"mandative subjunctive" 뤤ϲˡߤȸƤФˡˤĤơ#325. mandative subjunctive should ([2010-03-18-1])#326. The subjunctive forms die hard. ([2010-03-19-1])#345. "mandative subjunctive" Υꥹȡ ([2010-04-07-1])#3042. Ѹ³ˡλѤäͳ ([2017-08-25-1]) ʤɤǰäƤ
ޤοࡤˤϡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤ礭ĬήǰƬˤȡΥꥫѸʤ٤ƥꥹѸǤˤˤ벾ˡߤοĥϡʵήȤƤȤ館롥ä͡ʸ椬ԤʤƤŪʲͿƤʤޤŪ˥ꥫѸǤλѤϡꥫѸݼŪʷʤ colonial_lag 1ĤȤФвᤵƤβˤ⵿褦ˤʤäƤʤŸˡλ¸ȤϡѸ˰٤ѤȤʤ꤫ŸˡθѸˤη̤ǤϤʤȡ
ԸȤʤ顤Mondorf (853) Τ褦Ƥ롥
[R]ecent empirical studies concur that the subjunctive had virtually become extinct in both varieties; rather than witnessing its delayed demise in AmE, we are observing its revival in AmE and --- though at a slower pace --- also in BrE . . . .
The trajectory of change takes the form of a successive decline from Old English to Early Modern English, ranging from a relatively wide distribution in Old English, with competition between indicatives and modal periphrases (e.g. scolde + infinitive), via a reduction of formal marking in Middle English (when the indicative preterit plural -on and subjunctive preterit plural and past participle of strong verbs -en were fused and final unstressed -e was lost), to rare instances in Early Modern English. It is only at the end of the LModE period that the subjunctive re-established itself and "nothing less than a revolution took place" . . . .
ʤѸΥꥫ³ˡѤ褷ƤΤȤ䤤ˤĤƤϡĤε롥ޤ#3042. Ѹ³ˡλѤäͳ ([2017-08-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡʸˡαƶϤҲŪװŻ뤹븫롥ǽŪʴ顤 (irrealis) ɽȤˡΤΤѤäƤ餺ηˡư줫³ˡ߶ޤإեȤˤʤȤ븫⤢롥ԤθǤϡꥫѸˤƤĤˡưλѤȤȤδϢͤ (Mondorf 853--54)
ꥹѸǤ⥢ꥫѸ٤Фʤ顤³ˡߤλѤƤƤ褦ϰ̤ˤϥꥫѸαƶ (americanisation) ȹͤƤ롥⤷ȾʤȤʬŪˤϡĤƤΥꥫѸǵäΤƱͤˡꥹѸǤΩŪȯãȤǽΤƤʤȤ (Mondorf 854) ޤ;Ϥʬ˻ĤäƤΰǤ롥
ĤǶδϢ븦νƤ
Crawford, William J. "The Mandative Subjunctive." One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 257--276.
Hundt, Marianne. "Colonial Lag, Colonial Innovation or Simply Language Change?" One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 13--37.
Kjellmer, Göran. "The Revived Subjunctive." One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 246--256.
Övergaard, Gerd. The Mandative Subjunctive in American and British English in the 20th Century. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1995.
Schlüuter, Julia. "The Conditional Subjunctive." One Language, Two Grammars: Grammatical Differences between British English and American English. Ed. Günter Rohdenburg and Julia Schlüter. Cambridge: CUP, 2009. 277--305.
Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
ε#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ vs ηװ ([2018-06-28-1]) ³ơѸ˷ƤȤֿפˤĤơ̤ˡѸϰαѸɸಽ뤲줿ΤΡޤѰۤɤ줬ѻ졤Ѹ٤Сֺ𤷤פ褷Ƥȸ롥Mondorf (843) ϡΤ褦ɽŪʺظˤϡʶѹդܻؤǽŪưŤƤꡤषѸ줫鸽ѸˤƿĤĤΤ⤯
When LModE morphology and morphosyntax are addressed, this is often done in reference to a "confused situation" (Poldauf 1948: 240), by portraying this period as undergoing regularization processes that are triggered by standardization or by relating the high degree of simplification of morphology achieved by that time . . . . The present overview sets out to show that what at first sight look like divergent developments of individual morphological structures can occasionally be shown to form part of a larger development towards a new equilibrium governed by functionally motivated requirements.
Ѹˤ⡤űѸʤ뤤Ϥˤ˻Ϥޤä礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) 礭Ĭή³Ƥñ˲᤹ˤȤɤޤ餺ǽŪ¦̤Ȥ̤δळȤǡ츫ȤȿΤ褦˻פ㤬Ǥ褦ˤʤȤȤѹդޤǤȤϤμळۤʤ졽Ѹ˲ѸˤƳΩƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
Poldauf, Ivan. On the History of Some Problems of English Grammar before 1800. Prague: Nákladem Filosofické Fakulty University Karlovy, 1948.
ѸϡӵǾΤ -er, -est ʤɤζޤѤ뤫more, most ʤɤαŪˡ뤫ˤĤơ츫ƤʤƤ;ȤϸѸޤ³ƤȤäƤ褤Mondorf (863) ϡǽŪʴߤиѸξϡƤʤפȤߤʤȤϤǤषĤĤȼĥ롥
The distribution of comparative variants in Late Modern English reveals an emergent functionally-motivated division of labor, with the analytic form becoming the domain of cognitively complex environments (e.g. if the adjective is accompanied by a prepositional or infinitival complement or if it is poly- rather than monomorphemic, etc.), while the synthetic form increases its range of application in easier-to-process environments . . . .
ĤޤꡤƻӤѰۤϡñˡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤ礭ĬήΤʤǤȤ館٤ǤϤʤǧŪʥץפޤǽŪ¦̤դį٤ǤȤѰۤϺɽ魯ΤǤϤʤʬ ("division of labor") η̤Ǥꡤष1ĤʤΤMondorf (864) ηѤ롥
The system of comparison in Late Modern English develops a remarkably clear pattern of reorganization. Comparative alternation becomes more systematic by exploiting the options offered by the availability of morphosyntactic variants. As regards processing requirements it makes the best possible use of each variant: cognitively complex environments (such as adjectives accompanied by a complement) consistently increase their share of the analytic comparative to such an extent that the analytic form can even become obligatory. By contrast, easy-to-process environments can afford to use the synthetic comparative. What is at stake in the diachronic development of comparative alternation is an economically-motivated division of labor, in which each variant assumes the task it is best suited to. This division of labor emerges in the LModE period, around the 18th century . . . . The benefit of creating a typologically consistent, uniform synthetic or analytic language systems is outweighed by forces following functional motivations. The older synthetic form can stand its ground (or even reconquer formerly lost domains) in easy-to-process environments, while the analytic form prevails in cognitively-demanding contexts.
Ϣơ#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
Algeo and Pyles αѸǯɽΥȤʤ4ƤϡѸ (201--02) ԤΤ Late Modern English ϡ1800ǯʹߤαѸؤƤ롥λǯɽϡ#3193. űѸμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-23-1])#3196. Ѹμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-26-1])#3197. Ѹμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-27-1]) ȡ
| 1805 | A victory over the French at the battle of Trafalgar established British naval supremacy. |
| 1806 | The British occupied Cape Colony in South Africa, preparing the way for the arrival in 1820 of a large number of British settlers. |
| 1828 | Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language was published. |
| 1840 | In New Zealand, by the Treaty of Waitangi, native Maori ceded sovereignty to the British crown. |
| 1857 | A proposal at the Philological Society of London led to work that resulted in the New English Dictionary on Historical Principles (1928), reissued as the Oxford English Dictionary (1933). |
| 1858 | The Government of India Act transferred power from the East India Company to the crown, thus creating the British Raj in India. |
| 1861--5 | The American Civil War established the indissolubility of the Union and abolished slavery in America. |
| 1898 | The four-month Spanish-American War resulted in the United States becoming a world power with overseas possessions and thus a major participant in international politics. |
| 1906 | The first radio broadcast, leading in 1920 to the first American commercial radio station in Pittsburgh. |
| 1914--8 | World War I created an alliance between the United States and the United Kingdom. |
| 1922 | The British Broadcasting Company (after 1927, Corporation) was established and became a major conveyor of information in English around the world. |
| 1927 | The first motion picture with spoken dialog, The Jazz Singer, was released. |
| 1936 | The first high-definition television service was established by the BBC, to be followed by cable service in the early 1950s and satellite service in the early 1960s. |
| 1939--45 | World War II further solidified the British-American link. |
| 1945 | The charter of the United Nations was produced at San Francisco. |
| 1947 | British India was divided into India and Pakistan, and both became independent. |
| 1952 | The Secretariat building of the United Nations was constructed in Manhattan. |
| 1961 | The Merriam Webster's Third New International Dictionary was published. |
| 1983 | The Internet was created. |
| 1991 | The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was dissolved, leaving the United States as the world's only superpower. |
| 1992 | The first Web browser for the World Wide Web was released. |
The history of English since 1800 has been a story of expansion---in geography, in speakers, and in the purposes for which English is used. Geographically, English has been spread around the world, first by British colonization and empire-building, and more recently by the prominence of America in world affairs. The number of its speakers has undergone a population explosion, not alone of native speakers but also of nonnative speakers of English as an additional language. And the uses to which English is put have ramified with the growth of science, technology, and commerce.
פˡѸϡǽȤ3̤ˤƱŪλǤ롥ˤСؤƻҤäƤȤ⤤롥
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
ŵŪʣ (neoclassical compounds) Ȥϡaerobiosis, biomorphism, cryogen, nematocide, ophthalmopathy, plasmocyte, proctoscope, rheophyte, technocracy Τ褦ʸʤФвʳѸˤؤDurkin (346--37) ˤСतθä1600ǯ夫ǧ졤㤨 polycracy (1581), pantometer (1597), multinomial (1608) ߤ롥ȯŪ̻褦ˤʤäΤϡʳؤ®ȯŸѸȤ櫓19ˤʤäƤΤȤǤʡ#616. Ѹβʳظäȯ ([2011-01-03-1])#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])#3014. Ѹˤˤ륮ꥷο¸ߴ19 ([2017-07-28-1])#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1]) ȡˡ
ŵŪʣˤĤƶĴƤ٤ϡ줬ѸǤϤʤޤDZѸʤϤȤ衼åѤνˤˤƷ줿ǤȤΤ˥ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤθŵǥȤƤϤ뤬褷ƤѤ줿櫓ǤϤʤΰ̣ǤϱñݤκۤƤʤñǤϤʤѸפӤ뤳ȤǤ롥ŵŪʣϱѸǤ뤫顤ĤޤֱפȤäƤ褤ѸȤΤäϡԤȤƹŪDzʳŪʸ̮Ѥ뤬ԤϤǤϤʤȤ¤ˤ롥ʤξԤΤˤϻѰˤиߤ롥Durkin ϡŵŪʣˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . these formations typically belong to the international language of science and move freely, often with little or no morphological adaptation, between English, French, German, and other languages of scientific discourse. They are often treated in very different ways in different traditions of lexicography and lexicology; however, those terms that are coined in modern vernacular languages are certainly not loanwords from Latin or Greek, even though they may be formed from elements that originated in such loanwords. (347)
. . . Latin words and word elements have become ubiquitous in modern technical discourse, but frequently in new compound or derivative formations or with new meanings that have seldom if ever been employed in contextual use in actual Latin sentences. (349)
¤ؤơֿŵŪʣפȸƤֱ֤פȸƤ֤ϡǤϤʤѸξˤϡֱѸŪʣפȸƤФʤΤϤʤΰ㤤ϲ˵Τ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
18--19 Industrial Revolution ʻȳ̿ˤϡѹҲι¤礭ѤμҲŪʵϡüŪˤ (traditional dialects) ԻѼ (urban varieties) ؤΰܹԤȤäƤ褤̡͢ʤȯãˤꡤ͡ιưͼҲŪͥåȥѤꤷϰˤŪʿʹִطλޤꡤοʿ (dialect_levelling) ȶ̸첽 (koinéization) ʹԤǡϤ˸줿巿ԻԤϰҲεῴϤȤʤꡤʤԻѼ郎ޤƤԻѼϰ°Ҳ궯ȿǤ뷹ǡȤϰۤʤ¸ߤǤ롥
Gramley (181) դλʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
[The Industrial Revolution and the transportation revolution] were among the most significant social changes of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Partly as a prerequisite for and partly as an effect of industrialization there were fundamental changes in transportation. First, in the period after 1750 there was the establishment of turnpikes, then canals, and finally railroads. Among their consequences was the development of regional and supra-regional markets and, concomitant with this, greater labor force mobility in a money rather than barter economy with the potential for consumption. It hardly seems necessary to point out that this led to a weakening of the rural traditional dialects and an upsurge of new urban varieties in the process of dialect leveling or koinéization.
As industrialization continued, new centers in the Northeast (mining) and in the Western Midlands (textiles in Manchester and Birmingham and commerce in Liverpool) began to emerge. Immigration of labor from "abroad" also ensured further language and dialect contact as Irish workers found jobs in the major projects of canal building in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and then in the building of the railways. Enclaves of Irish came into being, especially in Liverpool. Despite linguistic leveling the general distinctions were retained between the North (now divided more clearly than ever between the English North and Scotland), the East Midlands and the now industrializing West Midlands, and the South. The emergence of a new, mostly working-class, urban population in the North in the nineteenth century was accompanied by a literature of its own. Pamphlets, broadsides, and almanacs showed local consciousness and pride in vernacular culture and language. As the novels of Elizabeth Gaskel demonstrate, language --- be it traditional dialect or working-class koiné --- was a marker of class solidarity.
Τ褦ˡѹζḽŪʼҲŪѼΤϡȤƻȳ̿λʪȤäƤ褤
ϢȤơ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])#2028. ܤȥɤˤξ ([2014-11-15-1])#2023. England θѸʬ (3) --- Modern Dialects ([2014-11-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ε#3165. ȤƤ conspicuous external ([2017-12-26-1]) ȴϢơƤӡֱפμդꡥѸˤϡʳؤȯŸȼӤʳѸ줬ޤ줿ΤۤȤɤꥷƥͳ褹 (combining_form) Ѥ (compounding) ˤ¤Ǥʡ#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1])#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1])#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1]) ȡˡ
Kay and Allan (20--21) Τ褦˥ȤƤ롥
While borrowing continues to reflect contact with other cultures, many scientific words are not strictly speaking loanwords. Rather, they are constructed from roots adopted from the classical languages. This has the advantage of a degree of semantic transparency: if you know that tele, graph and phone come from Greek roots meaning respectively 'afar', 'writing' and 'sound', and vision from a Latin root meaning 'see, look', you can begin to understand telegraph, telephone and television. You can also coin other words using similar patterns, and possibly elements from other sources, as in telebanking.
"neo-Hellenic compounds" "neo-Latin compounds" ȤƤФ嵭Τ褦ʸäϡ̣Ǥϥƥ䥮ꥷ줫μѸȤߤʤ뤫⤷ʤŬڤˡֱפ뤤ϡֱפȤߤʤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤĤñ줬ñȯ¤줵줿櫓ǤϤʤ¤ηŪѤ줿ˡǤ뤫֥ѥ줿פȸƤ֤ΤŬڤ⤷ʤ
Kay, Christian and Kathryn Allan. English Historical Semantics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
ϸѸȤǤϤʤΤǤ濫ä2017ǯ٤إȥꥢīʸ15ˤˡLate Modern English Ĭήפꤹ륨åƤ뵡ޤܥȥꥢīʸزβĹüͺԽѰĹ͵꤬Ȥޤˡ
äǻƤǤϤʤΤǤɤߤ䤹ʸϤȤʤ褦ˤϿޤΤǡѸˤȤʤ餺Ȥ⡤ʸؤѹˤȤˤⲿȤϤʸϤˤʤäƤȤϻפޤʲΤ褦ʥǽޤ
1. Ѹ츦Υ֡भ
2. ʤ LModE ɾ㤫äΤ
3. ʤ LModE ʤΤ
4. ɤΤ褦ʸ椬ʤƤ뤫
5. LModE Ȥ줫αѸ
¤ΤȤLModE Υ֡⤹Ǥ˷褷ƿʤȤۤɤˡѸˤʬȯŸƤޤμդǤ LModE θ֤ͤϾʤޤLModE ϡΤ˸ѸȤ̤ͤݤˡ̥ŪʻǤϤޤΥåǤϡΥ֡ˤͳ뤳Ȥ櫓ǤκΥݥȤȤƻŦΤ20ȾμҲؤȥѥؤȯŸǤ
ҲؤȥѥؤȯŸˤꡤѸ˸ԤˤȤäƸ椹٤ȤȸǤ뤳Ȥ쵤ơθ̤¾λ줿Τ LModE äΤǤ롥
ܺ٤ϡåʸϤϡʲ̤Ǥ
LModE ϡФ餯δ֡Ѹ˸˿ʥͥ륮³ƤɮԤϼѸȤƤ뤬˼Ĥʤ褦 LModE ˥åץǡȤʤСȴ뼡Ǥ롥
δ졡Late Modern English Ĭήסإȥꥢīʸ١15桤2017ǯ207--16ǡ
Ѹˤˤ³ˡϡͿˤɤäƤȤäƤ褤Τ˸Ǥⴰ˾ä櫓ǤϤʤ#326. The subjunctive forms die hard. ([2010-03-19-1]) #325. mandative subjunctive should ([2010-03-18-1]) Ǥ줿̤ꡤǴ궯Ѥ³ƤꡤषѤƤȤܤΰ褹餢롥³ˡοϡ礫ʬϤظѸˤΰŪʸѲĬή (synthesis_to_analysis) ˾äƤꡤ˾塤硹ŪʵήȤϤʤ
硹ŪʵήϤʤäΤΡäȤήǤиѸˤä16˿ष³ˡϿΰӤéäƤ18Ⱦ19ˤơȤڵ롥Tieken-Boon van Ostade (84--85) ϤͳμҲư (social mobility) ȵʸˡαƶϤˤȤߤƤ롥
The subjunctive underwent a curious development during the LModE period. While its use had rapidly decreased since the end of the sixteenth century, it began to rise slightly during the second half of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth, when there was a sharp decrease from around 1870 onwards . . . . The temporary rise of the subjunctive has been associated with the influence of normative grammar, and though, this may explain the increased use during the nineteenth century, when linguistic prescriptivism was at its height and its effects must have been felt, in the second half of the eighteenth-century it must have been because of the strong linguistic sensitivity among social climbers rather than the actual effect of the grammars themselves. This is evident in the language of Robert Lowth and his correspondents: in Lowth's own usage, there is an increase of the subjunctive around the time when his grammar was newly published, and with his correspondents we found a similar linguistic awareness that they were writing to a celebrated grammarian . . . .
Tieken-Boon van Ostade ϡʸˡαƶϤäȤƤ⤪餯ŪǤꡤȤ櫓18Ⱦ³ˡäΤäȶ "social climbers" ԡˤξ徺ָȿǤռˤȤߤƤ롥
³οѸˤΡּʡήȤߤʤΤǤСѸΤäȤήϡʹּҲΤֿŪˡ߽ФήȤȤˤʤ#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1]) Ȥפʤ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
ɸˤĤơ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])#773. PPCMBE COHA ӡ ([2011-06-09-1])#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѸˤϡ -er, -est դӤ more, most ֤뱪ŪʶӤ礷Ƥˤ롥ʣˤ Kytö and Romaine Τ褯ޤȤƤΤǡѤ (196) ҤϸѸʹߤˤΤߤˤȤȤƤΤϡűѸǤ϶ӤʤäѸ˿ʶӤ饤ХȤƽиȤήǤ롥
[W]e have an interesting case of competition between the two variants. We found that the use of the newer periphrastic forms peaked during the Late Middle English period, but the older inflectional type has been regaining lost ground since the Early Modern period. In that period both types compete rather evenly. By the Modern English period, however, the inflectional forms have reasserted themselves and outnumber the periphrastic forms by roughly 4 to 1 . . . . We have established that the crucial period during which the inflectional forms increase and the periphrastic forms decrease to achieve their present-day distribution occurs during the Late Modern English period, i.e. post 1710 . . . .
ѸˤơξӷζʬˤĤƤϡֺ𤷤§ƤפȤɾϤΤΡʵҤޤŪˤ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ礫ʬϤظѸˤΰŪʸѲĬή (synthesis_to_analysis) ȿ뤫Τ褦ưѻʤɡ椬¿
ˤ衤ߤʬۤδäǤϤΤ300ǯۤˤʤȤΤϡճȤаճǤ롥
Kytö, Merja and Suzanne Romaine. "Adjective Comparison in Nineteenth-Century English." Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change. Ed. Merja Kytö, Mats Rydén, and Erik Smitterberg. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 194--214.
ʸػ˾塤18--19 "the Age of Prose", "the great age of the personal letter", "the golden age of letter writing" ʤɤȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥͡ȼᡤ路Ǥ롥ǯѸŪˤơλμˤոεŪʸˡѤȿǤƤͻҤʤɤؤδؿޤäƤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ҲؤδΥץ
18--19˼ȤҲŪʥ֡ȤʤäطʤˤĤơTieken-Boon van Ostade β (2--3)
Letter writing became an important means of communication to all people alike, largely as a result of the developments of the postal system. With the establishment of the Penny Post throughout Britain in 1840, postage became cheaper and was now paid for by the writer instead of the receiver. The result was phenomenal: while according to Mugglestone (2006: 276) 'some 75 million letters were sent in 1839', they had increased to 347 million ten years later. Just before the widespread introduction of the Penny Post, the average person in England and Wales received about four letters a year (Bailey 1996: 17), which rose to about eight times as many in 1871, and doubled further at the end of the century. The effects on the language were significant: more people write than ever before, either themselves or, as with minimally schooled writers, through the hands of others who had had slightly more education. Letter-writing manuals, such as The Complete Letter Writer (Anon., 2nd edn 1756), had been appearing in increasing numbers since the mid-eighteenth century, and they gained in popularity during the nineteenth, both in England and in the United States.
Υ֡ϡѸ˿ʽդΥ뤬ܳŪ˳쿭ĥȤ̣ФǤϤʤޤǽƤ͡ޤޤ褦ˤʤäȡƤ˽פʤȤˡޤǽȤΤʤä͡ޤǤȤ٤ôȤʤϤȤ̣롥ˡν˴ؤޥ˥奢뤬Ǥ褦ˤʤꡤ줬ҲŪʤʤߤȤƵϲƤäǤ⤢뤳Ȥ̣롥
λϡɥ쥹ɤˤոˤ衤ˤĤƤ֤ʤߡפλäȤ٤⡤Τ褦ʻĬΤʤǼҲȤ߹ޤƤä⤦1ĤΤʤߤäȤȤˤʤ
1619ޤǤμλˤĤƤϡTieken-Boon van Ostade ˤ Correspondences Υڡȡ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
#2993. Ѹؤδؿιޤ ([2017-07-07-1]) ǡǯѸθ椬夬äƤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ͳ͡Ǥ褦˻פ뤬Kytö et al. (4--5) λŦƤ4˼褦19αѸ줬ͤͳȤơεǿ줿Τȹ碌ƳǧƤ
(1) 19˼Ψ夬äȤˤꡤ¿¿ͤʥƥȤ˭٤߽Ф줿Ȥ櫓ȸѲδط褯ĴǤ褦ˤʤä
(2) Brown Family Τ褦ʸѸΥѥˤ븦̤Ȥơǯۤɤû֤ˤѲܤޤä顤ѸμҲŪŪʽȡθѲδطõ븦椬ߤ褦ˤʤä
(3) λ˥ι꤬줿äˡ修ʹ⡤ʳؤθʤɡˤƽȤˤʤ뤬줿ȤƽפǤ롥
(4) 19ϡꥹʳαѸѼ¿ˤȤäƷ롥
ιܤ⡤Ѹͭü˻ȿǤƤ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤʾ˶ǯΥѥءҲءȤäץδƤػŪطʤϢưƤ뤳ȤפǤ롥ȤŪʬǤȤϤˤΤɤ¦̤˴ؿ䤹ΤؿΤȤŪư˸ưƤΤȤ狼롥
Kytö, Merja, Mats Rydén, and Erik Smitterberg. "Introduction: Exploring Nineteenth-Century English --- Past and Present Perspective." Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change. Ed. Merja Kytö, Mats Rydén, and Erik Smitterberg. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--16.
ε#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡ19Ѹ¤Τˡŵͳ褹ǤϢ (combining_form) ȤƤѤ줿Ǥ롥ŵȤϥƥȥꥷؤԤϱѸˤ̤¿ʱƶڤܤƤΤΡԤ¸ߴѸޤǤϤۤȤɴʤ褦䤯ѸäơľܤθüѤʤ褦ˤʤäƤˤθ⤷Ф餯äΩĤȤʤä (cf. #516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1]))
#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1]) Υդ#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1]) 狼Ȥꡤ19˥ꥷǤ¸ߴ̻ŪˤߤȡꥷͳαñΰŪȾ19ʹߤƳǤ롥Beal (26) ΥȤȤ褦
Whilst Greek had been recognized as a language of learning for centuries, it was not until the nineteenth century that large numbers of neologisms were formed from etymologically Greek words and elements. Indeed, Bailey (1996: 144 [= Bailey, R. W. Nineteenth-Century English. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1996]) points out that 70 per cent of the Greek words in the 80,000-word core vocabulary of English appeared after 1800.
ȤƤѸ줬¿ߤޤǤ˰̲ΤޤޤƤ롥cyclosis ʺ˦ή, creosote ѡѥ쥪ȡ, eclecticism ﵻˡ, ideograph ɽʸ, phonograph ߲, telephone õˤʤɤ
ʤñ¿ϡ̩ˤХꥷ줫μѸȤ⥮ꥷͳ褹Ǥˤ¤ȤߤʤΤŬڤ#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
Ѹ˭ʸûˤˤĤơ#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]), #1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])#2966. Ѹä (2) ([2017-06-10-1])#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ˭Ǥ뤬椨ˡ˾塤ߤ˼ڤꤹꤹȤȽ֤Ƥ
Ǥͭ̾ʤΤ16ȾΡ֥ (inkhorn_term) Ǥꡤ#576. inkhorn term ȱѸ켭 ([2010-11-24-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤Ƥۤˤ#2147. ѸΥեѸȽ ([2015-03-14-1])#2813. Bokenham ν ([2017-01-08-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) Τ褦ˡޤΩʤȤǸȽϷ֤Ƥ
⤦1դä٤ϡѸ¤ˡħȤ⤤뿷ŵŪʣ (neo-classical compounds) ˸줿ȽǤ롥˥ƥ䥮ꥷϢ (combining_form) Ѥ¤줹Τǡneo-Latin compounds neo-Hellenic compounds ȤƤФ롥¤ˡϡ19˲ʳѸʤɤѸ줬̤ɬפȤʤäݤѤ줿ˡǤ (cf. #1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]))
Beal (22--23) 19οŵŪʣؤȽȡĤƤΡ֥פ褬褯ƤŦƤ롥
If we look at comments on language in the nineteenth century, we find a range of opinions remarkably similar to those expressed during the 'inkhorn' controversy of the late sixteenth/early seventeenth centuries. On the one hand, there were complaints about the number of new words coined from Latin and Greek. Richard Grant White writes:
In no way is our language more wronged than by a weak readiness with which many of those who, having neither a hearty love nor a ready mastery of it, or lacking both, fly readily to the Latin tongue or to the Greek for help in naming a new thought or thing, or the partial concealment of an old one . . . By doing so they help to deface the characteristic traits of our mother tongue, and to mar and stunt its kindly growth (1872; 22, cited in Bailey, 1996: 141--2 [= Bailey, R. W. Nineteenth-Century English. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1996]).
Others objected to the profusion of technical and scientific vocabulary, again mainly from Greek and Latin sources. R. Chenevix Trench wrote (1860: 57--8) that these were 'not, for the most part, except by an abuse of language, words at all, but signs: having been deliberately invented as the nomenclature and, so to speak, the algebraic notation of some special art or science'.
ŵŪʣϡȼξˤơʾʤȤԤˤȤäơȽоݤȤʤäƤȤ狼롥
ĤǤʤ顤ܸˤ֥ץȽ丽ߤΡ֥ʸפ⡤Ѹˤξ嵭ΥȤ褯Ƥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1])#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1])#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) Dz⡦ɾƤΤȤ
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
ε ([2017-07-16-1]) ˰³ɸ4ơѸФؿܤܳŪƤΤϡ#2993. Ѹؤδؿιޤ ([2017-07-07-1]) ǸȤꡤäƤȤäƤǤϤʤˤ⤳λ˴ؿġθԤϤᤤȤǤϡѸˤ̾1Ĥ路 Strang ⡤ʤ̴ؿäƸѸҤStrang ϡληŪʲѲƤʤŦƱ夬ڻ뤵ƤȤʤ⡤ȤäƸ٤ѲʤȤȤˤϤʤʤƤ롥
Some short histories of English give the impression that changes in pronunciation stopped dead in the 18c, a development which would be quite inexplicable for a language in everyday use. It is true that the sweeping systematic changes we can detect in earlier periods are missing, but the amount of change is no less. Rather, its location has changed: in the past two hundred years changes in pronunciation are predominantly due, not, as in the past, to evolution of the system, but to what, in a very broad sense, we may call the interplay of different varieties, and to the complex analogical relationship between different parts of the language. (78--79)
ʲѲθ줬ѤäȤ⤷ǤϡϤɤ˰ưȤСѼ֤ܿȤҲŪΰǤꡤηʣѤȤΰȤ
Strang ˼ǤʤСǤϡˤѲϡΤ褦ΰ̵äΤ䤤餯̵ȤȤϤʤĤƤƱͤˡѼ֤ߺѤηѤϤ˴ͿƤۤʤΤϡĤƤλθϸѸ⥢ˤʣ⸫ˤȤȤǤϤʤѸϡ٤μҲŪʾ뤳ȤǤƤޤ椨ˡʣ´䤹ȤȤ٤⤤˱줬ΩġȤǤĤޤꡤѲθ줬ѤäȤϡǽ餫餢äˤ⤫餺ˤä줬褯褦ˤʤäƤɽΤ⤷ʤѸˤĤƤϡʤ褯뤳ȤϸޤǤʤ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ɸ˴ؤơ#319. ѸüԿζɤեǥ ([2010-03-12-1])#339. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ ([2010-04-01-1])#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1])#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ ([2011-01-09-1])#1430. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ (2) ([2013-03-27-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ⤦1ĵκɲä
Ѹ鸽ѸˤƤλä Cambridge Ѹ˥4Լ Romaine ϡϤǤλΤ褦ħŤƤ (1)
The final decades of the eighteenth century provide the starting point for this volume --- a time when arguably less was happening to shape the structure of the English language than to shape attitudes towards it in a social climate that became increasingly prescriptive. . . . The most radical changes to English grammar had already taken place over the roughly one thousand years preceding the starting year of this volume.
λˤϡηϤ˱ƶ褦ѲϤۤɵäƤ餺षüԤ٤ˤѲʼȤƵϼŪѤˤ˸ΤȤСŪѲȤϼҲŪѲħŤȤȤǤꡤ˼ҲŪ¦̤åפȤȤˤʤ롥
λäʸˡʬ絬ϤѲȤƸ٤ΤʤȤϡ#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ ([2011-01-09-1]) ǿ줿̤Romaine (2) ƱݤǼΤ褦Ƥ롥
The immediately preceding period dealt with in Volume III (1476--1776) of this series, the Early Modern Period, has often been described as the formative period in the history of Modern Standard English. By the end of the seventeenth century what we might call the present-day 'core' grammar of Standard English was already firmly established. As pointed out by Denison in his chapter on syntax, relatively few categorical innovations or losses occurred. The syntactic changes during the period covered in this volume have been mainly statistical in nature, with certain construction types becoming more frequent.
ʸ˶Ѹ˱Ѹˤή줬˻ߤޤä櫓ǤϤʤŪѲϡԤ椷ƳΤΩʤȸ쳰ŪѲϷ㤷Ƥ롥ѸˤŪˡ̻ˡˤȳŪˡʳ̻ˡˤ¤Ǥʾ塤ή줬ߤޤ뤳ȤϷ褷Ƥʤ
Romaine, Suzanne. "Introduction." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 1--56.
ε#2997. 1800ǯ˰ä long <s> ([2017-07-11-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡʬ˸Ѹ˶ᤤȴ18ǤʤʬŪ19ǤˡȼϡʸֻεϤ˴ؤơ2ĤΰۤʤƤȤäƤ褤С2Ĥˡ¸ߤƤʤ⡤ơϸŪʰ̣Ǥοϳ餵̶ǤʵϤȤ櫓ǤϤʤäˡϤ褽ָפǤꡤϡֻפǤ뤫顤ˡϸǻȤʬ٤ŴȤʤäƤΤǤ롥
κۤǤŪ˸ΤϡJohnson μǤֻȡJohnson λŪʤǤֻǤ롥㤨СJohnson ϼǤֻȤϰۤʤꡤʤǤ companiable, enervaiting, Fryday, obviateing, occurences, peny, pouns, stiched, chappel, diner, dos (= does) ֻƤ (Tieken-Boon van Ostade 42) Τ褦ʾ¾κȤˤĤƤƱͤ˸뤳Ȥ顤Johnson ֤겼äȤ̷ƤʤɤȤˤϤʤʤषŪʰȻŪʼȤǰۤʤֻδबꡤ줬뤵ƤȤȤǤ롥
Τ褦ʾϡβ桹ˤȤäƤˤ⤷ʤֻθͤƤߤмΤȤǤ롥Ѹˤֻζʽ¿Ǥ줿ϻҶ˰줿ƥȤɤ褦ˤ뤿ζʽǤꡤҶֻȤ붵ʽǤϤʤäƥȤֻϡȼԤˤäƴŪ줿ˡȿǤƤꡤҶϤηŪֻɤֽä˼ƤʤäΤ褦ʻҶǽʤǧʤˤϡʤƥȤɽ蘆Ƥˡ§ä֤뤳ȤϤǤʤȤäñޤä֤ʤȤȤˤϤʤʤʤμ˸뤳ȤۤȤɤʤ
ơξϡֻؤǤҶΤߤʤ餺ʸɤ߽ͤˤ̤ƤϤޤäȼΩϡΩΤߤʤ餺ֻɤǽϤȽǽϤΩǤ⤢äΤ
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
18ΰܤΥƥȤɤǤȡ³ <s> ΰۻ (allograph) Ǥ <<ʃ>> ޤˤ˸뤳Ȥ˵ŤλΤ "long <s>" ȸƤФƤꡤޤǤѤƤޤäΤΡѸˤĹˤ錄äƳƤۻΤäTieken-Boon van Ostade (40) ˰Ƥ롡ECCO ʸˤꡤ<<ʃ>> λȤƤߤ褦
. . . WHEREIN / THE CHAPTERS are ʃumm'd up in Contents; the Sacred Text inʃerted at large, in Paragraphs, or Verʃes; and each Paragraph, or Verʃe, reduc'd to its proper Heads; the Senʃe given, and largely illuʃtrated, / WITH / Practical Remarks and Obʃervations
Ƥ狼̤ꡤ٤Ƥ <s> <<ʃ>> ǰƤ櫓ǤϤʤŪˤϸƬ <s> <<ʃ>> ǰ졤Ǥ̾ <<s>> ʤޤƬǤʸξˤ <<S>> Ѥ롥ۤˡIdleneʃs Busineʃs Τ褦ˡ<ss> δĶǤ1ʸܤ long <s> Ȥʤ롥
long <s> 䤬Ѥ˵뤳ȤȤʤäˤƤ18˾äƤäȤŦƤ롥
Long <s> disappeared as a printing device towards the end of the eighteenth century, and its presence or absence is today used by antiquarians to date books that lack a publication date as dating from either before or after 1800. (Tieken-Boon van Ostade 40)
դ٤ϡ1800ǯ long <s> äΤϰȤΤˤƤǤꡤ (handwriting) ˤƤϡ⤦Ф餯 long <s> Ѥ³ȤȤǤ롥#584. long <s> graphemics ([2010-12-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤ1850ǯޤǻȤ³ȼȤǻʬۤۤʤäƤȤ long <s> ˸¤餺¾ΰۻΤֻˤƤϤޤ롥δФǤϡˤˤ衤1Ĥζ̤ˡȹͤΤʤȤ1800ǯޤǤϡΤ褦ʴФϵäȤߤʤ٤Ǥ롥
long <s> ˤĤơ#1152. sneeze θ츻 ([2012-06-22-1])#1732. Shakespeare ֤ (2) ([2014-01-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
Tieken-Boon van Ostade (138) ˤѸγɤǤơʸˡȥ쥷ܤ˸פʤ줿
Between 1500 and 1850, the number of such books [= cooking recipes] increased dramatically, which, interestingly, shows a parallel with the steep rise in the publication of English grammars since the 1760s . . . . Their reading public was also similar: people who desired access to the 'polite' middle classes, and who needed tools for this, even cookery books. Another similarity is that writers of cookery books often 'copy from existing collections so that such compilations tend to be "improvements" of earlier cookery books' (Görlach 1992: 750).
ޤξƥȥפȤˡ̤ƽǤ³ƤꡤȤ櫓18ȾäȤޤμפϤ徺ָζή˻٤ƤȤŦƤ롥⡤ʤ»νʽˤȤäơ֤ʤߡפªƤΤǤ롥ˡԤֲפȾΤơΥԥڤΤ褦˹ԤʤäƤȤȤⶦߤǤ餫ȤȳȤȤǤϤʤäΤȤϤ18Ⱦˤϡ㤦٤ǧ褦ˤʤäƤ褦Ǥ롥
ܤǤϡ뺧Ȥ˽ȤΤʤߤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ褦äܸʸˡμϵƤʤϤ̣ǤۤäȤȤǤ롥18ΥꥹҲϡ "social climbers" ˤȤäΤڤǤϤʤäΤʤȹͤճʶä
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
ε#2993. Ѹؤδؿιޤ ([2017-07-07-1]) ǡǯθѸ츦ζδˤĤƾҲ𤷤Ѹ (Late Modern English) ȤϡĤ餤ĤޤǤؤΤȤϡѸˤ뤤ϸ˰̤ˤʬ (periodisation) ȤůŪľ뤷ƤꡤŪͿ뤳ȤϤǤʤŪǶǤϡ#2640. Ѹˤλʬ ([2016-07-19-1])#2774. ʬˤĤƵƤߤ ([2016-11-30-1])#2960. ˸ˤʬΰյ ([2017-06-04-1]) ǵΤǻȡˡ
䤳ȴˤСѸ1700--1900ǯλʤ18--19ؤȹͤƤ褤1700ǯ1900ǯȤڤΤ狼䤹ϡʬƤΤȲ᤹٤Ǥ롥˼Ҳˤ˱ä٤ܤСѹˤˤĹ18פȡĹ19פ̣ơȤϲŤ1660ǯ1ェλ1918ǯޤǤδ֤ؤΤªΤ⤷ʤä˼Ҳˤȸˤ̩ܤʴطܤ˼ҲؤΩ줫ϡΡĹѸפβϡŬڤBeal (2)
Of course, it would be foolish to suggest that any such period could be homogeneous or that the boundaries would not be fuzzy. The starting-point of 1700 is particularly arbitrary, especially since . . . the obvious political turning-point which might mark the Early/Later Modern English boundary is the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. This coincides with the view of historians that the 'long' eighteenth century extends roughly from the restoration of the English monarchy (1660) to the fall of Napoleon (1815). On the other hand, the 'long' nineteenth-century in European history is generally acknowledged as beginning with . . . 'the great bourgeois French Revolution' of 1789 . . . and concluding with the end of World War I in 1918 . . . .
˾Ф2νλ1945ǯˤޤDzơĹѸפͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦˸Ƥȡ3˵ڤִ֤ޤŪʸǤѸˤˤäơˤƽפʻǤ뤳ȤϼΤ褦˻פ롥λܳŪʾϤΤϡäƤʤΤǤ롥
Beal, Joan C. English in Modern Times: 1700--1945. Arnold: OUP, 2004.
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