椹¤ë¤³¤È¤Ç¡¤¿Æ¤·¤ß¤ä¤¹¤µ¤ò±é½Ð¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦¤³¤È¤«¤â¤·¤ì¤Ê¤¤¡¥ÀÄʪ¤ÎÃÍ»¥¤Ë¤Ï°õºþ¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¯¼ê½ñ¤¤¬¤è¤¯»÷¹ç¤¦¤¬¡¤greengrocer's apostrophe ¤Ï¼ê½ñ¤¤Îµ¤¼è¤é¤Ê¤µ¤ò°ìÁض¯¤á¤ëƯ¤¤ò¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤È¤â¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤ë¡¥
¡¡¤â¤·²¾¤Ë¾åµ¤ÎʸÂÎŪ¸ú²Ì¡Ê¤¢¤ë¤¤¤Ï¼Ò²ñ¸À¸ì³ØÅª¸ú²Ì¤È¸À¤Ã¤Æ¤â¤è¤¤¡Ë¤¬¤¢¤ë¤Î¤À¤È¤¹¤ì¤Ð¡¤¤½¤Î¸ú²Ì¤Ï¡Ö#574. punctuation ¤Î4¤Ä¤Îµ¡Ç½¡× ([2010-11-22-1]) ¤Î¤¤¤º¤ì¤Îµ¡Ç½¤Ë¤â³ºÅö¤·¤Ê¤¤¤â¤Î¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤«¤é¡¤punctuation ¤ÎÂè5¤Îµ¡Ç½¤È¤¤¤¦¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
¡¡¡¦ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
¡¡É¸µ¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ê¿ô»ì¤Èñ°Ì¤ò´Þ¤àÊ£¹ç·ÁÍÆ»ì¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ¤Ï¡¤Ã±°Ì¤òɽ¤ï¤¹Ì¾»ì¤ÏÊ£¿ô·Á¤ò¼è¤é¤Ê¤¤¤Î¤¬µ¬Â§¤È¤µ¤ì¤ë¡¥a four-power agreement, a five-foot-deep river, a ten-dollar bill, a twelve-year-old boy ¤Ê¤É¤ÎÇ¡¤¯¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
¡¡¤·¤«¤·¡¤¤È¤¤ËÊ£¿ô·Á¤ò¼è¤ëÎã¤â»¶¸«¤µ¤ì¡¤a three-hours-and-a-half flight ¤â¤¢¤êÆÀ¤ë¤·¡¤a four years course ¤â¤¢¤êÆÀ¤ë¡¥Quirk et al. (Section 17.108) ¤Ë¤è¤ì¤Ð¡¤Æ±¼ï¤Îɽ¸½¤È¤·¤Æ°Ê²¼¤Î4Ä̤꤬²Äǽ¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
. . . in quantitative expressions of the following type there is possible variation . . .:
a ten day absence [singular] a ten-day absence [hyphen + singular] a ten days absence [plural] a ten days' absence [genitive plural]
¡¡Æ±Íͤˡ¤¡Ö4ǯÀ©²ÝÄø¡×¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤â¡¤"a four year course", "a four-year course", "a four years course", "a four years' course" ¤Î¤¤¤º¤ì¤â¤¢¤êÆÀ¤ë¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¡¥¤³¤ì¤é¤ÎÊѰ۷Á¤¬¤¤¤«¤Ë¤·¤ÆÀ¸¤¸¤Æ¤¤¿¤Î¤«¡¤»È¤¤Ê¬¤±¤Î´ð½à¤¬¤¢¤ê¤¦¤ë¤Î¤«¤È¤¤¤¦ÌäÂê¤Ï¡¤ÄÌ»þŪ¡¤ÍýÏÀŪ¤Ë¶½Ì£¿¼¤¤ÌäÂê¤À¤¬¡¤¸½Ãʳ¬¤Ç¤Ï̤Ĵºº¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
¡¡¤³¤ÎÌäÂê¤È´ØÏ¢¤·¤¦¤ëÏÃÂê¤È¤·¤ÆÃí°Õ¤·¤Æ¤ª¤¤¿¤¤¤Î¤Ï¡¤¤ä¤Ï¤ê¥¤¥®¥ê¥¹±Ñ¸ì¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ¡¤Ì¾»ì¤Î¸ÂÄê·ÁÍÆ»ìÍÑË¡¤Ç¤Ï¡¤¤½¤Î̾»ì¤¬Ê£¿ô·Á¤È¤·¤Æ¤¢¤ëÄøÅÙ¸ì×ò½¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¾ì¹ç¤Ë¡¤Ê£¿ô·Á¤Î·ÁÂ֤ΤޤޤǼ¸½¤µ¤ì¤ë¤³¤È¤¬Â¿¤¤¤È¤¤¤¦»ö¼Â¤À¡¥Î㤨¤Ð¡¤Quirk et al. (Section 17.109) ¤Ë¤è¤ë¤È¡¤¥¤¥®¥ê¥¹±Ñ¸ì¸ÂÄê¤À¤¬¡¤¼¡¤Î¤è¤¦¤ÊÎ㤬¤ß¤é¤ì¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦¡¥parks department, courses committee, examinations board, the heavy chemicals industry, Scotland Yard's Obscene Publications Squad, Chesterfield Hospitals management Committee, the British Museum Prints and Drawings Gallery, an Arts degree, soft drinks manufacturer, entertainments guide, appliances manufacturer, the Watergate tapes affair.
¡¡¡¦ Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
¡¡¸À¸ìÀÜ¿¨¤Ëµ¯°ø¤¹¤ë¸½¾Ý¤Ï¤¤¤¯¤Ä¤«µó¤²¤ë¤³¤È¤¬¤Ç¤¤ë¤¬¡¤¤½¤Î¤Ê¤«¤Ë¼ÚÍÑ (borrowing) ¤ä code-switching ¤¬¤¢¤ë¡¥¡Ö#1627. code-switching ¤È code-mixing¡× ([2013-10-10-1]) ¤Îµ»ö¤Ç¤â¼¨º¶¤·¤¿¤¬¡¤ÏÀ¼Ô¤Ë¤è¤Ã¤Æ¤Ï¤³¤Î2¤Ä¤Î¸½¾Ý¤Ï1¤Ä¤ÎϢ³ÂΤÎξ¶Ë¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤È¤µ¤ì¤ë¡¥³Î¤«¤Ë¡¤¤½¤¦¹Í¤¨¤é¤ì¤ëÍýͳ¤Ï¤¢¤ë¡¥Î㤨¤Ð¡¤A¸À¸ì¤ÈB¸À¸ì¤Î code-switching ¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ¡¤´ðÈפȤʤëA¸À¸ì¤ÎȯÏäΤʤ«¤ËB¸À¸ì¤«¤é¼è¤é¤ì¤¿Ã±¸ì¤¬1¤Ä¤À¤±ÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤ë¾ì¹ç¡¤¤³¤ì¤ò "nonce-borrowing" ¤È¸Æ¤Ö¤³¤È¤â¤Ç¤¤½¤¦¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤½¤·¤Æ¡¤¤³¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ê nonce-borrowing ¤¬¤¢¤ëÄøÅÙ´·½¬²½¤·¤¿¤â¤Î¤¬ "established borrowing" ¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡¤·ë²Ì¤È¤·¤ÆÄêÃ夷¤¿¸ì¤¬¼ÚÍѸì (loanword) ¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤È¸À¤¨¤½¤¦¤À¡¥¤³¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë¹Í¤¨¤ë¤È¡¤¼ÚÍÑ¤È code-switching ¤ÏϢ³ÂΤÎξü¤À¤È¤¤¤¦Àâ¤âÀâÆÀÎϤ¬¤¢¤ë¡¥ÀÜ¿¨¸À¸ì³Ø¤ÎÂè°ì¿Í¼Ô¤Ç¤¢¤ë Einar Haugen ¤â¡¤¤³¤Î¼ñ»Ý¤Ç code-switching ¤ò¼¡¤Î¤è¤¦¤ËÄêµÁ¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥"the alternate use of two languages including everything from the introduction of a single, unassimilated word up to a complete sentence or more into the context of another language" (quoted from Haugen (193: 521) by Myers-Scotton (256)).
¡¡¤À¤¬¡¤¤½¤ÎÁÛÄꤵ¤ì¤¿Ï¢Â³ÂΤο¿¤óÃæÊդꡤ¼ÚÍÑ¤È code-switching ¤¬¸ß¤¤¤Ë¾è¤êÆþ¤ì¤ë¤È¤µ¤ì¤ëÉÕ¶á¤Ë¤ª¤¤¤Æ¤Ï¡¤¸ß¤¤¤ÎÆÃħ¤Ï¼«Á³¤ÈÍϤ±¹ç¤¦¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¤«¡¤¤¢¤ë¤¤¤ÏϢ³ÂΤȤϤ¤¤¨¤É¤â¤¢¤ëÄøÅÙ¤ÎÉÔϢ³¤Ê¶³¦¤¬Ç§¤á¤é¤ì¤ë¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¤«¡¥¤³¤ÎÌäÂê¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤ÏµÄÏÀ¤¬¤¢¤ë¤è¤¦¤À¤¬¡¤¼è¤Ã³Ý¤«¤ê¤È¤·¤Æ Myers-Scotton (253--60) ¤ËÅö¤¿¤Ã¤Æ¤ß¤¿¡¥
¡¡´ðÈפÎA¸À¸ì¤ËB¸À¸ì¤«¤é¼è¤é¤ì¤¿Ã±¸ì¤¬1¤Ä¤À¤±ÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤ë¾ì¹ç¡¤Ä̾¤½¤Î¸ì¤ÏA¸À¸ì¤ÇÃÖ¤«¤ì¤ë¤Ï¤º¤ÎÅý¸ìŪ°ÌÃ֤˸½¤ì¤ë¤¬¡¤·ÁÂÖŪ¤Ë¤ÏA¸À¸ì¤ËÆÃͤζþÀޤʤɤϼè¤é¤º¡¤Íç¤ÇÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤ë¡¥¤Þ¤¿¡¤Ä̾綠¤Î¸ì¤ÏB¸À¸ì¤Ç¤Îȯ²»¤È¤·¤Æ¼Â¸½¤µ¤ì¤ë¡¥¤¹¤Ê¤ï¤Á¡¤ÌäÂê¤Î¸ì¤Ï´ðÈ׸À¸ì¤Ø¤ÎƱ²½¤ÎÅٹ礤¤¬Ä㤤ʬ¡¤¼ÚÍѤè¤ê¤â code-switching ¤Î¤Û¤¦¤Ë¶á¤¤¤È¤¤¤¦¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¡¥°ìÊý¡¤¥¹¥ï¥Ò¥ê¸ì¤ò´ðÈפȤ¹¤ë±Ñ¸ì¤Î code-switching ¤Î¼ÂÎã¤Ë¤è¤ë¤È¡¤±Ññ¸ì¤¬¥¹¥ï¥Ò¥ê¸ì¤Î¶þÀÞ¤ò¼¨¤·¤Ä¤Ä¤â±Ñ¸ìÉ÷¤Ë¼Â¸½¤µ¤ì¤ë¥±¡¼¥¹¤¬¤¢¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦¤Î¤Ç¡¤È½ÃǤ¬Æñ¤·¤¤¡¥
¡¡ÌäÂê¤È¤Ê¤ë¤Î¤Ï¡¤¼ÚÍÑ¤È code-switching ¤Î¶³¦¡¤¤¢¤ë¤¤¤ÏƱ²½¤ÎÄøÅÙ¤ò·è¤á¤ë¤Î¤Ë¡¤²»±¤¡¤·ÁÂÖ¡¤Åý¸ì¤Î´ð½à¤Î¤½¤ì¤¾¤ì¤Ë¤É¤ÎÄøÅ٤νŤߤŤ±¤òÉÕÍ¿¤¹¤ë¤Î¤«¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥Myers-Scotton (260) ¤Ïɬ¤º¤·¤â»õÀÚ¤ì¤Ï¤è¤¯¤Ê¤¤¤¬¡¤Ã±ÂΤǺ¹¤·¶´¤Þ¤ì¤ë¸ì¤Ï¡¤¤É¤Á¤é¤«¤È¤¤¤¦¤È¼ÚÍѤè¤ê¤Ï code-switching ¤Ë¶á¤¤¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤Î¾¼Ô¤Î¶èÊ̤¢¤ë¤¤¤ÏÉÔϢ³À¤ò°ì±þ¤Ïǧ¤á¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
Let's be clear: we aren't arguing that all Embedded language single words in codeswitching data sets are bona fide instances of codeswtiching. Some singly occurring Embedded Language words could have become established borrowings. But, as we've shown above, there is good reason to treat most of these singly occurring words as codeswitched forms.
¡¡¤³¤ÎÌäÂê¤È´ØÍ¿¤·¤½¤¦¤Ê¤Î¤¬¡¤¼ÚÍѸµ¸À¸ì¤Î·ÁÂÖÏÀ¤òÈ¿±Ç¤·¤¿¼ÚÍѤǤ¢¤ë¡¥¸µ¸À¸ì¤Î·ÁÂÖÏÀ¤òÈ¿±Ç¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦°ÕÌ£¤Ç code-switching Ū¤À¤¬¡¤²»±¤Åª¡¤Åý¸ìŪ¤Ë¤Ï´·½¬²½¤µ¤ì¤Æ¤ª¤ê¡¤¼ÚÍѸìŪ¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦Îã¤À¡¥²¿¤ò»Ø¤¹¤«¤Ï¶ñÂÎÎã¤òµó¤²¤ì¤Ð°ìÌÜÎÆÁ³¤À¤í¤¦¡¥¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë alumnus -- alumni, alga -- algae, phenomenon -- phenomena ¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ê³°Íè¸ì¤Îñʣ¿ô·Á¤Ê¤É¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤³¤ì¤é¤Ï°ìÈ̤˼ÚÍѸì¤È¤ß¤Ê¤µ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤¬¡¤¾å¤ÎµÄÏÀ¤òƧ¤Þ¤¨¤ë¤È¡¤code-switching Ū¤ÊÆÃħ¤òÉôʬŪ¤Ë»Ä¤·¤¿¼ÚÍѸì¤È¤ß¤Ê¤·¤¿¤¯¤Ê¤ë¡¥¼ÚÍÑ¤È code-switching ¤Î¶Ìܤϥ°¥ì¡¼¤Ç¤Ï¤¢¤ë¤¬¡¤¥°¥ì¡¼¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤¬¤æ¤¨¤Ë¡¤³°Íè¸ìÊ£¿ô¤ÎÌäÂê¤Ë¿·¤¿¤Êƶ»¡¤òÍ¿¤¨¤Æ¤¯¤ì¤ë¤è¤¦¤Ë¤â»×¤¨¤ë¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Myers-Scotton, Carol. Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
¡¡¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Ç¤Ï¡¤Ä̾ï fish ¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¤ÏƱ·Á¤Î fish ¤Ç¤¢¤ë (ex. I saw a school of fish in the river) ¡¥ÆÃ¤Ë¼ïÎब°Û¤Ê¤ëµû¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤³¤È¤ò¶¯Ä´¤¹¤ë¾ì¹ç¤Ë¤Ï fishes ¤È¤¹¤ë¤³¤È¤â¤¢¤ë¤¬¡¤¤½¤Î¾ì¹ç¤Ë¤â three kinds of fish ¤Ê¤É¤È¤¹¤ë¤³¤È¤¬Â¿¤¤¡¥¤Þ¤¿¡¤¥¤¥®¥ê¥¹±Ñ¸ì¤Ç¤Ï¼ïÎà¤Î°ÛƱ¤Ë¤«¤«¤ï¤é¤º fishes ¤È¤¹¤ë¤³¤È¤Ï¤¢¤ë¤¬¡¤°ìÈÌŪ¤Ë¤Ï fish ¤ÏñʣƱ·Á¤È¹Í¤¨¤Æ¤ª¤¤¤Æ¤è¤¤¤À¤í¤¦¡¥¤¢¤ë¤¤¤Ï¡¤Ê£¿ô¤È¤·¤Æ¤Î fish ¤Ï½¸¹çŪ¤ËÍѤ¤¤é¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤â¤Î¤È¹Í¤¨¤Æ¤â¤è¤¤¡¥¤½¤ÎÅÀ¤Ç¤Ï¡¤ÉôʬŪ¤Ë fruit ¤ä hair ¤Ê¤É¤È¤âÍÑË¡¤¬»÷¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
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¡¡¤È¤³¤í¤¬¡¤fish ¤Î¸Å±Ñ¸ì·Á fisc ¤Ï¡¤ÃËÀ¶¯ÊѲ½Ì¾»ì¤Ê¤Î¤ÇÊ£¿ô¼ç³Ê¡¦ÂгʷÁ¤Ï fiscas ¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤³¤ì¤¬¸å¤Ë fishes ¤Ø¤ÈȯŸ¤·¤Æ¤æ¤¯¤Î¤À¤¬¡¤¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Ç¤è¤ê°ìÈÌŪ¤ÊÊ£¿ô·Á fish ¤Î¤Û¤¦¤Ï sheep, deer ¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë¸Å±Ñ¸ì¤Î°ä»º¤È¤·¤Æ¤ÏÀâÌÀ¤Ç¤¤Ê¤¤¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤ë¡¥¤Ä¤Þ¤ê¡¤Ê£¿ô·Á fish ¤Ï¸Å±Ñ¸ì¤è¤ê¸å¤Î»þÂå¤ËÀ¸¤Þ¤ì¤¿³×¿··Á¤È¹Í¤¨¤ëɬÍפ¬¤¢¤ë¡¥
¡¡¼ÂºÝ¤Ë¡¤Ê£¿ô·Á fish ¤Ï½é´üÃæ±Ñ¸ì¤Ç½é½Ð¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥OED ¤Ë¤è¤ë¤È¡¤fish ¤òñ¿ô·Á¤ÈƱ·Á¤Î¤Þ¤Þ½¸¹çŪ¤ËÍѤ¤¤ëÍÑË¡ (1b) ¤Ï¡¤a1300 ¤Î Cursor Mundi ¤Ë½é½Ð¤¹¤ë¡¥
9395 (Cott.): Foghul and fiche, grett thing and small.
¡¡¤Þ¤¿¡¤MED ¤Î fish (n.) (2b) ¤Ë¤è¤ì¤Ð¡¤fish ¤ÎÁí¾ÎŪ¤¢¤ë¤¤¤Ï¼ÁÎÌŪ¤Ê̾»ì¤È¤·¤Æ¤ÎÍÑË¡¤¬µó¤²¤é¤ì¤Æ¤ª¤ê¡¤½éÎã¤Ï?a1200¤Îºî¤È¤µ¤ì¤ë Layamon's Brut ¤«¤é¤À¡¥
Lay. Brut (Clg A.9) 22000: Þer inne is feower kunnes fisc.
¡¡¼ê¸µ¤Ë¤¢¤ë½é´üÃæ±Ñ¸ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¥Ç¡¼¥¿¥Ù¡¼¥¹¤Ç¤Ï¡¤40Îã¤Þ¤Ç¤¬Ê£¿ô¸ìÈø¤òȼ¤¦·ÁÂ֤ǡ¤5Îã¤Î¤ß¤¬Ã±¿ô·Á¤ÈƱ·Á¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤¤¤Þ¤À -es ·Á¤¬Í¥Àª¤À¤¬¡¤¸å¤ÎÎò»Ë¤Î¤¢¤ëÃʳ¬¤Ç·ÁÀª¤¬µÕž¤¹¤ë¤³¤È¤Ë¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¡¥7¤Ä¤Î¥Ð¡¼¥¸¥ç¥ó¤ÇÅÁ¤ï¤ë Poema Morale ¤Ç¤Ï¡¤D¼ÌËܤÈM¼ÌËܤΤߤ¬¸ìÈø¤Ê¤·¤Î·ÁÂÖ¤òÍѤ¤¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
T(83): He makeð þe fisses in þe sa þe fueles on þe lofte.
J(82): He makede fysses in þe sea. and fuweles in þe lufte.
E1(83): He makede fisses inne þe see. and fuȝeles inne þe lofte
E2(83): He makede fisces in ðe sé. {end} fuȝeles in ðe lufte.
D (159--60): he wrohte fis on þer sae / and foȝeles on þar lefte.
L (83): He makede fisses in þe se 7 fuȝeles in þe lifte.
M (77): He scuppeþ þe fish in þe seo, þe foȝel bi þe lefte.
¡¡°Ê¾å¤Ï¡Ö#12. How many carp!¡× ([2009-05-11-1]) ¤Ç¤â¼è¤ê¾å¤²¤¿ÏÃÂê¤À¤¬¡¤¸½Âå±Ñ¸ì¤Ë¤ª¤±¤ë¡ÖÉÔµ¬Â§¤Ê¡×·ÁÂ֤ο¤¯¤¬¸Å±Ñ¸ì¤«¤é¤Î°ä»º¤È¤·¤ÆÀâÌÀ¤Ç¤¤ë°ìÊý¡¤Ãæ±Ñ¸ì°Ê¹ß¤Î³×¿·¤È¤·¤ÆÀâÌÀ¤µ¤ì¤ëÎã¤âƱ¤¸¤¯¤é¤¤Â¿¤¤¤È¤¤¤¦¤³¤È¤ËÃí°Õ¤·¤¿¤¤¡¥
¡¡Ì¾»ìÊ£¿ô·Á¤Î -s ¸ìÈø³ÈÂç¤ÎÎò»Ë¤Ï»ä¤Î¼çÍפʥơ¼¥Þ¤Î1¤Ä¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡ÊÀÛÃø¤ª¤è¤Ó[2011-11-29-1]¤Îµ»ö¡Ö#946. ̾»ìÊ£¿ô·Á¤ÎÎò»Ë¤Î³µÍספò»²¾È¡Ë¡¥¤È¤ê¤ï¤±¡¤¤Ê¤¼¤Û¤«¤Ê¤é¤Ì -s ¤¬Áª¤Ð¤ì¤¿¤Î¤«¤È¤¤¤¦ÌäÂê¤Ë¤Ï¤³¤À¤ï¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¿¡¥Hotta (148--49) ¤Ç¤Ï¡¤¤¤¤¯¤Ä¤«¤Î¸À¸ìÆâŪ¤ÊÍ×°ø¤ò»ØÅ¦¤·¤¿¤¬¡¤¤½¤Î1¤Ä¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤-s ¤Ï¾¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á¤òÂåɽ¤¹¤ë¶þÀÞ¸ìÈø¤ÈÈæ¤Ù¤Æ²»À¼Åª¤Ë¶¯¸Ç¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡¤¼º¤ï¤ì¤Ë¤¯¤¤¤³¤È¤ò»ØÅ¦¤·¤¿¡¥
¡¡-s ¤Î²»À¼ÅªÂî±Û¤È¤¤¤¦ÅÀ¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¡¤Hickey (62) ¤Ë´ØÏ¢¤¹¤ë¸ÀµÚ¤ò¸«¤Ä¤±¤¿¡¥¤½¤³¤Ç¤Ï¡¤Ì¾»ìÊ£¿ô·Á¤Î -s ¤Î¤ß¤Ê¤é¤º¡¤Æ°»ì3ñ¸½¤Î -th ¤ËÂФ¹¤ë -s ¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤âµÄÏÀ¤µ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¡¥
. . . acoustic prominence can be appealed to in the history of English as well, for instance the substitution of /-θ/ by /-s/ in the third person singular or the progressive productivity of /-s/ plurals from Old English onwards and their encroaching on already established plural types --- cf. ME nasal plurals, such as eyen ¢ª eyes --- can be accounted for on the grounds of the phonetic salience of /s/ and hence its suitability as a grammatical suffix.
¡¡-s ¤Î²»À¼ÅªÂî±Û¤Ï¡¤¥é¥¤¥Ð¥ëÀÜÈø¼¤ËÂФ¹¤ëľÀÜŪ¤Ê¾¡°ø¤È¤¤¤¦¤è¤ê¤Ï¡¤ºÇ½ªÅª¤ÊÀ¸¤»Ä¤ê¤Ë¹×¸¥¤·¤¿ a conditioning factor ¤°¤é¤¤¤Ë¤È¤é¤¨¤Æ¤ª¤¯¤Î¤¬¤è¤¤¤Î¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¤¤«¤È¹Í¤¨¤ë¤¬¡¤·ÁÂÖÏÀ¤ÎÊѲ½¤Ë²»À¼ÅªÆÃħ¤¬´Ø¤ï¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤ë»öÎã¤È¤·¤ÆÃíÌܤËÃͤ¹¤ë¡¥ÆÃ¤Ë [s] ¤È [θ] ¤ÎÄ´²»¡¦²»¶Á²»À¼³ØÅª¤Êº¹°Û¤Ë¤Ä¤¤¤Æ¤Ï¡¤ÀìÌçŪ¤ËÆÍ¤Ã¹þ¤ó¤À΢¼è¤ê¤ò¤·¤¿¤³¤È¤Ï¤Ê¤«¤Ã¤¿¤Î¤Ç¡¤Hickey (71 [fn. 5]) ¤Î¼¡¤ÎÍ×Ìó¤Ï¤¢¤ê¤¬¤¿¤¤¡Ê°úÍÑÃæ¤Î»²¹Íʸ¸¥½ñ»ï¤Ï°úÍѼԤ¬Å¸³«¤·¤¿¤â¤Î¡Ë¡¥
Ladefoged and Maddieson (pp. 145--72 of Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.) suggest a division of fricatives into sibilant and non-sibilant given that with the former (/s, ʃ/ articulations in English for instance) the constriction at the alveolar ridge produces a jet of air that hits the obstacle formed by the teeth. In non-obstacle fricatives, such as /θ, ð/, the turbulence is produced at the constriction itself. Laver (pp. 260--63 of Laver, John. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.) discusses the auditory characteristics of fricatives as does Fry (p. 122 of Fry, Dennis Butler. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.), who notes that the noise energy for [s] is prominent between 4000 and 8000 Hz. It is similar in frequency distribution to [θ] but has much greater energy which means it is more clearly audible (see diagrams, Fry 1979: 123). *
¡¡¡¦ Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
¡¡¡¦ Hickey, Raymond. "Salience, Stigma and Standard." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 57--72.
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¡¡¤·¤«¤·¡¤news ¤Îµ¯¸»¤Ï¸ìÈø¤Î s ¤Ë¼¨º¶¤µ¤ì¤ëÄ̤ꡤʣ¿ô·Á¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥·ÁÍÆ»ì new ¤¬Ì¾»ì²½¤µ¤ì¡¤¤½¤ì¤¬Ê£¿ô·Á¤È¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¤Î¤¬ news ¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¡Ö¿·´ñ¤Ê»öʪ¡×¤ò°ÕÌ£¤¹¤ë̾»ì¤È¤·¤Æ¤ÎºÇ¤âÁᤤÎã¤Ï¡¤13À¤µª¤Ë¸½¤ï¤ì¤ë (see MED neue (n.)) ¡¥·ÁÍÆ»ì new ¤«¤éÇÉÀ¸¤·¤¿Ä̾ï¤Î̾»ì¤Ê¤Î¤Ç¡¤ÉÔÄê´§»ì¤â¤Ä¤±¤Ð¡¤Ê£¿ô·Á¤Ë¤â¤Ê¤Ã¤¿¡¥
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(a1382) WBible(1) (Bod 959) Ecclus.24.35: A king..þe whiche fulfilleþ as phison wisdam & as tigris in þe daiys of newis [WB(2): newe thingis].
¡¡of newis ¤ËÂбþ¤¹¤ë¥é¥Æ¥ó¸ì¤ÏÊ£¿ô°³Ê¤Î novorum ¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¥é¥Æ¥ó¸ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô¼ç³Ê nova ¤Ï¡¤¸ÅÊ©¸ì¤Ç¤â noveles ¤ÈÊ£¿ô·Á¤Ç¼õ¤±Æþ¤ì¤é¤ì¡¤±Ñ¸ì¤ÎÊ£¿ô·Á news ¤Î¸ÇÄê²½¤Ë¤â¹×¸¥¤·¤¿¤Î¤Ç¤Ï¤Ê¤¤¤«¡¥
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1566 Pasquine in Traunce 36, I hearde speak of it, when ye newes therof was brought to Pope Iulie the seconde.
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pp. = pages
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¡¡É½¸ìŪ¤¢¤ë¤¤¤Ïɽ°ÕŪ¤Êʸ»úÂηϤǤ¢¤ë´Á»ú¤Ë´·¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ëÆüËܸìÊì¸ìÏüԤˤȤäơ¤±Ñ¸ì¤Î ff. ¤Î¤è¤¦¤ÊÍÑË¡¤Ï¶Ã¤¯¤ËÃͤ·¤Ê¤¤¤À¤í¤¦¡¥¡Ö·¦Î´¡×¤Ê¤ë´Á½Ï¸ì¤ò¸«¤»¤é¤ì¤ì¤Ð¡¤¡Ö¥ï¥ê¥å¥¦¡×¤È¤ÏÆÉ¤á¤Ê¤¯¤È¤â¡¤¤¯¤Ü¤ó¤À½ê¤È¤â¤ê¤¢¤¬¤Ã¤¿½ê¤Ê¤Î¤À¤í¤¦¤Ê¤È°ÕÌ£¤Ï¿ä¬¤Ç¤¤ë¤·¡¤¡ÖËÙ¼¼¡×¤ò¡Ö¥³¥Ã¥·¥Ä¡×¤ÈÆÉ¤á¤Ê¤¯¤È¤â¡¤Ãϲ¼¤Ë·¡¤Ã¤¿Éô²°¤«¤Ê¤ÈÁÛÁü¤¬¤Ä¤¯¡¥
¡¡Ì¾»ìÊ£¿ô·Á¤ÎȯŸ¡Ê¼ç¤È¤·¤Æ½é´üÃæ±Ñ¸ì´ü¡Ë¤òĹ¤é¤¯¸¦µæ¤·¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤Î¤À¤¬¡¤Æþ¤ì¹þ¤ß¤¹¤®¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤¿¤á¤«¡¤¤«¤¨¤Ã¤Æ¥Ö¥í¥°µ»ö¤È¤·¤Æ³µÍפò½ñ¤¤Å¤é¤¤¡¥¤·¤«¤·¡¤³µÍפ¯¤é¤¤¤Ï½ñ¤Î±¤á¤Æ¤ª¤¯¤È¤ä¤Ï¤êÊØÍø¤Ê¤Î¤Ç¡¤°Ê²¼¤Ë¶µ²Ê½ñŪ¤Êµ½Ò¤òÍ¿¤¨¤Æ¤ª¤¯¡¥2¤Ä°úÍѤòµó¤²¤ë¤¦¤Á¡¤Àè¤Î¤â¤Î¤Ï´Ê°×ÈÇÍ×Ìó¤È¤·¤ÆÀÛÃøÏÀʸ (Hotta, "Review") ¤«¤é¡¤¸å¤Î¤â¤Î¤Ï¾ÜºÙÈÇÍ×Ìó¤È¤·¤Æ Baugh and Cable ¤Î¤â¤Î¤«¤é¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
The s-plural was fairly quickly generalised at the expense of other plural formations such as an n-ending, a vowel-ending, a zero-ending, and an i-mutation, first in the northern/eastern dialects of England in Late Old English (LOE). In the course of Early Middle English (EME), the trend was followed slowly but surely by the southern/western dialects. Although there long persisted older plural formations such as n- and vowel-endings and even unchanged forms, the s-form finally dominated the plural system by the end of ME, with the exception of a handful of "irregular plurals" that have survived to this day. (95)
In early Middle English only two methods of indicating the plural remained fairly distinctive: the -s or -es from the strong masculine declension and the -en (as in oxen) from the weak . . . . And for a time, at least in southern England, it would have been difficult to predict that the -s would become the almost universal sign of the plural that it has become. Until the thirteenth century the -en plural enjoyed great favor in the south, being often added to nouns which had not belonged to the weak declension in Old English. But in the rest of England the -s plural (and genitive singular) of the old first declension (masculine) was apparently felt to be so distinctive that it spread rapidly. Its extension took place most quickly in the north. Even in Old English many nouns originally of other declensions had gone over to this declension in the Northumbrian dialect. By 1200 -s was the standard plural ending in the north and north Midland areas; other forms were exceptional. Fifty years later it had conquered the rest of the Midlands, and in the course of the fourteenth century it had definitely been accepted all over England as the normal sign of the plural in English nouns. Its spread may have been helped by the early extension of -s throughout the plural in Anglo-Norman, but in general it may be considered as an example of the survival of the fittest in language. (160)
¡¡ËÜÅö¤Ï¤³¤Îµ½Ò¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë´Êñ¤ËÀâÌÀ¤·¤¤ì¤Ê¤¤¤«¤é¤³¤½ÆÍ¤Ã¹þ¤ó¤À¸¦µæ¤¬À®¤êΩ¤Ä¤Î¤À¤¬¡¤³µÎ¬¤È¤·¤Æ¤Ï¤³¤ÎÍý²ò¤Ç´Ö°ã¤¤¤Ê¤¤¡¥¤¿¤À¤·¡¤Baugh and Cable ¤Î°úÍѤÎËöÈø¤Ë¸«¤é¤ì¤ë¡¤Anglo-Norman ¤¬±Ñ¸ì¤Î -s ¤ÎȯŸ¤Ë±Æ¶Á¤òÍ¿¤¨¤¿²ÄǽÀ¤¬¤¢¤ë¤È¤¤¤¦Àâ¤Ï¡¤º£¤Ç¤Ï¤Û¤ÜÈÝÄꤵ¤ì¤Æ¤ª¤ê¡¤»ä¤âÈÝÄꤵ¤ì¤ë¤Ù¤¤È¹Í¤¨¤ë (Hotta, Development 154, 268 [Note 66]) ¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Hotta, Ryuichi. "Review of The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." Studies in Medieval English Language and Literature 25 (2010): 95--112.
¡¡¡¦ Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
¡¡¡¦ Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
¡¡Ê£¿ô·Á¥¦¥©¥Ã¥Á¥ã¡¼¤È¤·¤Æ¡¤µ¤¤Ë¤Ê¤ëÊ£¿ôÀÜÈø¼¤¬¤¢¤ë¡¥È¯²»¤Ï -s ¤Î¾ì¹ç¤ÈƱÍͤÀ¤¬¡¤ÄÖ»ú¤¬ <z> ¤È¤Ê¤ë¡Öz Ê£¿ô¡×¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥Crystal (137) ¤¬°Ê²¼¤Î¤è¤¦¤Ë»ØÅ¦¤·¤Æ¤¤¤¿¡¥
New spelling conventions have emerged, such as the replacement of plural -s by -z to refer to pirated versions of software, as in warez, tunez, gamez, serialz, pornz, downloadz, and filez. (137)
¡¡¤½¤ì¤¾¤ìȯ²»¤Îº¹°Û¤òȼ¤ï¤Ê¤¤´°Á´¤ËÄÖ»ú¾å¤Î°Û·ÁÂÖ¤À¤¬¡¤¤¤¤«¤¬¤ï¤·¤¤¸ú²Ì¤ÏÈ´·²¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥¤³¤Î¤¤¤«¤¬¤ï¤·¤µ¤¬²¿¤ËͳÍ褹¤ë¤Î¤«¤È¤¤¤¨¤Ð¡¤<z> ¤Îʸ»ú¼«ÂΤΤâ¤Ä°ÛÍͤµ¤À¤í¤¦¡¥[2010-07-17-1]¤Îµ»ö¡Ö¤·¤Ö¤È¤¯À¸¤»Ä¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¿ <z>¡×¤Ç¼è¤ê¤¢¤²¤¿¤è¤¦¤Ë¡¤<z> ¤Ï¤¤ï¤á¤Æ±Æ¤ÎÇö¤¤Ê¸»ú¤À¤¬¡¤<s> ¤ÎÌÀ¤é¤«¤Ë´üÂÔ¤µ¤ì¤ë¤È¤³¤í¤Ç <z> ¤¬Á°·Ê²½¤µ¤ì¤ë¤È¤ä¤±¤ËÌÜΩ¤Ä¡¥
¡¡¤·¤«¤·¡¤¡Ö³¤Â±Ê£¿ô¡× ( plural of piracy ) ¤È¤Ç¤â¸Æ¤Ó¤¿¤¯¤Ê¤ë¤³¤Î <z> ÀÜÈø¼¡Ê»ú¡Ë¤Î»ÈÍѤϡ¤¸½ºß¤Ç¤Ï NetSpeak ¤Ç¤Î±£¸ì¤È¤·¤Æ¤Î»ÈÍѤ˸ÂÄꤵ¤ì¤Æ¤¤¤ë¤è¤¦¤À¡¥COCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ) ¤Î¸¡º÷¤Ë¤è¤ë¤È¡¤warez ¤Ç4Î㤬¥Ò¥Ã¥È¤·¤¿¡Ê warez °Ê³°¤Î¾å·Ç¤Î¸ì¤Ï¥Ò¥Ã¥È¤Ê¤·¡Ë¡¥°Ê²¼¤Ï¤½¤Î¤¦¤Á¤Î1Îã¤Ç¡¤2004ǯ¤Î Houston Chronicle ¤«¤é¤Îµ»ö¤Ç¤¢¤ë¡¥
CW Shredder - www.spyware info.com/merijn/ Developed by the same author as Hijack This!, CW Shredder removes a very common piece of spyware known as the Coolwebsearch Trojan. It takes advantage of a flaw in a key component of Windows - Microsoft's version of the Java Virtual Machine - to install itself via pop-ups often found on porn and illegal software (a.k.a. "warez") sites.
¡¡Â¾¤Ë BNCweb ¤Ç "*z_NN2" ¤È¤·¤Æ¸¡º÷¤·¤Æ¤ß¤ë¤È¡¤BOYZ ¤¬Â¿¿ô¥Ò¥Ã¥È¤·¤¿¡¥¤¿¤À¤·¡¤¤³¤ì¤Ï¥¢¥á¥ê¥«¤Î¿Íµ¤¥°¥ë¡¼¥× Boyz II Men ¤ä¥¢¥á¥ê¥«±Ñ¸ì Boyz n the Hood ¤Ø¤Î¸ÀµÚ¤Ë¤è¤ë¤â¤Î¤Ç¡¤³¤Â±Ê£¿ô¤È¤Ï¼ñ¤¬°Û¤Ê¤ë¡¥¤È¤Ï¤¤¤¨¡¤¸ÇÍ̾¤ä¾¦ÉÊ̾¡Ê¤ÎÀëÅÁ¡Ë¤ËÈóɸ½àŪ¤ÊÄÖ»ú¤òÍѤ¤¤ë¤³¤È¤Ï¾¦¶È¹¹ð¤Ç¤Ï¹¤¯¸«¤é¤ì¤ë¸½¾Ý¤Ç¤¢¤ê¡ÊÎ㤨¤Ð Heinz ¼Ò¤Î "Heinz Buildz Kidz" ¡Ë¡¤ÌÜΩ¤¿¤»¤ë¸ú²Ì¤òÁÀ¤Ã¤Æ¤¤¤ëÅÀ¤Ç¤Ï¶¦ÄÌÀ¤¬´¶¤¸¤é¤ì¤ë¡¥
¡¡¤Á¤Ê¤ß¤Ë¡¤Kirg(h)iz ¡Ö¥¥ë¥®¥¹¿Í¡×¤¬¥Ò¥Ã¥È¤·¤¿¤¬¡¤¤³¤ì¤Ï¥í¥·¥¢¸ì¤ÎÄÖ»ú¤Ë½à¤¸¤¿¤â¤Î¤ÇñʣƱ·Á¤Ç¤¢¤ë¤Ë¤¹¤®¤Ê¤¤¡Ê°Û·Á¤È¤·¤Æ Kirg(h)izes ¤â¤¢¤ê¡Ë¡¥
¡¡¡¦ Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
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