źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ
#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ
there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.
Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.
쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
#3531. ֺ¡αѸ졡硼إ٥ʪ١פΤΤ餻 ([2018-12-27-1]) ǹΤ褦ˡ112ڡˤƱȥǹֺ¤ޤä줿ˤޤƤϡ600ǯΥ硼αѸ줬Ѹμǰճɤ뤳ȤʬäΤǤϤʤǤ礦ष硼αѸӤʤ顤Ѹޤ뤳ȤˤⵤŤΤǤϤʤȻפޤΤ褦ʥ˥塼äޤ
1. ޤ General Prologue Ƭ
2. 硼ȡإ٥ʪ
3. Ѹθ
4. إ٥ʪ٤θ
5. General Prologue Ƭ
6. Ѹ줫ۤѸε
ֺ¤ǻѤ饤ɻ˥åפƤޤޤ饤ɤΥڡȤΥʲĥäƤޤ饤椫ܥ֥δϢإ˭٤ĥĤƤޤΤǡȤ
1. ֱѸˡ1αѸ硼إ٥ʪ
2. ֺܹ¤Τͤ餤
3. Ellesmere MS, fol. 1r
4. General Prologue Ƭ18 (Benson)
5. Ѹ (Բϡϲp. 191
6. ơˡ֤פפ (pp. 7--8)
7. 硼ȡإ٥ʪ
8. Ѹθ
9. ΥޥѸޤǤά (#131)
10. إ٥ʪ٤θ
11. General Prologue Ƭ
12. Ѹ줫ۤѸε
13. ۤʤܤƤߤ7ܤܡ
14. ޤȤ
15. ʸ
112ڡˤ15:00?18:15ˡī㡼ɶˤơֱѸˡפꤹ륷ֺ¤1ƤȤαѸ졡硼إ٥ʪ١֤ޤʲΤ餻ʸϤǤ
ѻȾΤ른ե硼ˤʸؤηإ٥ʪ٤ƬѸˤμ䤤ʤѸθʸ̣襤ޤƬսϱʸػ˾̾⤤ʸϤȤ졤γĴ⤵侮̣褤Χ¤˴ǽ뤿ˤϡʸ˿뤳Ȥ礫ޤ硼αʸϡΥĤĤСѸμɤ߿ʤ뤳Ȥʬ˲ǽǤֺܹ¤ǡɤʤƤߤޤ礦
1. ե硼λΥ
2. إ٥ʪ٤ι¤
3. إ٥ʪ٤αΧ
4. ͭ̾Ƭʬɤ
5. ƬʬѸŪɤ
6. Ѹ줫ۤѸε
ƬΤߤǤϤޤإ٥ʪ٤ʸɤߤѸȤΤ˿ƤߤŪʸغʤ̤ƱѸˤǽѸ˱ѸˤδꤿʤɡѸ졦ʸؤ˴ؿꤵСäȳڤޤդäƤä
Chaucer ˴ؤƤܥ֥Ǥ chaucer νľܡܤ¿夲ƤޤȤ櫓ʲֺ꤬ܹ¤ȴطΤǡȤ
#290. Chaucer ˴ؤ Web resources ([2010-02-11-1])
#257. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ ([2010-01-09-1])
#298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1])
#534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ ([2010-10-13-1])
#791. iambic pentameter Υ ([2011-06-27-1])
#2275. ѸβηϤ The General Prologue ([2015-07-20-1])
#2667. Chaucer Ѥä10--15%եѸ ([2016-08-15-1])
#2788. General Prologue 7ܤμܴӡ ([2016-12-14-1])
#3449. Chaucer Ϣǯɽ ([2018-10-06-1])
106ڡˤθˡرˤƹϢȥץȤΰĤȤƱѸˤˤĤƹֱ餹뵡ޤĹϤطȤ櫓ιֱΤääƤ줿Ĥƻγߤ°Ѹˤ칶ƤѸʤλ﨑δˡ괶פޤ꤬Ȥޤͽ1֤ĶᤷƤιֱǮ˼˼Ķᤷʤ˰ʤƤ줿ر̤Τߤʤ˴äޤǤڤdzؤФƤäΤϡ伫ȤäȻפޤ *
ֱѸ --- Ѹθ180ѤسθפȤ緶ʥȥǤäΤǤǤ͡ʡѤʵפӽФޤĤĤġϢ뵭ؤΥĥäƤޤ
ʤե٥åȤ26ʸʤΡ (cf. #3049. ѸǤ⥢ե٥åȤϤޤ26ʸǤϤʤä ([2017-09-01-1]))
ե٥åȤγʸ̾ϤɤäƷޤäƤΡ (cf. #1831. ե٥åȤλҲʸ̾Ρ ([2014-05-02-1]))
ʤ A ϡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΡ (cf. #205. 첻 ([2009-11-18-1]))
ʤ name, take ʤɤΥڥˤɤޤʤ e Ρ (cf. #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]))
ʤ첻θ r ϥꥫѸǤ϶Τ˥ꥹѸǤȯʤΡ (cf. #452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]))
ʤ s Ȥ̤ th ȯΡ (cf. #842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]))
Ѹ˵äƤȯѲϡ (cf. #860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1]))
ʤΤȯ狼Ρ (cf. #437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1]))
ʤ go ϡgo -- went -- gone ȤѤʤΡ (cf. #43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]))
ʤ bad ϡbad -- worse -- worst ȤѲʤΡ (cf. #1580. 佼ˡθ³Ȳǽ ([2013-08-24-1])
-ly ȤϤä (cf. #40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1]))
ʤ -ing ˤϸʬư̾2ĤˡΡ (cf. #2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1]))
ѸؽԤΤߤʤΤ褦ʡѤʵפڤˤƤ
ֽפ autumn fall Ȥ˴ϢơޤǤ#1221. ˡ ([2012-08-30-1]) #2925. autumn vs fall, zed vs zee ([2017-04-30-1]) εǡäˡ#2916. Ϣ4֥ꥹѸ autumn ȥꥫѸ fall --- ʣŪͤΤס ([2017-04-21-1]) ĥä֥ꥹѸ autumn ȥꥫѸ fall --- ʣŪͤΤǾܤ夲Ƥ
Dictionary by Merriam-Webster θˡڡ Is It 'Autumn' or 'Fall'? ȤĤǡֽפ̣ fall ϡξǤ Johnson A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) ޤǷǺܤƤʤäȽҤ٤ƤΤǡ® Johnson äƤߤ̾ fall 13ˤä
13. Autumn; the fall of the leaf; the time when the leaves drop from the trees.
What crowds of patients the town-doctor kills,
Or how last fall he rais'd the weekly bills. Dryden's Juven.
13Ȥ֤Ť餷ơֽפΰ̣Ǥ fall ϥꥹѸǤϤޤǥޥʡʡֽäȿ¬Ǥ롥ȾˤϡꥫѸǤ fall Ǥ̤Ρֽפɽ魯ˤʤäƤȤJohn Pickering A Vocabulary, or Collection of Words Which Have Been Supposed to Be Peculiar to the United States of America (1816) ˸뼡εҤΤʾ嵭θˡڡ¹ˡ
A friend has pointed out to me the following remark on this word: "In North America the season in which this [the fall of the leaf] takes place, derives its name from that circumstance, and instead of autumn is universally called the fall."
ѸʥƥȤϿ EEBO (Early English Books Online) ˤĤơ#3117. EEBO corpus ([2017-11-08-1]) BYU EEBO ե Early English Books Online corpus Ҳ𤷤
Ȥ̤ˡEarly Modern Print: Text Mining Early Printed English ȤȤΥץȤǡn-gram KWIC ʤɤθեƤ뤳ȤΤäΤǾҲ𤷤ƤŪʥȥϡΥڡɤġζŪʥġϡΥ饢Ǥ롥
EEBO N-Gram Browser
EEBO-TCP Key Words in Context
EEBO-TCP and ESTC Text Counts
EEBO-TCP Words Per Year
ޤUniversity of Michigan Early English Books Online γƼ掠 Lancaster University ˤ EEBO on CQPweb (V3) Ʊͤͭѡ
Ƽ磻եΤѤ뤫¤Ȥ
#3404. ֺ¡ֱѸΥåϤȤ虜˳ؤ١פΤΤ餻 ([2018-08-22-1]) ǤΤ餻ȤꡤƱֺ¤֤ޤä줿ˤޤƤϡ꤬Ȥޤֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤Ƥޤ
ʲ饤ɤΥڡȤ˥ĥäƤޤ餵ˡܥ֥͡ʵ٤ޤΤǡ碌Ƥ
1. ֺ¡رѸΥåϤȤ虜˳ؤ١
2. ֺܹ¤Τͤ餤
3. Art is long, life is short.
4. Ѹ줳Ȥ虜˴ؤ뼭ҤξҲ
5. ֤Ȥ虜סֶסֳʸפʤɡʡعϻǡ٤
6. proverb, saying, maxim, etc. (OALD8)
7. ñ proverb θ츻
8. Ѹ줳Ȥ虜 (#2691)
9. Ѹ줳Ȥ虜ε (#3321)
10. Ѹ줳Ȥ虜Ƥˤʬ (#3320)
11. Ѹ줳Ȥ虜Υɡȥå50 (#3419)
12. ꤳȤ虜 (#3420)
13. Ѹ줳Ȥ虜û (#3421)
14. ûȤ虜ûʸ硤ά
15. ͡ĹȤ虜⤢
16. еȤ虜
17. Ƭ (alliteration)
18. ƬȤȤ虜 (#943)
19. ꥺ
20. Many a little makes a mickle. (#564)
21. Money makes the mare to go. (##970,978)
22. Handsome is as handsome does. (#3319)
23. One man's meat is another man's poison.
24. One swallow does not make a summer.
25. ѡˤȤ虜ӡʰƣ8Ϥ
26. ͳ褹뤳Ȥ虜
27. ŤȤ虜ʸűѸ졦Ѹ
28. ޤȤ
29. ʸ
98ڡˤ15:00?18:15ˡī㡼ɶˤƹֱֺѸΥåϤȤ虜˳ؤ١֤ޤΤͤΤ롤Ȥ虜ϱѸɽ̣̣臘ΤˤäƤĤǺʤΤǤʲμݤǤäͽǤ
ɤʸˤƤ⡤Ȥ虜ϿεߤɽΤȤơŤ͡˸ʤ蘆ƤޤѸʸˤƤ㳰ǤϤʤűѸꤳȤ虜ºФ졤Ȥ虜ԤޤƤޤѸΤȤ虜ؤ֤ȤˤꡤѸʸݤƤηạ̈廊ФǤϤʤѸ줽ΤΤοã뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥϡޤ굤ŤƤޤȤ虜αѸˤϡŤ¸³ƤѸͭαΧꡤűѸѸ˵ıѸ餷ʸˡˡ©ŤƤޤ
㤨СֿФѤлȤʤפб Many a little makes a mickle. ϡűѸŵŪƬȤˡȶ岻η֤ȤΧĴ¤Ūˤͥ줿Ȥ虜ǤϹκ⼡פ Money makes a mare to go. Ǥϡ make ˤ⤫餺 to 줬ѤƤꡤʸˡϰæƤ褦˻פޤˤⱤΧθ̤ǧ뤳ȤǤޤ
ֺܹ¤ȾǤϡǯʾˤ錄ѸΤȤ虜ˤȤȤˤҤȤȾǤϸޤǼѤƤѸΤȤ虜ѤƤ͡ʸŪʵˡɤ߲Ȥˤꡤ˻ĤΤȤ虜ޤǰʾ˳ڤळȤܻؤޤ
ѸˤγפϤΤäƤ뤱ɤ⡤μιȤߤ˶ŪդƤȤСűѸѸθʸɤǤȤޤȤϤΤΡ¿αѸؽԤˤȤäơθʸɤ߲ʤɤȤȤϡޤߵ郎⤤ȻפΤǤϤʤǤ礦Ǥ褤ȤʤΤȤ虜ǤȤ虜ˤϡФиŤոĤäƤޤΤ褦ʤȤ虜ˡŤ֡졤ạ́ˡʤɤĤޤ߿ĤġѸˤؤܤȤݤǤѸθʸˡˤΩޤѸˤȤϤ߽ФơѸءƸذ̤ؤƳˤʤޤ
Ȥ虜ƼΤ⤪̣臘ͽǤɤڤߤˡ
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ȥ虜ˤĤƼ夲ƤΤǡʲε
#564. Many a little makes a mickle ([2010-11-12-1])
#780. ٥ꥢ meat ([2011-06-16-1])
#910. ʤ (1) ([2011-10-24-1])
#948. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (1) ([2011-12-01-1])
#955. ʸϤ碌2।ǥ ([2011-12-08-1])
#970. Money makes the mare to go ([2011-12-23-1])
#978. Money makes the mare to go (2) ([2011-12-31-1])
#2248. ;̾ȤƤ you ([2015-06-23-1])
#2395. ե줫ζμѡ ([2015-11-17-1])
#2691. ѸθμƤˡ ([2016-09-08-1])
#3319. Handsome is as handsome does ([2018-05-29-1])
#3320. Ѹθʬ ([2018-05-30-1])
#3321. Ѹθεա ([2018-05-31-1])
#3322. Many a mickle makes a muckle ([2018-06-01-1])
#3336. ܸθѤƤ ([2018-06-15-1])
721ڡˤˡī㡼ɶιֺˤؤֱñθ츻ޤǮˤä꤬Ȥޤֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤Ƥޤ
ϰʲ3Ǥ
ѸˤɤʤѸäȯŸ⤷
ñˤọֻ̇ѲΰŪʥѥˤĤƽҤ
츻ŵѸ켭ŵθ츻ɤ߲ˡޤ
츻Ȱ˸äƤ⡤ɤäϤ٤¤ޤ̤ȤơѸûˤȤŪƤȤϤʤޤޤŪˤʤʤ褦ñζ䤵ʤ褦˹ޤ
ʲ饤ɤΥڡȤ˥ĥäƤޤƥ饤ɤϡ֥ؤΥˤʤäƤޤ
1. ֺ¡ˤؤֱñθ츻
2. Q. αñȵθȤȤ߹碌Ƥ
3. ѸäεϤȼ˭٤
4. ֺܹ¤Τͤ餤
5. ܼ
6. 1.1 ȥ츻ʳءˤȤϡ
7. Every word has its own history.
8. 츻ؤŤ
9. ̱֡¯˸츻
10. ޤȤ (1.1)
11. 1.2 Ѹûˤγά
12. ² (The Indo-European Family)
13. Ѹûˤγά (##37,126,45)
14. αѸäˤߤˤΰ仺
15. ο
16. Ѹû (#1526)
17. 츻 (#756)
18. ޤȤ (1.2)
19. 1.3 ѲΰŪʥѥȯ
20. ѲΰŪʥѥֻ
21. ѲΰŪʥѥ̣ (##473,1953,2252)
22. Q. ʲϰ̣ѲФ椨˰̣ȤʤäƤʸǤñΤȤΰ̣Ǥޤ (#1954)
23. ޤȤ (1.3)
24. 2.1 츻ŵǸɤ߲
25. 2.2 츻ŵȯֻѲɤ߲
26. 2.3 츻ŵǰ̣ȯŸɤ߲
27. ޤȤ
28. ʸ
ε#3373. ּáס ([2018-07-22-1]) ˰³ϼؤγǰ˸ؤ˱ѤǤ뤫ɤ⤦1ĤλǹͤƤߤ롥ؤǯ˻뼨ಽФȤ̤ˡ경 (facies fossile) ȤβФ롥ϻǤϤʤĶ˻βФΤȤǡ㤨ХФϡĤƤϤȤƩǤäȤ롥Ǥϡ˱ѤơּáפʤΤˤĤƸ뤳ȤϤǤ
פĤΤϡѸä䤽¾ΰκܤȤǤ롥#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1]) Ǹ褦ˡťΥɸ줫μѸˤϡȸޤۤŪܶʸä¿ζä٤¤ˤĤơѸˤǤϰ̤˼Τ褦ʤ롥űѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤϡƱޥ̱²Ȥ转⤪褽Ƥꡤߤθ⤢٤Ǥʸ٥⤪褽ƱǤꡤҲŪʴط⤪Ǥä餳å٥θäߤθήΤȡĤޤꡤΤ褦ŪʼѸ¸ߤϡξԤΤο̩ǻʸܿäȤ롥
⤦1ĤΡּáפȤʤꤦϡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʱѸȥեѸȤκ˴ؤΤǤ롥ưʪɽ魯 calf, deer, fowl, sheep, swine, ox ʤɤФơɽ魯ñ veal, venison, poultry, mutton, pork, beef ʤɤμѸǤ롥ŪʲˤСθŪΩϡ̱饢ͤȾήΥޥͤȤҲŪΩȿǤ롥Τ褦ʸáʸäΤΤȤϸʬۡˤϡѸμδĶΤȤƼŪǤȤΤǤϤʤ
ŪˤСѸä3ع¤ŵȤó (lexical_stratification) ¸ߤ⡤ĤƤθܿҲΤʤˤǼŪǤ롥ºݤΤȤû˸ˤơּáפȤȯۤϡѸ줳Ȥ鷺Ȥ⡤Τ褦˼Ƥ褦ˤפ롥
ǿ줿ưʪ3ع¤ˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])
#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1])
#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1])
#1604. ưʪȤɽñפ˻Ŧͤ ([2013-09-17-1])
#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1])
#1967. ˴ؤեѸ ([2014-09-15-1])
#2352. ưʪȤɽñפο (2) ([2015-10-05-1])
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1])
#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ ([2015-07-24-1])
#2643. Ѹäλع¤οá ([2016-07-22-1])
#387. trisociation triset ([2010-05-19-1])
#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1])
ѲϸŪŪޤװȤ߹碌ˤäȤ "multiple causation" θ§ˤĤơʲεޤƽǼĥƤ
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ͡ ([2018-04-11-1])
Ѳ路 Aitchison ƱΩǤꡤεǤϢսѡȤƤ⤦1 Aitchison (202) ꥨåȤ⤤٤ʸϤ
Change is likely to be triggered by social factors, such as fashion, foreign influence and social need. However, these factors cannot take effect unless the language is 'ready' for a particular change. They simply make use of inherent tendencies which reside in the physical and mental make-up of human beings. Causality needs therefore to be explored on a number of different levels. The immediate trigger must be looked at alongside the underlying propensities of the language concerned, and of human languages in general.
A language never allows disruptive changes to destroy the system. In response to disruptions, therapeutic changes are likely to intervene and restore the broken patterns --- though in certain circumstances therapeutic changes can themselves cause further disruptions by setting off a change of changes which may last for centuries.
Above all, anyone who attempts to study the causes of language change must be aware of the multiplicity of factors involved. It is essential to realize that language is both a social and a mental phenomenon in which sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic factors are likely to be inextricably entwined. 'Nothing is simple' might be a useful motto for historical linguists to hang in their studies . . . .
ѺǸˤ褦ˡȤϼҲŪӿŪʡήɤؤȲƤ褤ˤװ̩ܤ߹äҲŪĿŪʸݤǤ롥ؤϡξܤۤʤФʤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
721ڡˤ13:30?16:45ˡī㡼ɶˤñȯιֺˤؤֱñθ츻֤ޤƾҲʲ˺ƷǤޤ
ѸǤܸǤ⡤ñθ츻Ȥ¿οͤ椭ĤޤĤҤȤĤñȼεꡤǤϸԤˤꡤߤޤ³ƤǤޤѸˤĤƤС츻ˤñθä䤹Ȥؽˡ⤢ꡤμνҤ¿ǤƤޤ
ֺܹ¤Ǥϡޤǰʾ˱ñθ츻ڤिȤɬפȤʤѸˤ˴ؤμˡ줫ΤߤʤαѸؽ˿ʻƳޤŪˤϡ(1) ѸˤɤʤѸäȯŸ⤷ (ñ㡧cheese, school, take, people, drama, shampooˡ(2) ñˤọֻ̇ѲΰŪʥѥˤĤƽҤ١ñ㡧make, knight, nice, ladyˡ(3) 츻ŵѸ켭ŵθ츻ɤ߲ˡޤñ㡧one, oat, father, theyˡˤꡤ츻ѤñϤǽȤʤФǤϤʤΤαñο¦̤˵Ťñڤߤʤ̣臘ȤǤ褦ˤʤȳοޤ
ñθ츻ȰˤäƤ˹ϰϤޤΤǤֺܹ¤ǤϡѸθûˤ䲻̣ѲΥѥԤȡѸ츻ɤ߲ƥܥӥΩƤԤȤХ褯ۤơñ̥ϤФͽǤ"chaque mot a son histoire" (= "every word has its own history") ο̣äƤ (cf. #1273. Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze chaque mot a son histoire ([2012-10-21-1]))
ܥ֥Ǥֺܹ¤ȴϢ뵭¿ƤޤȤ櫓ʲΤΤͤޤǤ˵Ƥޤ
#361. Ѹ츻̤CGIʰǡˡ ([2010-04-23-1])
#485. 츻Τ뤿Υ饤 ([2010-08-25-1])
#600. Ѹ츻ν ([2010-12-18-1])
#1765. ܤǽ¤ƤѸ츻ؤ Klein αѸ츻ŵ ([2014-02-25-1])
#2615. Ѹä ([2016-06-24-1])
#2966. Ѹä (2) ([2017-06-10-1])
#466. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ ([2010-08-06-1])
#727. 츻ؤμΧ ([2011-04-24-1])
#1791. 츻ؤϵݤʳؤ (2) ([2014-03-23-1])
#598. Ѹ츻ؤά (1) ([2010-12-16-1])
#599. Ѹ츻ؤά (2) ([2010-12-17-1])
ϢεǡJoseph ʸ "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture" ȡѤƤ (cf. #3324. Ѳ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤ ([2018-06-03-1])#3326. ̻ŪȶŪ ([2018-06-05-1])#3327. ѲˤüԤ϶ŪǤ ([2018-06-06-1])) ѲˤˤĤƤκŪƹͤľƤ롤ͥ줿ͤǤ롥
ϡJoseph ŪỊ̇Ĺʲս˺Τ˲ȴƤ
[T]he contact is not really between the languages but is rather actually between speakers of the languages in question . . . . (129)
ϸƤߤФȯۤ˻פ뤬̡뤤ϸܿˤƤ顤Ф˺ƤǤ롥ʲε⻲ȡ#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1])
ˡХ륫 (Balkan linguistic_area) ˤܿ夲ʤ顤ͿƤսꡥ
. . . an overemphasis on comparisons of standard languages rather than regional dialects, even though the contact between individuals, in certain parts of the Balkans at least, more typically involved nonstandard dialects . . . (130)
2ĤθѼܿͤݤˡξԤɸŪѼǰƬ֤뤳Ȥ¿ºݤθܿˤƤϤषɸѼɤܿʤΤˤɸѼüԤɤܿˤΤ̤ۤǤϤʤäȤʸǤ롥
Ѥäơָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ؾ塤פǤ뤳ȤˤĤơ
Folk etymology often represents a reasonable attempt on a speaker's part to make sense of, i.e. to render transparent, a sequence that is opaque for one reason or another, e.g. because it is a borrowing and thus has no synchronic parsing in the receiving language. As such, it shows speakers actively working to give an analysis to data that confronts them, even if such a confrontation leads to a change in the input data. Moreover, folk etymology demonstrates that speakers take what the surface forms are --- an observation which becomes important later on as well --- and work with that, so that while they are creative, they are not really looking beyond the immediate phonic shape --- and, in some instances also, the meaning --- that is presented to them. (132)
Ǥ Joseph ϸѲˤüԤָ̱츻ŪȯۤΰյɾˤȤɤޤ餺ǤüԤζפָ̱츻ȤӤĤƤ롥#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2932. salacious ([2017-05-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ˡüԤζȴϢơʬ (reanalysis) ñ㲽ʣˤɤؤ뤫˼1ʸ褦
[W]hen reanalyses occur, they are not always in the direction of simpler grammars overall but rather are often complicating, in a global sense, even if they are simplificatory in a local sense.
ѲΡñ㲽פ˴ؤŪȤơ#928. ޤ neutralization simplification ([2011-11-11-1])#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#1693. §ŪʲѲԵ§ŪʷѲ ([2013-12-15-1]) Ȥ줿
ǸˡѲζŪˤĤƤΰѤƤؼԤ϶Ū˷кȤƵ뤬ɬǤϤʤȤƤ
[T]he grammars linguists construct . . . ought to be allowed to reflect uneconomical "solutions", at least in diachrony, but also, given the relation between synchrony and diachrony argued for here, in synchronic accounts as well.
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
ɸ˴Ϣϡܥ֥Ǥ¿εǼ夲ƤܵΥȡˡ˴Ϣ Joseph ʸɤߡƹͤƤߤ٤3սѤ褦
[W]hile it might be said that there is always an historical explanation for some particular state of affairs in a language, it is equally true that relying solely on historical explanation means ultimately that an historical explanation is no explanation . . .; if everything is to be explained in that way, then there is no differentiation possible among various synchronic states even though some conceivable synchronic states never actually occur. Moreover, universal grammar, to the extent that it can be given meaningful content, is in a sense achronic, for it is valid at particular points in time for any given synchronic stage but also valid through time in the passage from one synchronic state to another. Thus in addition to the diachronic perspective, a synchronic perspective is needed as well, for that enables one to say that a given configuration of facts exists because it gives a reason for the existence of a pattern --- a generalization over a range of data --- in a given system at a given point in time. (124--25)
[A] synchronic account should aim for economy and typically, for example, avoids positing the same rule or constraint at two different points in a grammar or derivation (though the validity of the usual interpretations of "economical" in this context is far from a foregone conclusion . . ., while a diachronic account, being interested in determining what actually happened over some time interval, should aim for the truth, even if it is messy and even if it might entail positing the operation of, for instance, the same sound change at two different adjacent time periods, perhaps 50 or 100 years apart. (126)
[T]he constraints imposed by universal grammar at any synchronic stage will necessarily then be the same constraints that govern the passage from one state to another, i.e. diachrony. Diachronic principles or generalizations do not exist, then, outside of the synchronic processes of grammar formation at synchronic stage after synchronic stage. (127)
ΰѤˤƤ⼨Ƥ뤳Ȥϡ̻ŪȶŪȤȿиˤʤ礹餢ΤΡ䤦ȤˤäơǤǼΤǽȤʤȤʤϰۤʤ뤬ƱܻؤƤ2ͤȤǤ⤤̤ΥãΤ˼ȤΤ褷ʤΰۤʤڤΤ褷ɤ餫Ф뤳ȤʤΤȻפ
#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1])
#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1])
#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])
#1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1])
#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])
#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])
#2159. ֤̻֤ӤĤ diffusion ([2015-03-26-1])
#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])
#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1])
#2555. 塼ˤζ֤̻֡ ([2016-04-25-1])
#2563. ̻ءؤȤѸäơ ([2016-05-03-1])
#2662. 塼ˤζ֤̻ (2) ([2016-08-10-1])
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
ε#3312. ˤؤɽء ([2018-05-22-1]) ǡΡִءפǤȤơʸˡøäѲ®٤ͻݤˡͻоݤؤˤѲ˸ꤹʤС̤˻夬ۤ®٤ߤʤȤȤϤ뤫⤷ʤܸˤλ𤫤ާơ¼ (14--15) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
̤˶岽οʤҲǤϡ̤ʳŪװʤ¤ꡤѲϡ䤽˶ᤤˤߤɮԤϹͤƤ롥ʤǤϽդΡʸΡڤʤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
Ǥ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡäդäִ֤˾äƤޤդȤɤʤʤäդμҲǤϡؤʤɤΰ֤Ǥʤ¤ꡤθդĤʤդ֤뤳ȤԲǽʤΤǤ롥ФơդĹˤ錄äƻ¸롥³뤳ȤˤäƼʸΤΤΤǤäƤ֤ⷫɮԤʤСäդѲȤɤϤȤƯܼҲǤ⡤϶϶ɤ߽ǽϤڤƤ˰㤤ʤǡ˶ᤤҲδؤˤѲ˳ΤǤ롥٤ʸѲϤ˶ᤤˤƤ⤿Ƥ뤷ޤϤդĤȤɤʤ顤ϰϰ礭ѰۤȤȤ⡤礤ˤꤦ롥
夬ˤĤơؤˤѲ˳ʤȤϡ֤2ʳ餤ΥåȤ狼䤹Ĥޤꡤ̤˻夬ˤĤƼΨ夬롤Ψ夬ˤĤƸεϰռġεϰռĤˤĤäդѲ롤ȤȤȤʸѤǤ⼨ƤȤꡤɸѼˤĤƤǤ롥ɸѼˤƱΩĤΤϤ狼ʤͻоݤؤǤʤɽؤޤǹȤɤʤΤ⸡ƤƤߤɬפ롥
Ѳ® (speed_of_change) 䵬ϼ (prescriptivism) Ѳ٤餻ȤˤĤƤϡʲޤ¿εǼ夲ƤΤǡȤmonitoring γƵ⻲ȡ
#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1])
#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])
#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ ([2011-01-09-1])
#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])
#795. ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])
#1430. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ (2) ([2013-03-27-1])
#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])
#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])
#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])
#2641. Ѳ®٤ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2016-07-20-1])
#2670. դݼˤĤơ ([2016-08-18-1])
#2756. ɤ߽ǽϤϸѲ®٤ˤ뤫 ([2016-11-12-1])
#3002. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ (3) ([2017-07-16-1])
¼ ˡäդܻˡ١ʸۡ2011ǯ
Ѹαʸ쥿դѥߤĤThe Parsed Corpus of Middle English Poetry Ի Richard Zimmermann εĤѤǤ롥
ʳǡƱѥ41Υƥȡ160,432줫ʤäƤʥƥȡꥹȤˡСϰϤ c. 1150--1420ǯʤ Helsinki Corpus ζʬǤ M1, M2, M3 Ǥ롥쥿 Penn Parsed Corpora of Historical English ƱˡդƤꡤCorpus Search 2 ʤɤΥġѤƲϤǤ롥
Related Corpora ΥڡξͭѡˤѸ˴ؤƼ拾ѥǡ١ؤΥʲˤĥĤƤ
The Penn-Parsed Corpus of Middle English
The Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse
The Innsbruck Corpus of Middle English Prose
A Parsed Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (P-LAEME)
Database of Middle English Romance
ƥĥդäƤ뤦ˡʥץȤʪƤΤʤȤ
ܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤̾˿Ƥ뤬ѸȽΩ줫鸽ߤαѸ¤Ҥ1ͤ¼ɤ롥2004ǯ˽Ǥ줿ؤʤֱѸפʤΤѸҲ٤Ρ֤ޤ夨ơرѸ٤Ȥϲפˤơ¼ϡֱѸפɤ߲ΥɤȤơʲ17Ƥ (13)
1. ط
2. ۤ
3. Ѹ컿ʱѸˤȹ
4. ܤˤ˱Ѹŷ
5. 층¿
6. Ρ濴ȡȤƤΡִط
7. ̱ϼʶ
8. ο̱ϼ
9. ο̱ϲ
10. ǰ
11. ¾Դ
12. ȤФοȿβ
13. Ѹ
14.
15. ŪʿȼҲкŪʿ
16. ѸȱѸ˽
17. Ծ츶
ơ1ĤΥɤСּҲŪԸˡפȤ¼Ω줬褯ʬ륭ɤ¤Ǥ뤬¿ΥɤˤѸŪˤȤǰɽ路ƤϽפǤ롥äȤСϱѸ˾ΥɤǤ⤢ΤѸ˸桦ϤФƲǤ뤫ܤ˸礦٤귲Ǥ롥
¼αѸʻˡ˴ѤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ
#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])
#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1])
#1073. Ѹ줬¾άƤѥ ([2012-04-04-1])
#1194. ¼ɤαѸѤȱѸˡ ([2012-08-03-1])
#1606. Ѹ캹̡ѸƸ ([2013-09-19-1])
¼ ɡؤʤֱѸפʤΤѸҲ١ҡ2004ǯ
äդȽդϸ2ǥ줾ͭΡ̣ŪʥǥХ¸ߤ롥Ѹ˴ؤΤȤơStubbs (117) ĤƤΤǡMilroy and Milroy (117--18) ͳǼ
Speech (conversation): intonation, pitch, stress, rhythm, speed of utterance, pausing, silences, variation in loudness; other paralinguistic features, including aspiration, laughter, voice quality; timing, including simultaneous speech; co-occurrence with proxemic and kinesic signals; availability of physical context.
Writing (printed material): spacing between words; punctuation, including parentheses; typography, including style of typeface italicization, underlining, upper and lower case; capitalization to indicate sentence beginnings and propoer nouns; inverted commas, for instance to indicate that a term is being used critically (Chimpanzees' 'language' is. . . .); graphics, including lines, shapes, borders, diagrams, tables; abbreviations; logograms, for example, &; layout, including paragraphing, spacing, margination, pagination, footnotes, headings and sub-headings; permanence and therefore availability of the co-text.
Τ褦ʥǥХΥꥹȤϡξǥоȤݤˤؤͭѤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤μоȤ¿εǼ夲ƤʤΤǡ礿ΤͤΤᡤʲ˼Ƥ
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 4th ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
Stubbs, M. Language and Literacy: The Sociolinguistics of Reading and Writing. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
ɸˤĤƤϡʲεϤȤƲ٤ƤθѲؤδؿΥˤǤ롥
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܳŪ˹ Hopper and Traugott (213) ˡؤθڤ롥
. . . distinctions are often made in historical work between "internal" and "external" factors in change. Roughly speaking, "internal" change is associated with child language acquisition in a relatively homogeneous speech community, and "external" change with contact, whether with communities speaking dialects of the "same language" or other languages. This distinction is essentially similar to the contrast regarding the locus of change between mind/brain and grammar (= "internal") and social interaction and use (= "external"). . . . [S]uch a polarization obscures the realities of language change, in which structure and use, cognitive and social factors continually interact: "speakers' mutual accommodations can draw materials from either the same linguistic system or separate ones" (Mufwene 2001: 15). This is nowhere clearer than in pidgin and creole situations, where the notion of "homogeneous speech community" is typically not appropriate, and where, as we will see, second language acquisition plays a significant role in structural innovation.
ѲǤŪװȳŪװʬ뤬ζΤǤϤʤˤξԤȤ߹蘆äƸѲʤळȤ¿ȤޤäȤʸȻפ¿θѲˤϡmultiple causation ͿƤ롥
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Mufwene, Salikoko S. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
#2103. Basic Color Terms ([2015-01-29-1])#3153. Ѹˤˤ̸ܿȯŸ ([2017-12-14-1])#3154. Ѹ˾塤̸줬äƤͳ ([2017-12-15-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡ̸ܿ (Basic Color Term) ˴ؤ븦ϡBerlin and Kay λɷŪͤȯɽưʹߡȯŸƤ̸츦Ǥ The World Color Survey ΥȤϡϢʸǡؤΥޤΥĥƤ롥
̸츦ϡƤ Berlin and Kay ηǤ˴ؤ2ĤβڤŪǹԤʤƤ2ĤβȤϰʲΤΤǤʾ嵭HPˡ
(1) the existence of universal constraints on cross-language color naming, and
(2) the existence of a partially fixed evolutionary progression according to which languages gain color terms over time.
(1) Ͽ̸˴ؤ붦Ū餫ˤ(2) ̻ŪȯŸν뤳ȤǤ롥оȸؤˤط롥ܤݤˡˤĤƤϡStatistical tests of cross-language color naming Ƥ롥

Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay. Basic Color Terms. Berkeley and Los Angeles: U of California P, 1969.
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