hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 ڡ / page 2 (3)

3sp - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2019-01-22 Tue

#3557. Ѹˤ3ñѰ [variation][variety][world_englishes][new_englishes][3sp][verb][agreement][conjugation][inflection][link][nptr][hypercorrection]

źΡѸˤơ3ñưϤɤΤ褦˶ޤƤΤĹ餯ɤƤǡܥ֥ǤʲεϤȤ 3sp γƵǼ夲Ƥ

#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])
#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1])
#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1])
#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1])
#2310. 3ñΥ ([2015-08-24-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])

ߤΡѸˤƤϡ3ñθϤɤΤ褦ˤʤäƤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (66--67) εҤޤȤƤ
3ñ -s ȥؤ륱ϡ¿𤵤Ƥ롥ʥꥢѼ쥢եꥫѼϤᡤꥫǥѼѼɷեꥫѼեꥫѼեԥѼ (e.g. He go to school.)󥬥ݡѼʿѼʤɤ롥
ɸѸȿФԤ̣Ѽ⤢롥ñǥȤʤꡤʣ -s ȤʬۤꥫǥѼΤʤǤ⥤쥿²Ѽ (Isletan) ǤϡΤ褦ʸ㤬ǧȤ

there are some parties that goes on over there.
Some peoples from the outside comes in.
All the dances that goes on like that occur in the spring.
The women has no voice to vote.

Maybe the governor go to these parents' homes.
About a dollar a day serve out your term.
This traditional Indian ritual take place in June.
By this time, this one side that are fast have overlapped.
The governor don't take the case.


쥿²ѼƱͤηʿѼǤǧȤ (e.g. They drink and they makes a lot of noise.)
ɸѸεդԤѼʸˡ⤢̣ǤϹŪȤ롥줬ñǤм̾ˤҸưˤ -s 줺줬ʣǤФˤ -s ղäȤǰӤƤ뤫Mesthrie and Bhatt (66) ϡηϤ "-s plural symmetry" ȸƤǤ롥
"-s plural symmetry" 򼨤Ѽ inherent variety ʤΤ뤤üԸĿͤɸѸʤɤɸȤƲ꽤 (hypercorrection) ̤ӸݤʤΤϡĴԤʤФʤʤޤѼ郎󥰥ɤŪ Northern Present Tense Rule (nptr) Ū̴طΤɤ⿵Ť˸ƤʤФʤʤ

Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-09-1]

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2018-11-27 Tue

#3501. 1552ǯ1662ǯεʸˡ [book_of_common_prayer][bible][emode][3sp][personal_pronoun][t/v_distinction][relative_pronoun][be][language_change]

1549ǯThomas Crammer Ի The Book of Common Prayer ʵˤ˽Ф1552ǯˤϡβǤФƤ롥εΰѸȤʤäƤΤ1539ǯ the Great Bible Ǥ롥褽1塤Ŵ1662ǯˡǤε񤬽Ǥ줿ߤ̤ѤƤ뤳οǤϡ1611ǯ the King James Bible ˴ŤƤꡤŪˤϤषݼŪǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ1552ǯǤ1662ǯǤε٤ƤߤȡԤΤۤǯȤƤ100ǯ;٤ˤ⤫餺ŪˤԤŤħ򼨤ȤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤԤͽ̤ꡤ꿷ħ򼨤Ƥ⤢ʣ
Gramley (144) ϡNevalainen (1998) θ򻲾Ȥʤ顤5ʸˡܤӤƤ롥

feature15521662
3rd person singular endingmixed {-th} and {-s}reversion to {-th}
2nd person singular personalthou/thee but some ye/youlargely a return to thou/thee
nominative ye/youboth ye and youlargely a return to ye
nominative which/who56 who vs. 129 which172 who vs. 13 which
present tense plural be/are52 are vs. 105 be125 are vs. 32 be


ǽ31662ǯǤΤۤषħݻƤ륱Ǹ2ϻ¨ʬۤ򼨤Ƥ褦ˤߤ륱2ĤΥΰ㤤ϡԤռŪѲ ("change from above") η̤ǤꡤԤ̵ռŪѲ ("change from below") η̤ǤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤƬȯäտޤƤʸ̮ǤϤ꿷ˡѤƤȤ⤢Τǡ餯ʸΤ1δ֤θѲȤʣ߹äơ줾ɽФƤΤѤ̻ŪӤϡդפȤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡ#745. 뺧 wedlock ([2011-05-12-1])#1803. Lord's Prayer ([2014-04-04-1])#2738. Book of Common Prayer (1549) King James Bible (1611) β ([2016-10-25-1])#2597. Book of Common Prayer (1549) ([2016-06-06-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Nevalainen, T. "Change from Above. A Morphosyntactic Comparison of Two Early Modern English Editions of The Book of Common Prayer." A Reader in Early Modern English. Ed. M. Rydé, I. Tieken-Boon van Ostade, and M. Kytö. Frankfurt: Lang, 165--86.

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2018-03-05 Mon

2017-10-31 Tue

#3109. ʤ -(e)s դ -ing դֻˤưۤʤΤ [suffix][spelling][sobokunagimon][3sp][plural][gerund][participle][grahotactics]

#3106. ʤ -ed դ -(e)s դֻˤưۤʤΤ ([2017-10-28-1]) ³ơƤ褦ǴˤʿŪǤʤ2Ĥζܼդ˴ؤֻꡥtry ˤĤơ-s <y> <ie> Ѥղä tries Ȥ뤬-ing ղäϤΤޤޤ trying Ȥʤ롥ȻפСdie Ǥϡ-s 򤽤Τޤդ dies Ȥ뤬-ing <ie> <y> ѤդΤ dying Ȥʤ롥츫Ի׵Ĥʡȿиε§ˤĤƤϡʬˤ -ed ȸʬ졦ư̾ -ing äȤʤ顤#3069. Ϣ9֤ʤ try tried Ȥʤꡤdie dying ȤʤΤ ([2017-09-21-1]) ǹͤ
Carney (73--74) ϡѸֻܳŪʸΤʤǡMcLead ˤֻΤֻ§󤷤Ƥ롥Τ -(e)s -ing ղäľܡܤ˴ͿΤȤưʲΤΤ󤲤ƤΤǡѤ褦

Rule VII --- Words ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel simply add 's'.
--- an adaptation rule, presumably to form the plural or 3rd pers. pres. sg.: boy -- boys, say -- says, employ -- employs.
. . . .
Rule IX --- If you want to add other letters to a word ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant change 'y' into 'i'.
--- an adaptation rule; it refers in effect to the corresponding <y>/aɪ/ (deny--denial); the restriction 'preceded by a consonant' is intended to rule out betray--betrayal, employ--employer. McLeod points out that it does not apply before <-ing> (denying)
Rule X -- 'i' before another 'i' becomes 'y'.
--- a graphotactic rule; presumably it refers in an oblique way to examples such as die--dying or carrying--carrier--carried; the recent loan-word skiing is an exception.
Rule XI --- Words ending in a hissing sound form their plural by adding 'es' instead of 's'.
--- this has the form of an adaptation rule. It is a recognition that <s>, unlike the <ed> of the past tense, does not represent all the allomorphs /s/, /z/ and /ɪz/ of the plural . . . .


嵭ϡ-(e)s, -ed, -ing դε§򶦻Ū˵ҤƤˤ̻ŪʴޤޤƤʤСʤʤΤƤ⤤ʤ̻ŪפɬפȻפΤޤ긫ȤʤΤǡͤƤǤ롥

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
McLeod, M. E. "Rules in the Teaching of Spelling." Studies in Spelling. Publications of the Scottish Council for Research In Education XL. Ed. H. J. L. Robbie. London: ULP,1961.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-12-1] [2019-05-22-1]

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2017-10-28 Sat

#3106. ʤ -ed դ -(e)s դֻˤưۤʤΤ [suffix][spelling][sobokunagimon][3sp][plural]

ưβʬˤ {-ed} ȡư3ñ뤤̾ʣ {-(e)s} ȤǤϡֻˤդۤʤ롥褽ʿŪ˿񤦤Τ褦˸ơȺ٤ʰ㤤롥Carney (18--19) Ūʴ顤äƤΤǡѤ褦

. . . The past tense and participle morpheme {-ed} in regular verbs (ignoring forms such as spelt, spent, dreamt) has a constant <-ed> spelling in spite of the phonemic variation /ɪd/ (waited), /d/ (warned) and /t/ (watched).
   There is very similar allomorphic variation in the noun plural and 3rd person present tense of the verb with its variants /ɪz/ (watches), /z/ (warns) and /s/ (waits). The two sets of phonetic variants are often cited together as equivalent examples of morphemic spelling. If we look closely at the details, however we find in fact that they are dealt with rather differently in the writing system (table 5).

Table 5 English plural and past tense inflections
 {-ed} ending{-(e)s} ending
1/-ɪd/ matted/-ɪz/ masses
2/-ɪd/ mated/-ɪz/ maces
3/-t/ hopped/-s/ (No *hoppes)
4/-t/ hoped/-s/ hops, hopes
5/-d/ planned/-z/ (No *plannes)
6/-d/ planed/-z/ plans, planes
7/-d/ hurried/-z/ hurries
8/-d/ radioed/-z/ radios
9/-d/ vetoed/-z/ vetoes, or vetos


   Table 5 gives examples of each suffix in its three phonemic variants. The words provided as contexts include a preceding long vowel followed by a single consonant, a preceding short vowel followed by a single consonant, and the spelling variation found after <o>. The past tense has a constant <ed> spelling across all these contexts which is only varied by merging with a final <-e> in the long vowel words (e.g. hope -- hoped). The marking of the long vowels is also done indirectly by using <C>-doubling to mark a previous short vowel --- absence of doubling marks the long vowel. This is not done in the noun plural suffix, so there are no equivalents in rows 3 and 5 to <hopped> and <planned>, that is *<hoppes> and *<plannes>. Nor is there a variant spelling *<vetod> to spoil the uniformity of <-ed>. The <e> of <-oes> and <-ies> is best treated as a marker of the long vowel. Grammarians refer to the two inflections as the -s form and the -ed form and this is in accordance with the traditional spelling rule that one adds <-s> and <-ed> respectively to the base form.
   If we try to use a consistent <-ed> morphemic spelling in chopping up words into correspondences without any overlap, this lack of symmetry becomes apparent. In scribbles we have /əl/<le> and in scribbled we have /əl/<l>; in hopes we have <e>-marking of the vowel as /əʊ/<o..e>, /p/<p>, /s/<s>, but in hoped we have /əʊ/<o>, /p/<p>, /t/<ed>, while the long vowel is marked by absence of <C>-doubling. In a process description, and indeed for any human speller, this is catered for by 'dovetailing' so that <hope>+<ed> becomes <hoped>, <eight>+<ty> becomes <eighty>, etc.


Carney ϡֻθ "a constant spelling for a morpheme" "the varying pronunciation of the morpheme in different contexts" δ֤ΥХ󥹤ξΩĤΤǤꡤ줬ġֻʵ§ˤΤʤʣʬƤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ롥ʬΰ㤤{-ed} {-s} ˤ⸽Ƥȹͤ롥ʤʤΤˤĤƤϡ̻ŪʴޤƤĴ٤ɬפ롥

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-22-1] [2017-10-31-1]

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2017-02-21 Tue

#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤ [link][notice][3sp][3pp][conjugation][verb][inflection][variety][rensai][sobokunagimon]

220ˡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ2Ȥʤ֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤҤΥȤ˥åץɤޤ3ñ -s ˴ؤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ 3sp γƵǽ񤭤ƤޤΤΤϡѤʵפȤݤǤޤȤ᤿ȤȤʤäƤޤɤ
ϢܵΤʤǤϿޤǤ3ñ -s Ūˤϡ3;ΡʣߤդĤޤʣפζޤʿŪ˹ͤɬפޤμݤ顤ܥ֥ǤϡʣפˤĤƤ 3pp Ȥƥ꡼ΤȤ͡Ƥޤ碌ƤȤ
ޤϢܵǤ⡤رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡǤ⡤ܤ夲ޤǤ -th äƤ3ñѸˤ -s ֤줿аޤ˴ؤ꤬ޤ⡤Ѹ˾塤ɴФζ̣ǤƤߤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1])#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ ([2015-03-23-1]) ʤɤ

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2016-06-28 Tue

#2619. űѸѲ2ưޤ˸ -i- ѸǤξü [inflection][verb][oe][eme][conjugation][morphology][owl_and_nightingale][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change][3sp][3pp]

űѸμѲ2°ưǤϡɽΤĤβս "medial -i-" (#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) θűѸ lufian ζɽ򻲾) -i- Ѹʹߤ˼ƤüΥߥ󥰤䥹ԡɤƥȤʤɤˤäưۤʤäƤʬۤΰȤƤϡݼŪǤ -i- ٤ޤݤ졤׿ŪǤ᤯˼줿
űѸμѲ2Ǥľˡ3;ñߤζ޸ -i- Ժߤ - Ȥʤ뤬б3;ΡʣǤ -i- -iaþ Ȥʤ롥äơѸʹߤ -i- ξüʤȡ޸ˤä3;Τñʣ̤뤳ȤǤʤʤä
üʹԤƤѸβϴˤϡκ⤢äΤǤϤʤȵ롥㤨СThe Owl and the Nightingale ll. 229--32 򸫤Ƥߤ褦Cartlidge Ǥˡ

Vor eurich þing þat schuniet riȝt,
Hit luueþ þuster & hatiet liȝt;
& eurich þing þat is lof misdede,
Hit luueþ þuster to his dede.


֤ǵưϤűѸμѲ2ͳ褷3;ñμäƤ롥äơ -i- ʤϤschuniet hatiet Ǥ -i- Ƥ롥ʤ嵭 C ܤǤη֤ȿǤƤ뤬J ܤǤб֤Ϥ줾 schonyeþ, luuyeþ, hateþ, luueþ ȤʤäƤꡤ-i- ʬۤǤޤޤǤ롥
schuniet ˤĤƤϡԻ eurich þing ̣ʣȤƲᤵ줿뤤 alle þing ʤɤοʣäΤǤϤʤȤǽŦƤCartlidge (Owl 113) Ǥϡ"it seems more sensible to regard these lines as an example of the Middle English breakdown of distinctions made between different forms of Old English Class 2 weak verbs" Ȥθ򤬼Ƥ롥
Cartlidge ̤ʸǡΥƥȤˤ -i- ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤǡβսѤƤ

In both C and J, the infinitives of verbs descended from Old English Class 2 weak verbs in -ian always retain an -i- (either -i, -y, -ye, -ie, -ien or -yen). However, for the third person plural of the indicative, J writes -yeþ five times, as against nine cases of - or -þ; while C writes -ieþ or -iet seven times, as against seven cases of -, -ed, or -et. In the present participle, both C and J have medial -i- twice beside eleven non-conservative forms. The retention of -i in some endings also occurs in many later medieval texts, at least in the south, and its significance may be as much regional as diachronic. (Cartlidge, "Date" 238)


ˤϡ-i- ξüηˤäưۤʤäƤФǤʤɽΥåȤˤäƤ⥿ߥ󥰤䥹ԡɤۤʤäƤǽƤꡤѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) δ鶽̣

Cartlidge, Neil, ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2001.
Cartlidge, Neil. "The Date of The Owl and the Nightingale." Medium Aevum 65 (1996): 230--47.

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2016-05-06 Fri

#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲ [3sp][3pp][verb][paradigm][conjugation][inflection][hel_education][variation][sobokunagimon]

3ñ -s ѸءѸ˾ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ 3sp ε¿äƤˤĤƤϿǯĴ٤񤭤ƤΤ1ǯۤɤδ֤˸ƬȯɽʸȤƸɽ뵡񤬤äΤǡܥ֥ǤƤ
Ѹ˸褷ʸؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá١ʲջҡԡˡǤ줿Τʤǡ3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪפꤹ뾮ƤƤܽϡ2014ǯ525˳줿ܱʸز86ʱ̳ƻءˤǤΥݥ֥ХαѸ춵顽Ѹˤι׸פθ濴Ԥޤ줿Τǡ伫ȤϤȯɽԤǤϤʤäΤΡʸδ˺ƤȤǤʥݥطԤѸˡѸ춵鸦ԤΥ롼פƤˤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ʸΥȥ뤬̤ꡤѸˤȱѸ춵ռʤ鼹ɮ뤳ȤԤƤΤ֤ȱѸ˴ˤʤäƤޤäʢȿʡˡܥ֥Ǥϥ֥ȤǥŪˤʤä3ñ -s ˴ؤġ򡤺ʸȤκۤȤ뤳ȤˤäơΤȤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פʸǤϡ#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) #2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1]) ʤɤεȯŸǡȤ櫓̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (variation) Ż뤷Ÿ
Ѹ춵Ȥ顤ˤĤä˶ĴäȤϡ˼ʲμĥǤ롥

3ñ -s ȤϡʸˡŪȤɽŪȤƲ򤹤٤ΤǤϤʤषϱѸؽԤˡ(1) γؤǤоݤɸŪŪѼǤȤ¤˰ռ(2) ظ¿ɸѼޤŪ˻ѤƤȤѸ¿θ¤˵ŤμεȤ (3) ѸѼʤ줿ܸѼˤФ봲Ƥ乥ε󶡤Ƥ롤ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤƤ


ʤʸμɮԤϰʲ̤ꡥȤ櫓Ѹ춵ȪɤǤȴ򤷤Ǥ

ϤˡѸˤȱѸ춵 ջ
ѸˤȱѸ춵ͻ硡Applied English Philology λ
Ѹ춵ˤѸë
콬μѸˤζŪ ľȥ
ѸȯãѸؽȯãءˡư쥹޷ä ¹
ХʱѸáѸˤö߷
3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪ δ
ѸˤȱѸ춵ꥨ󤫤鸫Ѳ ջ


δ졡3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪסؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá (Can Knowing the History of English Help in the Teaching of English?). Studies in the History of English Language 5. ջҡԡˡν2016ǯ105--31ǡ

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2015-08-24 Mon

#2310. 3ñΥ [3sp][3pp][verb][paradigm][conjugation][inflection][contact][do-periphrasis][lmode]

Ѹ˾3ñ -s 3ʣ -s ˤĤơ3sp 3pp ¿εǤ줾ƤǡޤΩʤ3ñΥȤ꤬롥褯ΤƤΤϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1])#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦 AAVE Ǥ -s æȤݤ뤷󥰥ɤǤ East Anglia ߻Υѥˤƿ;Ρˤ餺¤ߥȤȤ㤬롥
Wright (119) ˤ3ñΥ˴ؤˤγάˤСEast Anglia ˤ3ñΥε15ˤΤܤꡤŪʲˤС¾ο;θΥ3ñŪ˳ĥΤȤ뤬ܿαƶǤϤʤȤ⤢롥16ȾޤǤˤϡNorfolk β²41--77%ȤΨ -th ˥ѤƤȤ𤬤ꡤEast Midland Ϥθ3ñΥ򼨤濴ϤǤ³Ƥ롥Helsinki Corpus ĴˤСŪˤߤ3ñΥ2%Ȥ㤤Ψʤ East Anglia ˸¤餺ʬۤƤΤ¤ǤꡤŤѸʸˤƤޤ˽в񤦤ȤϤ롥
Wright κǿʸϡ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire пȤΤ뽾ͤˤ򥳡ѥȤĴ21%Ȥͽ۰ʾι⤤Ψ3ñΥѤƤ뤳Ȥͤߤ᤿Wright ϡEast Anglia ȤŪˤΥ줿ϰǡ餯λ˸ꤷơ3ñΥʬۤƤΤǤϤʤȿ¬ޤΰŪʬۤϡľ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) षľɸŪ -s 礷Ƥäޤ˰ܹԴκˤߤ줿ĤʤŪʬۤȷŤ
Wright εϹäƤ뤬ʤȤѸΤϤ¤ꡤ˱͡ʥѥबƤϾäƤäȤϳΤǤꡤ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire ˸Ū˾嵭Τ褦ʾäȤƤ⡤äˤϤʤ

Wright, Laura. "Some More on the History of Present-Tense -s, do and Zero: West Oxfordshire, 1837." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 1.1 (2015): 111--30.

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2015-05-06 Wed

#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ [phonetics][consonant][assimilation][conjugation][inflection][3sp][verb][paradigm][oe][suffix][sobokunagimon][have][v]

ɸΤ褦ˡѸ have Ե§ѲưǤ롥has -s 뤷, had -d ⤢뤫顤Ե§Ȥϼ㴳Ե§Ȥ٤ʤ *haves *haved ǤϤʤΤ
ŪˤߤСߤǤϵƤʤ haves haved ¸ߤűѸ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤȡưϽ˵§Ūʶޤ򤹤ưǤϤʤä٤˵§ŪǤꡤ̤ϻ¾ε§ѲưȹͤƤƺ٤ʤűѸ䡤Ȥ櫓ѸǤϡhaves haved ֵ§Ūפʽ֤Τ˹ԤƤΤǤ롥
űѸ habban (have) ζɽϡ#74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1]) ǷǤʲ˰۷֤ޤ᤿ɽƷǤ褦

habban (have)Present IndicativePresent SubjunctivePreterite IndicativePreterite SubjunctiveImperative
1st sg.hæbbehæbbehæfdehæfde 
2nd sg.hæfst, hafasthafa
3rd sg.hæfþ, hafaþ 
pl.habbaþhæbbenhæfdonhæfdenhabbaþ


Pres. Ind. 3rd Sg. βսߤȡűѸ has ֤Ȥơhæfþ, hafaþ 2󤬤äȤ狼롥 Τ褦2ҲܤԤηǤϡѸ˺ǽλҲ f æhath ʤɤη֤ hath ϶Ѹޤ³
3ñθ -(e)th -(e)s ѲаޤˤĤơ#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) Ϥᡤ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ ([2015-03-23-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤܲδؿǤ븽Ѹ has Ȥ֤ľܤεϡhath ζ޸ִ˵ϡűѸ Northumbria ˳ǧ hæfis, haefes ʤɤ˵٤ -s ĸűѸν֤ϡѸˤϤ¿η֤ȯãf 첻˶ޤ줿Ķæꡤfs Τ褦2ҲܤĶæʤɤơŪ has Τ褦ʷ֤Ϥ줿hath has 鿰æϡΤ褦ˤۤʿŪǤ롥Ϣơhave of ˤĤơ³줬ҲǻϤޤȤ˿æ뤳ȤѸˤƤߤ줿ye ha seyn (you have seen) o þat light (of that light) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿 (p. 411ˡ
ʤ had ˤĤƤϡ#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ¿θ v νϤȤǤ롥#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]) 碌ƻȤ줿
MED hāven (v.) ԴѤʰֻꥹȤǡhas had ֤ΤƤ餤

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-03-23 Mon

#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ [verb][conjugation][emode][language_change][suffix][inflection][3sp][lexical_diffusion][schedule_of_language_change][speed_of_change][bible]

Ѹˤư츽߿;θ -th -s ѲˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ󡤤˴Ϣ Bambas ʸɤߤκǿθ̤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤ褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
ѸˤǤϡ1600ǯդξȤ The Authorised Version Լˤ3ñ -s ̵Ǥ뤳ȤФˤ롥Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȤΤƤ롥顤ʸŪʸǤ -s ϸŪˤȤ򤱤Τ̤äΤǤϤʤȤ¬Ωġ Jespersen (19) ϤΤ褦ʰոǤ롥

Contemporary prose, at any rate in its higher forms, has generally -th'; the s-ending is not at all found in the A[uthorized] V[ersion], nor in Bacon A[tlantis] (though in Bacon E[ssays] there are some s'es). The conclusion with regard to Elizabethan usage as a whole seems to be that the form in s was a colloquialism and as such was allowed in poetry and especially in the drama. This s must, however, be considered a licence wherever it occurs in the higher literature of that period. (qtd in Bambas, p. 183)


Bambas (183) ˤСꥶ٥īλʸȤΥƥȤ򹭤ĴƤߤȡºݤˤ1590ǯޤǤˤʸŪʸˤƤ -s ǧƤꡤ򤵤ƤͻҤϤʤθ⡤Ŀͤˤä٤ΰ㤤礭ΤΡ-s 򤱤줿ȹͤͳϤʤȤJespersen θϡ-s βᾮɾǤȡ

The fact seems to be that by the 1590's the -s-form was fully acceptable in literary prose usage, and the varying frequency of the occurrence of the new form was thereafter a matter of the individual writer's whim or habit rather than of deliberate selection.


ơ17 -th -s ˼äƵˤʤäƤäȸ롥Wyld (333--34) ۩

From the beginning of the seventeenth century the 3rd Singular Present nearly always ends in -s in all kinds of prose writing except in the stateliest and most lofty. Evidently the translators of the Authorized Version of the Bible regarded -s as belonging only to familiar speech, but the exclusive use of -eth here, and in every edition of the Prayer Book, may be partly due to the tradition set by the earlier biblical translations and the early editions of the Prayer Book respectively. Except in liturgical prose, then, -eth becomes more and more uncommon after the beginning of the seventeenth century; it is the survival of this and not the recurrence of -s which is henceforth noteworthy. (qtd in Bambas, p. 185)


Bambas Ϥˤ۵Ĥ򾧤롥Wyld θϡ-eth βᾮɾǤȡĤޤȤ Bambas ϡ1600ǯ򶴤ǯδ֡-s -th ŪˤԤԤִȤήǤϤ뤬ξ¸λȤߤΤŬڤǤȤոΰո٤ΤϡBambas ȤԤä16ȾФ17ȾФˤƤλʸˤĴ̤Ǥ롥Bambas (186) ɽƸ褦

AuthorTitleDateIncidence of -s
Ascham, RogerToxophilus15456%
Robynson, RalphMore's Utopia15510%
Knox, JohnThe First Blast of the Trumpet15580%
Ascham, RogerThe Scholmaster15700.7%
Underdowne, ThomasHeriodorus's Anaethiopean Historie15872%
Greene, RobertGroats-Worth of Witte; Repentance of Robert Greene; Blacke Bookes Messenger159250%
Nashe, ThomasPierce Penilesse159250%
Spenser, EdmundA Veue of the Present State of Ireland159618%
Meres, FrancisPoetric159813%
Dekker, ThomasThe Wonderfull Yeare 1603160384%
Dekker, ThomasThe Seuen Deadlie Sinns of London160678%
Daniel, SamuelThe Defence of Ryme160762%
Daniel, SamuelThe Collection of the History of England1612--1894%
Drummond of Hawlhornden, W.A Cypress Grove16237%
Donne, JohnDevotions162474%
Donne, JohnIvvenilia163364%
Fuller, ThomasA Historie of the Holy Warre16380.4%
Jonson, BenThe English Grammar164020%
Milton, JohnAreopagitica164485%


ץåȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥

Incidence of -s in Prose between C16b and C17a by Bambas

δ֤Ǥǯ0.5789%ΨǾ徺Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ط0.49Ǥ롥ΤȤƤϱ夬˰㤤ʤġΤФĤˤ롥ΤȤᾮɾɾ⤹٤ǤϤʤȤΤ Bambas η

Bambas, Rudolph C. "Verb Forms in -s and -th in Early Modern English Prose". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 46 (1947): 183--87.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
Wyld, Henry Cecil. A History of Modern Colloquial English. 2nd ed. London: Fisher Unwin, 1921.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-21-1] [2015-05-06-1]

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2015-03-09 Mon

#2142. Ѹˤ3ñʣθʬ [map][laeme][lalme][me_dialect][me][3sp][3pp][verb][conjugation][nptr]

ɸ䤤˼ü᤯ˤϡɽǻ­Görlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ

 SouthMidlandNorth
Present Indicative3sg.-(e)þ-(e)þ-(e)s
pl.-(e)þ-(e)n-(e)s


Ͽ޾˼ȡ#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) ̤Ȥʤ뤬ܤʬۤȤˤ LAEME ʽѸˤ eLALME ʸѸˤ򻲾ȤΤǤ (cf. #1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1])) ʲǤϡξȥ饹줿ϿޤβŽդ褦ʥåȤ礭ʲˡޤϡ1150--1325ǯ򥫥С LAEME ꡤ3ñʺˤʣʱˤθʬۤ򤽤줾켨

LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' LAEME: 3pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero
LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero


ξϿޤ˽ޤִݤ -s ˽ޤĻͳѤ -th ɽʣθǤ¾˹ѤߤƤ뤬 -n ɽˡʣ̾ܤưθ߷ -e ޤϥθȤ "Northern Present Tense Rule" (NPTR; cf. #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])nptr) ʬۿޤ򸫤褦

LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero
LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero


Ǥϼ˸Ѹʬۤ˰ܤ롥eLALME ǤϡμऴȤ̡Ͽޤޤ3ñ顥

eLAEME: 3sp 's' eLAEME: 3sp 'th'
eLALME: 3sp 's' eLALME: 3sp 'th'


ʬۤ褯ѤǤꡤޤ̤ -s ˡޤ̤ -th ʬۤƤΤ狼롥ʣˤĤƤϡ-s, -th, -n, -e (or zero) 4ˤĤƳơϿޤ򸫤Ƥߤ褦

eLAEME: pp 's' eLAEME: 3pp 'th'
eLALME: pp 's' eLALME: pp 'th'
eLAEME: pp 'n' eLAEME: 3pp 'th'
eLALME: pp 'n' eLALME: pp 'e' or zero


ʬۤ褯ѤǤꡤ -s ʺޡˡ -th ʱޡˤͥ -n ʺޡˤĥƤ뤳ȤƼ롥ŪˡѸȸѸʬ۴֤Ūʺϸ뤬Ūˤ礭ѲϤʤȤäƤ褤  *

Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.

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2015-03-08 Sun

#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγ [verb][conjugation][emode][language_change][suffix][inflection][3sp][bible][shakespeare][schedule_of_language_change]

#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ173ñζ޸ -th -s ؤ֤äƤäϡλ夫ʹԤƤִηаޤ򾯤Ҳ𤷤褦
űѸǹԤʤƤ3ñ -s ̤ˤСѸ -s Ƹ줿Τ14ΥɥΥƥȤˤƤǤ롥Ϥޤä15˽٤ȯŪΤ16--17ˤƤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ȿǤƤ褦ʥƥȤˤơ٤ޤäƤä褦-s ϡ褽1600ǯޤǤɸȤʤäƤȻפ뤬16ΥƥȤˤɤ줬ߤΤ¤Ǥ롥Ť -th 첻ȼä -eth ȤƲ-s ϲʤäᡤξԤϱΧŪǻȤʬ줿פ (ex. that hateth thee and hates us all) 㤨СShakespeare ǤϻʸǤϤۤȤ -s ѤƤ뤬ʸǤ -th 롥ȤϤξ٤ϡΧŪװʸŪװʾ˸ĿͤޤϺʤʤ˰¸뤳Ȥ¿쳵뤳ȤϤǤʤdoth hath ʤ٤˹⤤ˤĤơŷФ餯ͥǤ³-s ٤줿ȤȤϡŪħ1ĤȤõ
Lass (162--65) ϡִΥ塼ˤĤƼΤ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

In the earlier sixteenth century {-s} was probably informal, and {-th} neutral and/or elevated; by the 1580s {-s} was most likely the spoken norm, with {-eth} a metrical variant.


켣 (217--18) ˤȤ̤˸ƤߤȡThe Authorised Version (1611) Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȿФ Milton (1608--74) Ǥ doth hath ̤ˤ -th ʤShakespeare ǤϡJulius Caesar (1599) ʬۤ˸¤äƤߤȡ-s Ψ do have ǤϤ줾 11.76%, 8.11% ʳΰ̤ưǤ 95.65% ȰݤƤ롥
Ȥ櫓16--17ξڵ˴Ťˤդ٤ϡ#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) Ǹ褦ˡɽ -th ȤäȤƤ⡤줬Ǥ [s] ȯƤǽȤȤǤ롥
ִΥ塼ˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2015-03-03 Tue

#2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬ [generative_grammar][syntax][agreement][3sp][verb][inflection][agreement][conjugation]

#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) ǡʸˡˤʬϤȽŪ˼夲ϤʤȤ䤤ˤƤʤȤȽǤꡤŪʬϤȤȽƤ櫓ǤϤʤषϼưΰ (agreement) ưζޤˤäɸ˰ŪŬѤǤ롤Ūˤ줿ʬϤTime flies. ȤñʸʸˡʬϤäȡʲιʸڤʤʸˡǤΩˤäƵǽƤΥ٥νۤʤǽϤˡ

Syntactic Analysis for 3sp

ǾʸΤ IP (=Inflectional Phrase) Ǥꡤ I (=Inflection)˼Ȥʤ NP (=Noun Phrase)˽ҸưȤʤ VP (=Verb Phrase) ġNP time I s Ψ (government) 礦طˤȤ졤ΨطҤΰפȿϢƤ롥NP time ˤϡ[+ 3RD PERSON] [+ SINGULAR] ȤͿƤꡤI 񤵤 [+ PRESENT] ȶĤơs Ȥ޼Ф롥
οޤǤϤޤǤƤʤΤܼư (affix-hopping) Ȥ§ŬѤơs VP fly ˰ưǸ˲DzĴ time flies Ȥ¸Ȥ롥פˡΨطˤ NP I ΤȤǡ;Ργͤȹ礵졤٤ưפȶ޼ s 򤵤Ȥ롼ʼºݤˤϡ3ñΤۤľˡǤ뤳ȤɬܾǤϾάˡΥ롼1ķƤȡ¸¾쵬§ѤơϢŪʸǤʸ "Time doesn't fly." 䵿ʸ "Does time fly?" ʤɤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥
ʬϤɸ฽Ѹ3ñ -s ˤޤĤȷ֤Ӥ꤫ǤȤϤ뤬ʤΤ褦ʸݤΤȤȤʤʸˡϡֲפ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפ䤤Τդ֤ʤפ䤤ˤϡϤŪʻѤۤʤ

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2015-02-07 Sat

#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ [verb][inflection][agreement][conjugation][paradigm][morphology][3sp][3pp][sobokunagimon]

ɸϡѸؽԤ٤ϤѤʵɽʤǤ롥ѸǤư3;ñ߷ȤƸ촴 -(e)s դΤ§ȤʤäƤ롥(1) 줬3;ΤǤꡤ(2) 줬ñǤꡤ(3) ߤǤȤ3Ĥξ郎٤·äȤˤΤղäȤ§ʤΤǡѸؽԤˤȤäƽˤʸ̩ˤ (4) ľˡǤȤɬסˡ伫Ȥ⡤Ѹä񤤤ꤹݤˤϡȤ櫓ư줬Υ줿ʤɤˡ§׵ᤵפ򤦤ä˺Ƥޤ3ñ -s ȤϲʤΤΤ¸ߤΤȳؽԤԻ׵Ĥ˻פΤ϶ˤƼǤ롥
Ѹˤ3ñ -s ϱοȻפäƤ롥ŪʴϡưΰפȤϤʸݤΰȤơεʬϤʤ줦롥Ω줫ϡ㤨ʸˡǤ InflP ȤǽƤΤȤǼ̾ȶ޼Ȥδط򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤǡɤΤ褦ʾư -s ղä뤫Ǥ롥Ͼˤʤ3ñΤȤ -s դΤͳ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǽΩ줫ϡ-s ̵ͭˤꡤ(1) 줬3;Τ12;Τζ̡(2) 줬ñʣζ̡(3) ߤ󸽺ߤζ̤Ū뤳ȤǤ롤롥㤨С줬 Johnhe ǻؤ뤤 John and Marythey ǻؤΤ줫Ǥͽۤʸ̮ˤơ̾ʬʹʤäȤƤ⡤ʸ߻Ȥǡưθտʹ뤳ȤǤСפǤ롥Τ褦ǽ¤ˤơ-s ̵ͭϵǽŪȤȤǤä3ñ -s Ȥ§ⵡǽŪǤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ǥ3ñ -s Ρ֤ʤפˤƤʤǽȤǽݤΤǤСä3ñ -s ĤȤˡǤϤʤ¾ˤ͡ˡͤϤʤ3ñ -p Ȥ -g ǤϤʤΤʤ3ʣ -s ǤϤʤΤʤ3ñ -s ǤϤʤΤ뤤ϡβǽ򤹤٤Ȥ߹碌ŬưΥѥǤ⡤Ʊ褦Ѥ­Ĥޤꡤ嵭εǽŪϡ3ñ -s ĸѸΥѥ˸¤餺Ʊ褦Ѥ­¾ΥѥˤѤƤޤȤȤǤ롥ɡǽŪϡʤѸ줬ˤä3ñ -s ĥѥͭƤΤʤ
ŪǤ쵡ǽŪǤ졤Ūʴεϡ3ñ -s ˴ؤͿ褦ȤϤƤ뤬ΰʤƤˤܼŪ䤤ˤƤʤ̻ŪʴߤС֤ʤפؤϤäƤǤ롥
̻Ūʲˡɸȯ⤦褦֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפȤˤϡ֤ʤ3ñȤݥΤ;פʸĤʤФʤʤΤפȤռ롥¾ΥݥǤΤޤޤǤ褤Τˡʤ3ñ˸¤äݤʤȤ򤷤ʤФʤʤΤȡȤ̻ŪʻռȿФǤ롥̻Ūˤϡ3ñ -s ĤȤϡۤȤפʤȤ٤Ȥ¿ʤΤǤ롥ष䤦٤ϡ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥
Ǥϡ򤭤ΤȤäȤơűѸư lufian (to love) ľˡߤζɽǤ褦

lufian (to love)SingularPlural
1st personlufielufiaþ
2nd personlufastlufiaþ
3rd personlufaþlufiaþ


ζɽʬ褦ˡűѸǤ3ñ˸¤餺1ñ2ñ1ʣ2ʣ3ʣǤⲿ餫θդƤѸδϡ3ñΤߤ˸դ3ñȤ̻뤷ƤޤűѸǤϡʤλ⤽ѸˤѸˤʬŪˤ뤬ˤ줾ο;ΡȤ߹碌Ʊ٤ˡ̡פǤꡤˤ줿դʤФʤʤäС3ñߤΤ褦⤤ݥä櫓ǤϤʤ
űѸΡ֤٤ƤΥݥ̡פȤ⤤뤳ΥѥϡѸ줫Ѹˤ礭Ƥ롥űѸʹߡ޸֤褦̵ˤơ岽ĤˤϾüȤ礭ʲѲĬήʹԤ嵭 lufian ǤС1ñ lufie θϼ岽α¿ȤʤꡤѸǤΤʸ첻⤿ʤ love Ȥʤä lufian Τ⡤ƱλҲ첻岽üɡָ love ؤȯŸο;ΤǤⶦ̤θűѸʣ lufiaþ ϡ޸ˤ첻μ岽üη̡3ñ lufaþ ȷŪͻ礷ƤޤäȤطƤȤ櫓Ѹǡ³ˡߤΥѥͳ褹 n Ȥ loven Ȥ֤ѤȤ n Τ岽ü䤹äᡤѸޤǤˤϤ褽Ǥ love ؤ夤2ñ lufast ˤĤƤϡ޸ȤƾüϤΤҲ2ĤäƤꡤǤФۤܤΤޤޤηǸѸޤĤϤäȤ2ñб̾ thou 餯ҲŪװ¸߰յ򼺤Ω you ؤϤƤ˵ڤǡ-ast ζ޸Τ뵡򼺤ѤȤʤä2ñζ޸ϡ2ʣб you Ʊ񤤤򤹤뤳ȤˤʤäᡤΥݥؤ love
Ĥ3ñ lufaþ Ǥ롥˾üˤҲäƤˡѸޤǤϤۤܤΤޤޤݤ줿Ѹͳ褹 -s ϤȤ -þ ֤ȤѲäΤΡ̤ȤƤ -s üˤꤷҲäᡤ줬ѸޤĤä¾Υݥζ޸Ūʼ岽üα¿Ȥʤäꡤ¾μפʸִƤʤɤơĤˤϾääΤФ3ñ -s ϲŪ˶ǤǰꤷƤȤͳǡɤʡˤޤ޺ޤĤäΤǤ롥3ñ -s ľˡߤζޥѥˤǸĤȤ롥
ƽҤ٤뤬̻Ūʻռϡ֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפǤϤʤ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥Ρ֤ʤפγάϾǽҤ٤ƤºݤˤϸġΥݥˤĤƤäʣʷаޤ롥ѸˤǤϡ޸οʿ (levelling of inflection) ȤΤ絬ϤʲΰüȤơפʣǤ롥
3ñ -s ϢνˤĤƤ 3sp γƵ򡤴Ϣ3ʣ -s ȤѸ˾ˤĤƤ 3pp γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

ʸ嵭2017/03/15(Wed)ϢơҤΥ֥ȾεȤ֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤ񤤤ƤޤΤǡȤ

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2014-06-29 Sun

#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) [verb][inflection][aave][nptr][3pp][3sp]

#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ˰³ƤꡥAAVE 3ñ -s æ뷹ˤĤơ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǤҤ٤æ򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤϤޤäñǤϤʤAAVE ȤäƤǤϤʤϰˤäưۤʤ뤷Ŀͺ礭Ȥ롥æ뤫ʤΥѥ᡼ʣ¸ߤ줾θѰۤ롥
㤨СSchneider (100) ϡĤԸ򻲾Ȥ3ñ -s æΥѡơޤȤƤ롥Harlem ǯĤĴ42--100% ʿѤ 63%ˡDetroit βήϫƯԳĴ71.4%5лĴ72.5%Oakland βήνĴ57.7%Washington, D. C. λҶĴ84%Washington, D. C. βήĴ65.3%ήⶵդĴ17--78%Maryland γĴ83.3%ʤɤǤ롥-s æŪǤ뤳ȤϳΤǡ绨Ĥˤä31 -s ƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤæ§ŪǤȤȤϤǤʤ
AAVE ˤ3ñ -s Τߤʤ餺ư츽߷ -s ˴ؤ뽾θǤϡ͡ʡʼҲ˸Ūʥѥ᡼󵯤ƤɸѸ˸褦ʿ;ΤξϤȤꡤbe ư is ʣѤ븽ݤȤδͿɸѸεϤؤν١dialect mixture ʡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) 򻲾ȡˡꥹŪʱƶʤɡ͡Ǥ롥
͡ʥѥ᡼Τʤ Bailey et al. Ȥ櫓ܤդΤ줬̾ (PRO) ̾ (NP) ζ̤Ǥ롥ԸǤϡAppalachian English, Alabama White English, Samaná, Scotch-Irish English, black and white folk speech in Texas ʤɡAAVE ˸¤餺Ѽ䥤ꥹѼǤ⡤δबѤƤ뤳ȡʤ߷ NP 줬 PRO -s 򹥤򤹤뤳ȤŦƤηϡ#1852. Ѹˤľˡ߷ưθ NPTR ([2014-05-23-1]) ǿ줿 "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" ("Northern Present Tense Rule") θ̤Ƥ롥Bailey et al. ϡ "NP/PRO constraint" 1472--88ǯ˥ɥӾȤĤʽ the Cely Letters 17--18Υꥹ͹ҳΤѤ "Ship English" ˤߤ뤳ȤŦǡŪĴ̤ơƱ̤ AAVE νѼˤѤƤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ롥Bailey et al. (298) ϡ"NP/PRO constraint" Ǥ줤˵ҤǤۤñǤϤʤȶĴʤ⡤˾ߤäƼΤ褦᤯äƤ롥

By examining data from EME and looking at parallels in present-day black and white vernaculars, we have shown that the NP/PRO constraint is a powerful one that has affected English for quite some time and that currently affects a wide range of processes. Although it is important to stress that this constraint does not account for all of the variation in the present tense verb paradigms of the black and white vernaculars in the South (for instance, -s used to mark historical present), it does play a major role in a number of previously unconnected phenomena.


Schneider, Edgar W. "The Origin of the Verbal -s in Black English." American Speech 58 (1983): 99--113.
Bailey, Guy, Natalie Maynor, and Patricia Cukor-Avila. "Variation in Subject-Verb Concord in Early Modern English." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 285--300.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-22-1] [2015-08-24-1]

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2014-06-25 Wed

#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ [aave][creole][pidgin][sociolinguistics][ame][caribbean][syntax][be][aspect][inflection][3sp][variety][existential_sentence]

#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħ򼨤Ȥ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤ򽸤Ƥ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ򤷤̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7󤲤褦

(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥ󥰥ɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ

(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ

(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡ󽬴ȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤ򤨤ʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥ꡼Ȥͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥

(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥

(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ

(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ

(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ

1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE Ȥƥꥫ񳰤ذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬󥰥ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬Ǥȹͤ򤨤ʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2014-05-28 Wed

#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθư [verb][conjugation][emode][language_change][causation][suffix][inflection][phonotactics][3sp]

#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵ򤬤ꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ - Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤

In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.


"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2014-05-27 Tue

#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ [pronunciation][verb][conjugation][emode][spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][suffix][inflection][3sp]

ε#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ǻȤ Kytö (115) ϡ17ɾԤľܰѤʤ顤17Ⱦˤ -eth ֤줿޸Ǥ -s ȤȯƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Contemporary commentators' statements, and verse rhymes, indicate that the -S and -TH endings were pronounced identically from the early 17th century on. Richard Hodges (1643) listed different spellings given for the same pronunciation: for example, clause, claweth, claws; Hodges also pointed out in 1649 that "howesoever wee write them thus, leadeth it, maketh it, noteth it, we say lead's it, make's it, note's it" (cited in Jespersen, 1942: 19--20).


Kytö (132 fn. 10) ǤϡHodges θǤǤȯҲ𤵤Ƥ롥

In the third (and final) edition of his guide (1653: 63--64), Hodges elaborated on his statement: "howsoever wee write many words as if they were two syllables, yet wee doo commonly pronounce them as if they were but one, as for example, these three words, leadeth, noteth, taketh, we doo commonly pronounce them thus, leads, notes, takes, and so all other words of this kind."


17ˤϰŪ <-eth> /-s/ ȤȯƤȤϡ/θ/ /s/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤǤȤĤޤƤ䤿ˤȤäƤϡ츫ۤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤϡäդǤѲԤ񤭸դǤѲɤĤƤʤȤѲΤդ줿1Ĥˤʤ˽񤭸դäդ˹碌 <-s> ֤褦ˤʤäֻȯɤĤˤ¿ʤȤֺäȤȤǤ롥ܸɽ줫ʤŤ鸽夫ʤŤؤȲޤǤƻΤ٤С<-eth> <-s> ؤֻѲϤष®äȸۤɤǤ롥
ʤJespersen (20) ˤȡĶ٤ư hath, doth, saith ˤĤƤϡ<-th> 18ȾФޤ̤˸줿Ȥ
ɽʸȯȤЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ȡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) ε򻲾Ȥ줿

Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Hodges, Richard. A Special Help to Orthographie; Or, the True Writing of English. London: Printed for Richard Cotes, 1643.
Hodges, Richard. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That Ever was Hitherto Publisht. London: Printed by Wm. Du-gard, 1649.
Hodges, Richard. Most Plain Directions for True-Writing: In Particular for Such English Words as are Alike in Sound, and Unlike Both in Their Signification and Writing. London: Printed by W. D. for Rich. Hodges., 1653. (Reprinted in R. C. Alston, ed. English Linguistics 1500--1800. nr 118. Menston: Scholar Press, 1968; Microfiche ed. 1991)
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2014-05-26 Mon

#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s [colonial_lag][ame_bre][verb][conjugation][bible][shakespeare][suffix][inflection][3sp][schedule_of_language_change][lexical_diffusion][speed_of_change]

ư3ʣˤĤơ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1])#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ǰäƤ3ñˤˤĤƤϤޤ夲Ƥʤäͽۤ褦ˡ3ñΤۤʤǤꡤȤ櫓󥰥ɤǸűѸ -th 򼨤ΤѸ -s 褦ˤʤäаޤˤĤƤϡ¿ФƤ롥
ѸξΤˤФа礤˽ФΤϡ1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]ˤǤŪ -th ݤƤ뤬Ʊ Shakespeare Ǥ -th -s ߤƤȤȤΤȤϡ17ޤǤ˸ǤϤǤ -th -s ؤѲٿʤǤݼŪν񤭸դˤϤ줬ȿǤʤäΤȲᤵƤ롥
ơ礦Ʊ˱Ѹ줬ΦذܿϤƤǤϡλǤ˻ϤޤäƤ -th -s ѲΤθΥ塼ϡꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǰۤʤäϤäΤKytö ϡ16--17ΥꥹѸ쥳ѥȡ17ΥꥫѸ쥳ѥѤơ䤤ؤ᤿͡ʸŪҲŪʥѥ᡼ꤷӤƤ뤬Ūˤ1Ĥηǧ줿17ξߤ¤ꡤ-s ؤѲϥꥫѸΤۤꥹѸ®˿ʤǤΤǤ롥Kytö (120) ˤɽ򼨤

British EnglishAmerican English
 -S-THTotal -S-THTotal
1500--157015 (3%)446461-   
1570--1640101 (18%)4595601620--1670339 (51%)322661
1640--1710445 (76%)1405851670--1720642 (82%)138780


η̤ơKytö (132) ϡ3ñ -th -s Ѳ˴ؤ¤ꡤꥫѸ colonial_lag ϤߤʤȷŤƤ롥

Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of colonial lag, the subsequent rate of change was more rapid in the colonies. By and large, the colonists' writings seem to reflect the spoken language of the period more faithfully than do the writings of their contemporaries in Britain. In this respect, speaker innovation, rather than conservative tendencies, guided the development.


˽񤤤 colonial_lag γƵǤ褦ˡܤˤäƥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸʤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѽ⤢̣ǤݼŪǤꡤ̣Ǥϳ׿ŪǤ롥 Kytö η϶ä٤ΤǤϤʤꥹܹˤƸ夹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤѲꥫϤäˤɤΤ褦˿ʹԤ򼨺1ĤλȤưյ롥

Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.

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