ޥλ夫űѸ졤ѸФƶѸ˻ޤǤαѸ첻ˤäȤޤȤߤȻפäΤǡפʼŪŪѲޤȤƤߤʲɽϡGörlach (48--49) 첻μ̤˴ؤѲάǯɽɥåΤǤ롥
| Period | Quantity | Quality | ||
| Rule | Examples | Rule | Examples | |
| WGmc--OE | ai > ā, au > ēa, ā > ǣ/ē, a > æ | stān, ēage, dǣd, dæg cf. Ge Stein, Auge, Tat, Tag | ||
| 7--9th c. | compensatory lengthening | *sehan > sēon "see", mearh, gen. mēares "mare" | ||
| 9--10th c. | lengthening of before esp. [-ld, -mb, -nd] | fēld, gōld, wāmb, fīnd, but ealdrum | ||
| shortening before double (long) consonants | wĭsdom, clæ̆nsian, cĭdde, mĕtton | |||
| shortening in the first syllable of trisyllabic words | hăligdæg, hæ̆ringas, wĭtega | |||
| OE--ME | shortening in unstressed syllables | wisdŏm, stigrăp | monophthongization of all OE diphthongs | OE dēad, heard, frēond, heorte, giefan > ME [dɛːd, hard, frœːnd, hœrtə, jivən] |
| 12th c. | [ɣ > w] and vocalization of [w] and [j]; emergence of new diphthongs | OE dagas, boga, dæg, weg > ME [dauəs, bouə, dai, wei] | ||
| southern rounding of [aː > ɔː] | OE hāl(ig) > ME hool(y) [ɔː] | |||
| 12--14th c. | unrounding of œ(ː), y(ː) progressing from east to west | ME [frɛːnd, hertə, miːs, fillen] | ||
| 13th c. | lengthening in open syllables of bisyllabic words | nāme, nōse, mēte (week, door) | ||
| 15th c. GVS and 16--17th century consequences | ||||
| esp. 15--16th c. | shortening in monosyllabic words | dead, death, deaf, hot, cloth, flood, good | ||
| 18th c. | lengthening before voiceless fricatives and [r] | glass, bath, car, servant, before | ||
ԥ (pidgin) ȥ쥪 (creole) ˤĤƤΰ̤ˤȡԤüԤ⤿ʤʰײˤȤɤޤΤФԤüԤηŪʣħŤȤȤǤ롥̤θСcreole pidgin ȯŸʳθɽ路ξԤϤθȯãΥ饤եΰʤθ塤post-creole_continuum decreolization ʳꤦȤˡξԤϢ³ΤǤϤΤΡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) Ǽ褦ˡħӤΩġ
#444. ԥȥ쥪ζܡ ([2010-07-15-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡpidgin creole ˤϾ嵭Υ饤եŪʸƤϤޤʤ㤬롥ԥΤʤˤϡüԤˡʤ creole ˡηϤʣ "expanded pidgin" ¸ߤ롥#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1]) ǿ줿 Cameroon Pidgin English#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1]) Ǽ夲 Tok Pisin ΤĤѼ郎Ǥ롥ޤȿФˡΤ䥤Τˤ褦ˡԥʳФľܥ쥪줬Ȥߤʤ⤢ (Mufwene 48)
쥪츦κüǻŻƤ Mufwene (47) ϡŪˤԥȥ쥪Υ饤եФƲŪǤ롥Ȥ櫓 expanded pidgin creole δطˤĤơξԤϸäƤषդǤꡤϢ³ΤȤߤʤΤˤ̵ȤƤ롥
There are . . . significant reasons for not lumping expanded pidgins and creoles in the same category, usually identified as creole and associated with the fact that they have acquired a native speaker population. . . . [T]hey evolved in opposite directions, although they are all associated with plantation colonies, with the exception of Hawaiian Creole, which actually evolved in the city . . . . Creoles started from closer approximations of their 'lexifiers' and then evolved gradually into basilects that are morphosyntactically simpler, in more or less the same ways as their 'lexifiers' had evolved from morphosyntactically more complex Indo-European varieties, such as Latin or Old English. According to Chaudenson (2001), they extended to the logical conclusion a morphological erosion that was already under way in the nonstandard dialects of European languages that the non-Europeans had been exposed to. On the other hand, expanded pidgins started from rudimentary language varieties that complexified as their functions increased and diversified.
ǿƤ Chaudenson ƱݤƤ褦ˡcreole ϸ̾Ͽ̱ϻۼԤ衼åѤθˤ³Ǥꡤ줬ʰײΤǤȤ (cf. #1842. 쥪˼ҲŪ ([2014-05-13-1])) pidgin ϸȤ϶̤٤ǤꡤȯŸǤ expanded pidgin pidgin ¿ǽʣƤѼؤȤͤĤޤꡤƤ pidgin expanded pidgin creole ȤȯŸΥ饤եѤϡ¤ʤºݡ19ޤǤ pidgin creole δ֤ˤΤ褦ȯŸŪʴطȤƤʤäػŪˤϡ20äƤ Bloomfield ʤɤȯŸطŦϤˤʤ (Mufwene 48)
creole ñ㲽ή (drift) ŪǤȤĥܤڤ褦ʻMufwene μλŦˤܤγФפ롥"Had linguists remembered that the European 'lexifiers' had actually evolved from earlier, more complex morphosyntaxes, they would have probably taken into account more of the socioeconomic histories of the colonies, which suggest a parallel evolution" (48) .
Mufwene Υ쥪ä˿̱ϻˤˤ homestead stage plantation stage ζ̤ founder principle ˤĤƤϡ#1840. ڥ١Υ쥪줬ü˾ʤΤϤʤ ([2014-05-11-1]) ȡ#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) Ȥ줿
Mufwene, Salikoko. "Creoles and Creolization." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 46--60.
εǰѤ Luraghi ƱʸǸѲŪ (teleology) ˤĤƤ롥teleology ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤˤƤäƴϢǰˤĤƤɬפ롥
ޤѲ therapy ʼšˤ prophylaxis ͽɡˤȤ롥#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) Ǽ夲ˤƤȤƵǽŪʸѲ (functionalism) 롥Kiparsky "language practices therapy rather than prophylaxis" (Luraghi 364) Ȥΰ⤤ĤƤ뤬Lass ʤɤϤɤǤʤȤƤ롥
Ǥϡfunctionalism teleology ƱΤʤΤۤʤΤʤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ȥδ֤ǰոϰפƤʤLass Ʊ뤷Ƥ褦Croft ʤɤҤԤ "functional proper"Ԥ "systemic functional" Ȥƶ̤Ƥ롥"systemic functional" ϸ teleology "functional proper" üԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ؤޤüԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ȤƤ "functional" ȤɽѰۤѲˤĤƤѤ¤ˤơüԤΤǤϤʤ˸ "functionalism" äƤ褤⤷ʤ줬°ؤΤüԤ°ؤΤ̤ƤȤפ
Teleological explanations of language change are sometimes considered the same as functional explanations . . . . Croft . . . distinguishes between 'systemic functional,' that is teleological, explanations, and 'functional proper,' which refer to intentional mechanisms. Keller . . . argues that 'functional' must not be confused with 'teleological,' and should be used in reference to speakers, rather than to language: '[t]he claim that speakers have goals is correct, while the claim that language has a goal is wrong' . . . . Thus, to the extent that individual variants may be said to be functional to the achievement of certain goals, they are more likely to generate language change through invisible hand processes: in this sense, explanations of language change may also be said to be functional. (Luraghi 365--66)
ΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡפʤȤϡָ줬ѲפȡüԤפȤǰ̤ƤȤǤ롥#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡζ̼Τˤ⤢꤬ޤޤƤ뤬ޤüԡʽġˤäƤθǤꡤѲǤ롥üԼΤθѲˤƤ teleology ֤ϤʤȤLuraghi (365) ۩
Croft . . . warns against the 'reification or hypostatization of languages . . . Languages don't change; people change language through their actions.' Indeed, it seems better to avoid assuming any immanent principles inherent in language, which seem to imply that language has an existence outside the speech community. This does not necessarily mean that language change does not proceed in a certain direction. Croft rejects the idea that 'drift,' as defined by Sapir . . ., may exist at all. Similarly, Lass . . . wonders how one can positively demonstrate that the unconscious selection assumed by Sapir on the side of speakers actually exists. From an opposite angle, Andersen . . . writes: 'One of the most remarkable facts about linguistic change is its determinate direction. Changes that we can observe in real time---for instance, as they are attested in the textual record---typically progress consistently in a single direction, sometimes over long periods of time.' Keller . . . suggests that, while no drift in the Sapirian sense can be assumed as 'the reason why a certain event happens,' i.e., it cannot be considered innate in language, invisible hand processes may result in a drift. In other words, the perspective is reversed in Keller's understanding of drift: a drift is not the pre-existing reason which leads the directionality of change, but rather the a posteriori observation of a change brought about by the unconsciously converging activity of speakers who conform to certain principles, such as the principle of economy and so on . . . .
Ϣ drift, functionalism, invisible_hand, unidirectionality γƵ⻲ͤˤ줿
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥
(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.
ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼
1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)
ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥
Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)
So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)
Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ
Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.
Millar (111--13) ѸˤˤŤƿꡤdrift ʶήˤˬƤܥ֥δϢ뵭ϡcat:drift ȡˡ
Sapir ξ drift ϡѸʤѸȤ1ˤˤѲΰؤΤä drift γǰϳĥ졤Ϣʣθ˶̤ƤߤѲĬήؤ褦ˤʤäˤäơѸ drift в졤ޥˤߤ drifts ӡȤ櫓 drifts ®٤ӤȤ褦ˤʤäMillar (112) ⡤ΥޥȤ顤Ѹˤˤ drift ˬƤ롥
A number of scholars . . . take Sapir's ideas further, suggesting that drift can be employed to explain why related languages continue to act in a similar manner after they have ceased to be part of a dialect continuum. Thus it is striking . . . that a very similar series of sound changes --- the Great Vowel Shift --- took place in almost all West Germanic varieties in the late medieval and early modern periods. While some of the details of these changes differ from language to language, the general tendency for lower vowels to rise and high vowels to diphthongise is found in a range of languages --- English, Dutch and German --- where immediate influence along a geographical continuum is unlikely. Some linguists would suggest that there was a 'weakness' in these languages which was inherited from the ancestral variety and which, at the right point, was triggered by societal forces --- in this case, the rise of a lower middle class as a major economic and eventually political force in urbanising societies.
Ƥ Millar ȤǸʸμ "Some linguists" Τʤ1ͤǤ롥Samuels ήεǽŪʴˡҲŪװͤ碌ơѸ drift θġθѲθõȤΩSapir drift = "mystical" ȤȤ館ऱǤ¤Ū褦ȤΩǤ⤢롥⤳Ω˻ǤꡤȤ櫓ҲŪװ "trigger" ǽ˴ؿƤ롥Ϣơ#927. ޥζޤοء ([2011-11-10-1]) #1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޥӤȤˤĤƤϡMillar (113) ϡdrift οʹԤ٤ϼŪ˼ޤͿƤ롥ʲ˾Ѥޤʤä˰Ϥޤ줿ϡŤʳǤθɽ魯ˡ

οޤϡ#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) Ǽ Lass ˤ륲ޥΡָŤ (archaism) οľ̤ηɽ路ΤȤǤ롥ξ硤drift οʹ٤ȸŪʡ֥פδطˤȤɤߤˤʤ롥
οޤǤϡEnglish Afrikaans ANALYTIC ζˤ˰֤Ƥ뤬 DRIFT λȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ⡤DRIFT η³ѲϿʹǤ롥
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
ѸˤμȤDZѸ줬ФƤѲ⤹ȡָϤɤɤѲƤƤפȤȿȤΤۤ¿ϡ#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) (2) ˵ָѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤפƱΤǤꡤѤȤǤƤ֤٤Τ⤷ʤεǤҤ٤ȤꡤѲϿǤǤʤȤΤθؼԤθǤ롥ȤĤƤϡ̾ʸؼԤΤʤˤ⡤ѤȾԤǥޡαѸؼ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) ⤽1ͤǤ롥
. . . in all those instances in which we are able to examine the history of any language for a sufficient length of time, we find that languages have a progressive tendency. But if languages progress towards greater perfection, it is not in a bee-line, nor are all the changes we witness to be considered steps in the right direction. The only thing I maintain is that the sum total of these changes, when we compare a remote period with the present time, shows a surplus of progressive over retrogressive or indifferent changes, so that the structure of modern languages is nearer perfection than that of ancient languages, if we take them as wholes instead of picking out at random some one or other more or less significant detail. And of course it must not be imagined that progress has been achieved through deliberate acts of men conscious that they were improving their mother-tongue. On the contrary, many a step in advance has at first been a slip or even a blunder, and, as in other fields of human activity, good results have only been won after a good deal of bungling and 'muddling along.' (326)
. . . we cannot be blind to the fact that modern languages as wholes are more practical than ancient ones, and that the latter present so many more anomalies and irregularities than our present-day languages that we may feel inclined, if not to apply to them Shakespeare's line, "Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms," yet to think that the development has been from something nearer chaos to something nearer kosmos. (366)
Jespersen ɤΤ褦ˤƸѤĤ˻äΤࡼʥ (84--85) ϡJespersen 1928ǯ Novial ȤФطʤʬϤΤ褦ɾƤNovial ˤĤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи ([2011-12-11-1]) ȡˡ
बؤɤ夤ΤϤۤοͤξ⤤äߤΤǤꡤޤΤʤˤäȤŤ顤äȤƤΰĤΤǤäȤΤϡθΨ֤ηкӤƤߤФ褤ȤͤǤ롥ˤĤŤΤϡʿŪˤϡǤդΰˤĤƤߤƤ⤢ȤˤĤƤߤƤ⡤鸫ȡθѲ¤Ԥθ¤꾡äƤΤȤͤǤ롽ϡäȤŪ˳ǧƤȾΤ뤽Τ褦ʡֿפȤƼΤ褦ʤΤƤ롥ʤŪȤñ㲽뤳ȡɽǽͤû̡ʬŪĤޤŪ¤ȯãμͳʥˤ֤ε§ζŪʿ̴ˤǤ롥ʡظο⡤ä˱Ѹȹ礷ơ١ˡޥƥͤߤȤ˸ƤȤäȤΤˤϤԤΤʤˤ桼ȥԥָΤ뤷Ȥ⸫ʤħ¤ȿФˡɥĤʸˡˤäƹƤäФȤƤϤäѤ襤äΤȹͤƸȡ¤˶ŪǼ襤ȤΤϡδʲϤޤäƤ˻ĺ˰֤ƤꡤˤϤĤͤ˷֤ȹ¤ѻˤǤ롤Ȥäʡָθס
ĤޤꡤJespersen ϡʤƾʤ餺ߤˤϤäƤָѲϴʾ֤δǤפȤѤйơѤǤФȤȤˤʤ롥ػŪˤ Jespersen ɾǤϤʤ
ˤҤ٤褦ˡJespersen ήθѤϡߤθؤǤϰŪ˼ƤʤˤĤơ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ڤӡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1]) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
ѸˡޥˡˤΤˤĤƤ٤κϤ뤳ȤѲˤοʿηϤȤ⤿餷ʬϤȤŪȯãƤѲ֤Ȥʸˡ˾ͿξľܤΤΤʤΤܤΤΤʤΤȤ櫓岻βѲȶοʿδϢȷδؤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤѸˤʤɤǤ⤳δϢϤ褽ΤȤȤƼƤŪ˹ͻ뵡ʤȤ⤽줬Ҳ𤵤뵡ϾʤδϢˤĤơBradley (16--19) ιͻ
ѲѲˤĤʤ硤βѲθ̤ȤƤ3बǧ롥(1) confluent development, (2) divergent development, (3) dropping of sounds Ǥ롥(1) ϡۤʤ2Ĥβ1Ĥͻ礹뤳ȤˤꡤĤƤηŪʶ̤Ǥ롥űѸǶ̤Ƥ ā o ϡĶˤͻ礷ѸǤ ō ȤƼ¸Ƥ (ex. hāl (whole) fola (foal))
(2) ϡդ1Ĥβ2Ĥʬ뤳ȤˤäơŪʶ̤ޤǤ롥㤨СűѸ ic lǣde (I lead) ic lǣdde (I led) ư֤ܤȡ촴ᤫIJᤫȤˤäơθ촴첻ȯŸޤäƱ ǣ Ķˤäưۤʤ2ؤʬΤǤ롥
(3) ȤƤϡűѸˤơȤ High Vowel Deletion ȸƤФ벻Ѳη̤ȤơŲ˸³ -u ʤȤΤ롥Ѳ̾Ǥϡñ scip Фʣ scipu hūs ñʣƱǤ롥̤ȤƤ (1) ƱǤꡤȤȶ̤Ƥ2Ĥη֤1Ĥͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
3βѲθ̤ޤȤȡ(1) (3) Ϸ֤ζ̤碌ˡʤ츫ñ㲽ƯΤФ(2) Ϸ֤ζ̤߽Фʤ츫ʣƯĤޤꡤѲˤȿ뤫Τ褦ʸ̤ƱƯƤȤȤˤʤ롥ʸˡεǽȤߤȡθ̤ϰӤǽƯƤȤ⤤ΤǤ롥Bradley (18) ϡscip hūs ǰƬˡʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In this instance phonetic change produced two different effects: it made two declensions out of one, and it deprived a great many words of a useful inflexional distinction. / We thus see that the direct result of phonetic change on the grammar of a language is chiefly for evil: it makes it more complicated and less lucid.
ϡѲȶȤδط˴ؤ롤ԤŪƶǤ롥
ѲΥȥԡ礵뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) ȡ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ѸˤΤߤʤ餺ޥˡˤϰˤΤñ㲽Ƥ褦˸롥ۤȤɤ٤ƤΰǡʤϤʸˡƤζʬ֤ȤȤƤʤäƤƤ뤷֡ˤƤ礫ʬϤؤȸѲƤƤ롥²˸뤳ή (drift) ˤĤƤϡ#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1]) ۤ drift γƵˤƤ
ζήñ㲽Ʊ뤷Ƥ褤ΤȤϻĤ롥षĸϡʸˡƤʬƤϤ뤬ηϤϴ̯ʤۤɤäĸϡߤΰ٤ơŪԵ§Ͼʤϻ֤ȤȤ allomorphy Ƥ椯Ȥ롥㤨 i-mutation ˤߤȡϲˤʤäΤ䤬Ʋ̮˷ŪʲȤʤä̤ȤơѲƤʤ֤ȼ֤Ȥ allomorphy ޤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤηԵ§ʥȥԡˤ礷[2011-08-13-1]ε#838. ηϤȥȥԡפȡˡ˸ˤʤäơ (analogy) ¾βˤ allomorphy ä륱⤢뤬§ȤƸϻ֤ȤȤˤμΥȥԡ礷Ƥ椯Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ˤ餫˸ȾҤȥԡ緹ϡϤƳ̤ǧƤޤäƤ褤ΤȤΤϡνȯǤĸϤޤŪ˺Ʒ줿ΤˤʤǤ롥⤷ƷԤƬΤʤ˸ϥȥԡ緹ΤȤ⤬ˤäȤ顤̤ȤƺƷĸϡʤ餽Τ褦ʲԹΤ褤ֲäȤʤ
ºݤ Comrie Τ褦ʳؼԤϡΤ褦ʲäưĸȤ館Ƥ롥Comrie (253) ꤷƤΤϡ"an earlier stage of language, lacking at least many of the complexities of at least many present-day languages, but providing an explicit account of how these complexities could have arisen, by means of historically well-attested processes applied to this less complex earlier state" Ǥ롥ˤϡϤȤñηϤȤƻϤޤä֤ȤȤʣƤȤ롥Comrie ΤϡβսǤΤ
[I]t is unlikely that the first human language started off with the complexity of Insular Celtic morphophonemics or West Greenlandic morphology. Rather, such complexities arose as the result of the operation of attested processes --- such as the loss of conditioning of allophonic variation to give morphophonemic alternations or the grammaticalisation of lexical items to give grammatical suffixes --- upon an earlier system lacking such complexities, in which invariable words followed each other in order to build up the form corresponding to the desired semantic content, in an isolating language type lacking morphophonemic alternation. (250)
Ʒ줿ĸˤƸѲηɵ椹뤳ȤˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤޤƤ䡤˷꤭ǺƷФȤ뤳Ȥϡ˴ȤΤ褦˻פ롥Comrie (247) ϰĸƷ˴ؤ realist Ω[2011-09-06-1]) ΤˤƤ뤫顤ȥԡ˾ǤμºߤƤȤȤˤʤ롥controversial ʵ
Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.
ε#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ǿ줿19˰Ӥͭιͤϡ21κǤ֤ǺٻƤ롥üŪˤСʪǤȤѤΤȤǤ롥ľŪǤϤ뤬ˤĤƤ¿θ߽ФǤ⤢ꡤŤ˼갷ʤФʤʤȻϹͤƤ뤬ۤɤޤǤ˿͡˿ߤǤȤʤȤ
ε (6) ǸȤꡤϡʪΤʤǤȤ櫓ʪȤ뤳Ȥ¿Aitchison (44--45) ϡػˤˤָῢʪפθڤƤ롥3Ѥ褦صΤᡤѸŵʬŪŸƤˡ
Languages are to be considered organic natural bodies, which are formed according to fixed laws, develop as possessing an inner principle of life, and gradually die out because they do not understand themselves any longer, and therefore cast off or mutilate their members or forms (Franz Bopp 1827, in Jespersen [Language, Its Nature, Development and Origin] 1922: 65)
Does not language flourish in a favorable place like a tree whose way nothing blocks? . . . Also does it not become underdeveloped, neglected and dying away like a plant that had to languish or dry out from lack of light or soil? (Grimm [On the Origin of Language. Trans. R. A. Wiley.] 1851)
De même que la plante est modifiée dans son organisme interne par des facteurs étrangers: terrain, climat, etc., de même l'organisme grammatical ne dépend-il pas constamment des facteurs externes du changement linguistique?... Est-il possible de distinguer le développment naturel, organique d'un idiome, de ses formes artificielles, telles que la language littéraire, qui sont dues à des facteurs externes, par conséquent inorganiques? (Saussure 1968 [1916] [Cours de linguistique générale]: 41--2)
ľܤ뤤ϴܤ˸ͭθƤȤäƤ褤Grimm Ȥϡ#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1]) ۵롥ۤˤϡĹ֤ˤ錄Ѳ drift ήˤ⡤ͭĴ¤䤹ȤŦƤä[2012-09-09-1]ε#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4פȡˡ
줬ƤȤȤѤȤƤ⡤줬ƤΤǤϤʤüԡʽġˤˤäƤȤȤ館ۤ褤ȹͤ롥üԡʽġˤʤи줽ΤΤ¸ߤʤȤϼǤ롥ѲȤüԤܤȡξԤδطɬ⼫ǤʤԻĤʵƯƤ褦ˤפ[2013-07-24-1]ε#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language?פȡˡ
θؼԤΤۤȤɤϡָϿʪǤפȤȤΥǥȤäƤ뤬̤ˤϤޤήۤƤ롥˺äǤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. "Metaphors, Models and Language Change." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 39--53.
֤ʤѲΤפȡ֤ʤüԤϸѲΤפȤϡ˰ۤʤ䤤Ǥ롥ȯΩۤʤäƤ롥
Why does language change? Ȥ䤤Ǥϡ줬ʼΡˤȤʤäƤʪΤ褦˼餬ȯŸƤ椯Ȥäͭ (organicism) ȯã (ontogenesis) Ƥ롥ѲɬԲ (necessity) Ǥ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Why do speakers change their language? Ȥ䤤ǤϡüԤʼΡˤǤꡤüԤͳջ (free will) ˤäƸѲΤȤ (mechanism) 䵻 (artisanship) 롥
ɤ餬ȯ䤫ȤСKeller (8--9) ˸餻СɤѲ䤦ƤʤȤΤϡѲϽŪʸ (collective phenomena) Ǥ롥νŪʸݤ椷ƤΤŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤָ (invisible_hand) θǤ롤 Keller ϼĥ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#10. Ͽ ([2009-05-09-1]) ˤθ Bernard de Mandeville (1670--1733) ˤ The Fable of the Bees: Private Vices, Public Benefits (1714) ˵뤳ȤǤ롥ȤơKeller 3Ѥ褦
the insight that there are social phenomena which result from individuals' actions without being intended by them (35)
An invisible-hand explanation is a conjectural story of a phenomenon which is the result of human actions, but not the execution of any human design (38)
a language is the unintentional collective result of intentional actions by individuals (53)
ѲƤϤȡġüԤθưˤϰտŪη̤ȤƵѲϺǽ餫տޤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϤϰտŪϤտŪȤʤȡδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʥ֥åܥåϤޤäƤΤȤʤ뤬Υ֥åܥåΤȤȸƤǤΤǤ롥ġüԤΰտŪʸư̵˽ޤäơȤ֥åܥåäƤ椯ȡġüԤˤϻפʤä̤ФƤ롥η̤ѲȤȤˤʤ롥顤Keller (89) ϸѲĹŪʵǽŦƤ롥
As an invisible-hand explanation of a linguistic phenomenon always starts with the motives of the speakers and 'projects' the phenomenon itself as the macro-structural effect of the choices made, it is necessarily functionalistic, although in a 'refracted' way.
Ѳ˻ΥǤüԤΤȤʤäƤ뤬ǸΥȥͥȴȡĤΤޤˤΤڤؤäƤ롥Τ褦ʸѲѤļԤߤСWhy does language change? Why do speakers change their language? ŬڤʼǤʤȤ餫ɤäƤȤ⤤뤷ɤäƤȤ⤤롥Ƥ롤ȤȤˤʤ
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǽ夲ʸǡRitt ˸ؾνפǤ drift ήˤˤޤȤĤᤤȤƤ롥drift ϡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) Ǥ夲Τ褦뤳ȤǤ롥üԸĿͤϼοδ֤ĶƸѲ³褦ȤưŤʤɤäƤʤϤʤΤˡʤĶƤȤפʤѲΤ줽ΤΤüԤĶۤȤ̿äƤ뤫Τ褦ʿΤϤʤ Ritt (215) ΤȤФǼȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
[S]ince individual speakers are normally not aware of the long-term histories of their languages and have no reason to be interested in them at all, it is difficult to see why they should be motivated to adjust their behaviour in communication or language acquisition to make the development of their language conform to any long-term trend.
ФRitt (215) ϸüԤˤĤƤ3Ĥ뤳ȤDzǤȽҤ٤롥
First, . . . the case can be made that even though whole language systems do not represent historical objects, their constituents do, because they are transmitted faithfully enough among speakers and thereby establish populations and lineages of constituent types which persist in time. Secondly, when speakers make choices among different variants of a linguistic constituent, they are not completely free. Instead their choice is always limited (a) by universal constraints on human physiology and (b) by socio-historical contingencies such as the relative prestige of different constituent variants. Since it would be against the self-interests of individual speakers to resist them, their choices can be expected to reflect physiological and social constraints more or less automatically. Thirdly, a speaker never chooses among isolated pairs of constituent variants. Instead constituent choice always occurs in the context of actual discourse, where any constituent of a linguistic system is always used and expressed in combination with others.
ƶä٤ȤˡüԤϾ嵭˴ŤưˤơŪҲŪʵȤƵǽƤˤʤȤ (215--16)
In such interactions between constituents the role of speakers will be restricted to responding --- unconsciously and more or less automatically --- to physiological and social constraints on their communicative behaviour. In other words, speakers will not figure as autonomous, active and whimsical agents of change, but merely provide the mechanics through which linguistic constituents interact with each other.
ΥǥˤСüԤϡġθܤߤȤΩƤƤͥåȥΤʤư롤ŪӼҲŪʵǽͿ줿ȤȤˤʤ롥üԤѲμΤǤϤʤǤȤϡ controversial
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4 ([2012-09-09-1]) εǡRitt ʸ˿줿ʸǤɸ˷Ǥ꤬ͻ뤬ɮԤ٤ϤƹŪǵǽŪǤ롥
Ritt ϡѸ Homorganic Lengthening, Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL), Great Vowel Shift ϤȤĹ첻2첻ޤϢưƤ첻̤Ωβʤɡ첻ˤޤĤѲ첻ζ (strengthening of vowels) Ȱ礷ФơҲ̤ΩβáҲ첻ҲξüʤɤμλҲˤޤĤѲֻҲμ岽 (weakening of consonants) Ȱ礷ľǯˤ錄Ѹ첻ˤ첻ζȻҲμ岽ħŤȤʤ顤طʤˤ븶Ū褦ȻߤΤ褦ŪĬήϤФ drift ήˤȤƸڤ졤˸ؤˤƤθưϤϺ1ĤȤʤäƤ뤬Ritt ϰճʤȤ˲Ȥ롥ϡѸĹդƤ "rhythmic isochrony" "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" (224) Ǥ롥
ΤƤ褦ˡѸˤ "rhythmic isochrony" 롥褽ȼ夤Ȥߤ˸뱤 (foot stress) γơ褽ƱĹäȯȤˤꡤ¿βޤޤ뱤ӤǤϳƲûȯ졤դ˲ʤӤǤϳƲϤäĹȯ롥ˡѸˤ "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" Ȥ֤֤˴ؤ붯¤ꡤϼۤΤ˼ĥɬפ롥ơ2Ĥθ§ˤꡤ֤ƱǤǤŪʰ֤ˤäĹѤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤĹûΩ˵ǽȤϸ¤ʤ֤Ȥʤ롥ä˱ѸλҲǤǤĹûΩεǽô (functional load) ϤȤ礭ʤäΤǡΩϽѸ˾üʻҲμ岽ˡ첻ǤǤĹûΩϵǽô̤礭ä˾ü뤳ȤϤʤषΩݻ礹ؤȿʲû첻Ĺ첻κΤˤ뤿ˡԤд˲Ԥĥ˸Ԥ2첻ȯãơԤȤν̤ޤä2Ĥθ§ȡüȯ첻ζפϡߤ˻٤礤ǤʥѥȤʤäƤä줬ɸФ Ritt εǽŪʲǤ롥
ѤˤĤޤޤ줿褦ʴ롥¿ε䤬⤫Ǥ롥⤽ѸǤϤʤ rhythmic isochrony ۤɤޤǤ˶ǤʤΤ¾θˤ롤뤤ۤ drift ӤȤˡƱ褦ѤΤǤεǽô̤ŪǤϤʤ¾Ū˷פˡϤΤ٥ŽƤ褦첻Ѳ̤λǤϤʤˤˡˤΤϤʤ
Ritt εϤष¿䤤Ƥ֤褦˻פ뤬οΰյϡ˿줿褦ˡdrift Ū褦ȤȤˤΤȻפϤ礤ŪˤʤΤεǡ
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
ѲɤΤ褦ˤȤ館뤫ȤˤĤƤϡѲγƵǰäƤ̾ʸʱѸ˳ؼ David Crystal (2) θѲѤΤƤߤ褦
[L]anguage is changing around you in thousands of tiny different ways. Some sounds are slowly shifting; some words are changing their senses; some grammatical constructions are being used with greater or less frequency; new styles and varieties are constantly being formed and shaped. And everything is happening at different speeds and moving in different directions. The language is in a constant state of multidimensional flux. There is no predictable direction for the changes that are taking place. They are just that: changes. Not changes for the better; nor changes for the worse; just changes, sometimes going one way, sometimes another.
Ѹˤܸˤ衤νִ֤ˤ⡤¿θܤۤʤ®٤ǰۤʤѲƤ롥"multidimensional flux" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥ޤѲŪŪ줿 (teleology) ϤʤȤˤ롥ŪˤϤäƤ˰㤤ʤŪ˰ݤ³뤳ȤϤʤʴϢ unidirectionality γƵȡˡŪȤϤäƤ⡤drift ȤƸڤ²ˤޤοΤ褦ˡǯȤĹˤ錄ְŪʡ⤢ˤϤ롥Τ褦˲餫ˤ衤줬ɤǤȤǤȤʹѤޤǤϤʤȤȤǧƤ褤Crystal Τ褦ˡ"just changes" ʤΤ
#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ӡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ǤƱ褦ʵΤǡȤ
Crystal, David. "Swimming with the Tide in a Sea of Language Change." IATEFL Issues 149 (1999): 2--4.
ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλűѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸ϤΤʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդƤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ѲθưϤȤơdrift ꤹԤϡäƾʤʤdrift Ȥơäˡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) εǵǯʻ餳äƤΤؤ Ritt Ǥ롥Ritt θѲѤϻɷŪȻפäƤ뤬κǶʸ (p. 131) ǡdrift ٻ븦ԤνפʰѤ4ۤɤʤƤΤǡƸصΤᡤѸŵŸƤˡ
Languages . . . came into being, grew and developed according to definite laws, and now, in turn, age and die off . . . (Schleicher, August. Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft: offenes Sendschreiben an Herrn Dr. Ernst Häckel. Weimar: H. Böhlau, 1873. Page 16.)
Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift. (Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921. Page 151.)
A living language is not just a collection of autonomous parts, but, as Sapir (1921) stressed, a harmonious and self-contained whole, massively resistant to change from without, which evolves according to an enigmatic, but unmistakably real, inner plan. (Donegan, Patricia Jane and David Stampe. "Rhythm and the Holistic Organization of Language Structure." Papers from the Parasession on the Interplay of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax. Eds. John F. Richardson, Mitchell Marks, and Amy Chukerman. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 1983. 337--53. Page 1.)
languages . . . are objects whose primary mode of existence is in time . . . which ought to be viewed as potentially having extended (trans-individual, transgenerational) 'lives of their own'. (Lass, Roger. "Language, Speakers, History and Drift." Explanation and Linguistic Change. Eds. W. F. Koopman, Frederike van der Leek, Olga Fischer, and Roger Eaton. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1987. 151--76. Pages 156--57.).
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
Fortson (132--33) ˤСĸˤϡѸ -ly 褦ʡƻ줫θ¸ߤʤäष̾ƻζѤ뤳ȤǡŪʵǽƤꡤˡϤ٤Ƥ̼ǹ롥Τ褦ˤ줿ŪΤǤꡤĸˤޤ̤ΤϤƾʤȤƻ줫Ūǽ߽ФŵμʡгʤñǤꡤ㤨С礭ʡפФ礭礤ˡפϰĸ *meĝh2 ƷƤ롥ϡHitt. mēk, Ved. máhi, Gk. méga, ON mjǫok 롥űѸǤ⡤ƻгñ˶ޤ efen "even", full "full", (ge)fyrn "ancient", gehwǣde "little", genōg "enough", hēah "high", lȳtel "little" ȤƵǽ (Campbell 276)
ŵ鳰줿ΤȤơۤˤ⡤ʤ줿 Lat. rursus "back(wards)"åʤ줿 Lat. meritō "deservedly"ʤ줿 Lat. quī "how" ʤɤꡤűѸǤ⡤°ʤѤ ealles "entirely", micles "much"ͿʤѤ ǣne "alone", lȳtle "little" ʤɤ (Campbell 276) ʷ͡ˤƻͳϡŪ˶ޤˤȹͤ롥
ŪϥޥˤѾ줿ޤ¿ʤȤʿʤʤɤȤηŪʶ̤ĤʤʤäǤ⡤̤ʽ֤ϻܤ줺ַƻǻѸˤƤ flat adverb Ǥ롥ѸǤϡflat adverb Ȥ̤ˡƻŪ˶̤ȤФ -ly ȯãƤäơѸϡǥޥΤʤǤðۤʿƤ褦˻פ롥
ޥɤγС[2012-03-01-1]ε#1039. ֿפ -mentפǼ夲褦ˡޥɤǤȯãƤ롥äơѸ줬ðۤǤꤹ뤳ȤɬǤʤ⤷ʤ
ϢơKillie (119) ϡѸθʬƻ줬 -ly 褦ˤʤäŪаޤĴʸƬǡѸΤοΥ륦졤ǥ졤ɥĸʤɤˤϸʤðۤʸݤǤȼƤ롥ʤѸ -ly Τ褦ȯãΤˤĤƤϡʸǤƤʤKillie (127) ϡѸ˾ΰ drift ȤƤ "adverbialization process" ˸ڤƤꡤ-ly ȯãϤΰĤǤƤ褦
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Killie, Kristin. "The Spread of -ly to Present Participles." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Mouton de Gruyter: Berlin and New York: 1998. 119--34.
(2) ǤϡѲͽȤκˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
̤ˤȤФѲˤĤƤͽϡ
(i) ߿ʹѲ
(ii) ˤƼºݤ˵äŪѲ
(iii) ƱϸˤߤѲ
(iv) Ļθ콬
ʤɤ˴ŤƹԤ롥
(i) (iv) ˤơΤݤءü줫̤ؤȴ⤯ʤäƤܤͤ롥(i) θߤˤѲλ¡(ii) βѲλ¡(iii) ƱϸθߤȲѲλ¡ drift εʤɤͿˡ(iv) ϸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤҥȤθ콬 (language acquisition) μʲ⸽ߤ̤ѤȤβǡˤˤ줾롥
(iii) θˡƱϡƱϸΡĤޤΤˤƸߤӲѲλ¤ȤäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤüŪˤС̸ŪʸѲ (typology of language change) ȤǤ롥ָѲͽκפβǤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ
Ρü á á(1) θѲʸߡ á á(2) θѲʲ á á(3) ƱϸθѲʸߡ á á(4) θѲʸߡ á á(5) 콬ȸѲʸߡ ݡ
ȤФѲϡޤäƱ郎äȤäɬȤϸ¤ʤΰ̣ǡȤФѲϼʳؤˡ§ (law) ȤϤ (trend, tendency) ˤʤ
ɡѲˤĤƤͽҤʤɤϡ֤ȤФѲװϲפȤŪϤ̤ΤǤ롥
ʸϤ顤ԤϸѲͽȤ٤βͤϡ줬뤫ɤȤͽȤƤ٤ˤΤǤϤʤѲθ餫ˤ褦ȤĤߤǤˤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥Bauer ȽŪ٤褯ʬΤŪˤΩƱդ
ԡѲѸ١ҤĤ˼2003ǯ
Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
εֵǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ([2011-08-10-1]) ǿ줿ǽô (functional load or functional yield) ˤĤơǽô̤ȤϤ벻ħ̵ǽι⤵ΤȤǡ¿̤ΩäƤۤɵǽô̤⤤Ȥߤʤ롥
㤨СѸǤϲ /p/ /b/ Ωϡ¿θ̤Ѥ롥̤θС¿Ǿ (minimal pair) (ex. pay--bay, rip--rib ) äơ/p/ /b/ Ωεǽô̤礭/ʃ/ /ʒ/ Ωϡmesher--measure ʤɤκǾФ߽ФƤϤ뤬ۤ¿θ̤ˤΩäƤʤƱͤˡ/θ/ /ð/ Ω⡤thigh--thy ʤɤκǾФ뤬ǽô̤Ͼȹͤ롥
ǽô̤Ȥǰϡ嵭Τ褦ʸ̲ǤΩФǤϤʤŪħ̵ͭΩˤĤƤͤ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨СѸˤ̵ͭ (voicing) ȤΩϡ٤Ƥ /h/ ʳˤĤƸΩǤꡤˤ˻ȤƤΤǡεǽô̤礭
Ǥϡǽô̤ȸѲɤΤ褦˷夯ȤΤǽŪʹͤˤȡ¿θ̤˹Ƥ̵ͭΤ褦ʵǽô̤礭Ω⤷äƤޤȤȡηϤ˵ڤܤƶ礭äơǽô̤礭ΩѲˤȤΩġȿФˡǽô̤ξΩϡ¾װˤäѲСۤɤʤǤ椯ȡ/θ/ /ð/ Ωϡǽô̤ᡤ⤹мʤȤ¤ʤΩǤϤ뤬ǤŪʼ̵ͭȤФʡǽô̤礭Ωˤäƻ٤Ƥ뤿ˡۤưפˤϲäʤȤȤˤʤǽԤμĥ롤ηϤߤȤо (symmetry) λظפȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤳Ȥʬ
ηŪΩ뤿ˡ뤤Ωβä뤿ѲȤͽɡפιͤϡƵǽŪʻǤ롥üԡʽġˤηϤͽɡפˤĤƤɤΤ褦˰ռΤüԡʽġˤθư̵ռˡͽɡ٤ԤʤäƤȹͤ٤ʤΤϡ[2011-03-13-1]ε֤ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1)פǸΤƱεǤ롥
Schendl, Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2001.
̾ưפεˤĤ[2009-11-01-1], [2009-11-02-1], [2011-07-07-1], [2011-07-08-1]εǵƤ̻Ūλ¤ˤĤƤϤޤҲ𤷤Ƥʤä
Sherman ϡSOED Web3 ξ˽ʣƳǧ̾ư줬Ʊ֤ (homograph) ǤФΤʤǶؤʬ̤̤ȡʲ̤Ȥʤ (Sherman 51)
| potential diatonics | actual diatonics | |
|---|---|---|
| disyllabic N-V pairs | 1,315 | 150 (11.41%) |
| trisyllabic | 442 | 70 (15.84%) |
| polysyllabic | 1,757 | 220 (12.52%) |

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