hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ڡ / page 11 (14)

borrowing - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2015-10-01 Thu

#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching [code-switching][me][emode][bilingualism][contact][latin][french][literature][borrowing][genre][historical_pragmatics][discourse_analysis]

ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤε񤤤ƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)

CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)


鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" 󤲤ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ򸦵椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻񤹤2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ򿼲뤳ȤǤ롥

Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.

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2015-09-12 Sat

#2329. ѸμѸ [borrowing][loan_word][me][lexicology][contact][latin][french][greek][italian][spanish][portuguese][welsh][cornish][dutch][german][bilingualism]

ѸθüѤȤСޤե󥹸줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬󤬤 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾󤲤뤬ե󥹸졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥե󥹸ͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ򹭤̣ǼСѸ쥤󥰥ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)

LANGUAGESDirect IntroductionIndirect Introduction
Latin--- 
French--- 
Scandinavian--- 
Low German--- 
High German--- 
Italian through French
Spanish through French
Irish--- 
Scottish Gaelic--- 
Welsh--- 
Cornish--- 
Other Celtic languages in Europe through French
Portuguese through French
Arabic through French and Spanish
Persian through French, Greek and Latin
Turkish through French
Hebrew through French and Latin
Greek through French by way of Latin


#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) ǰѤ̤ꡤ"French acted as the Trojan horse of Latinity in English" Ȥ⤤ϻ¤ե󥹸ѸˤϡƥΤߤʤ餺äȤä¿θ줫μѤΡפȤƵǽƤΤǤ롥
Ϣơ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-22-1]

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2015-04-20 Mon

#2184. ñȥեñ (2) [french][norman_french][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][norman_conquest][false_friend]

ε#2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥϡʩбη̣Υ򤯤٤(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݤܤϡ(2) ե󥹸äμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ2ĤλƳ롥
ޤ (2) ˤĤơѸȥե󥹸бӤȤ´κθϡֺǤ롥䤿ӤƤΤϡ̾Ѹȸե󥹸бǤ롥եñ줬ѸؼѤ줿Τϡ¿ѸˤƤǤ (cf. #117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])) Ĥޤꡤ6--8ۤΥե󥹸ä6--8ۤαѸήεǤߤ褦ˡμѲˤƤ model Ȥʤեñ loan ȤʤñΤ¿ΥåפΤ̤äΤǤ뤫顤ޤƤФˤξбɤ̣ˤƥԥäȰפʤΤ϶äȤǤϤʤ6--8Τˡθη̣ϡե󥹸¦ǤѸ¦ǤȼѲƤǽ⤤
㤨СѸ doubt ϥե󥹸 douter б뤬ֻϰۤʤ롥ñֻ <b> ƤΤϱѸˤ׿Ǥꡤֻϥե󥹸Ǥ夷ʤä (cf. #1187. etymological respelling ζ ([2012-07-27-1])) ޤե󥹸 journée ϡ1פΰ̣бѸ journey ϡιԡפǤ롥ѸǤѸˤϡ1פθäˡ1ΰưΥפФơιԡפθȯŸȤȤθѤ줿λ֤СäȤ줬ΤϤΤȡ鸫ǤϤбΤȵ虜ʤۤɡߤˤΥ줿ؤȯŸǽ롥
ˡ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ˽פǤ롥ǯǤϤʤäȤΥåפ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ե󥹸Ѥθɬե󥹸ɸե󥹸ˤǤϤʤȤ¤롥䤿ؽ븽ե󥹸Υե󥹸ͳ褷Ƥ뤬Ȥ櫓Ѹ˱Ѹ줬Ѥե󥹸ä¿ϼ¤ϥե˹ԤƤΥޥ󡦥ե (norman_french) Ǥ (cf. #1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])) פˡΡ¤äץեñ줬ñȤƼѤƸߤ˻äƤΤǤꡤȸɸե󥹸ȤӤȤˡ줬ΤǤ롥Υե󥹸üԤλ鸽Ѹбįȡ֤ʤѸΤΡ¤äեñѤƤΤפȼ򤫤ʤ롥ŪʻˤĤƤϡ#76. Norman French vs Central French ([2009-07-13-1])#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1])#388. äȤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2010-05-20-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ʾ塤2ˤ錄äƱñȥեñθˤĤƲ⤷ƤξԤΥåפϡ(1) ѲΤΤ˵Τ⤢С(2) Ѥ夬ΤȤǤꡤθξŪȯŸη̤ȤƤȤ館⤢뤷(3) μѥե󥹸ɸäȤ¤ˤΤ⤢롥ñȸեñȤʿŪįƤǤϸƤʤΩŪʱԤ򡤱Ѹˤ̤ƴƤ餤

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-07-1]

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2015-04-19 Sun

#2183. ñȥեñ (1) [french][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][norman_conquest][false_friend]

Ѹ˳μȤʤɤǡѸθäˤ¿Υեñ줬ޤޤƤ뤫ˤȡʹϰͤ˶ä绨ĤˤäƱѸä1/3ե󥹸줢뤤ϤοƸǤƥ줫μѸǤ롥Ϣ뤤ĤפˤĤƤϡ#110. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-15-1]) ӡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ƭĥä󥯤򻲾Ȥ줿
λ¤ʹȡѸȥե󥹸˶̤ä¿Τϡñ줬ե󥹸̤¿褦ߤαѸŪͥޤܸˤ¿αѸäήƤ¤ͤСե󥹸줬¿αñѤƤϤȤΤ̵Ϥʤ
Ѹˤ򻲾ȤмºݤˤϵդǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū˱Ѹ줬եñ̤˼ѤƤ椨ˡ̤Ȥξ˶̤θä¿ΤǤ롥üŪˤС1066ǯΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤꡤ󥰥ɤΰҿ줬Ѹ줫ե󥹸ذܤäˡ̤Υե󥹸줫̤αѸؤȸä̤ήȤȤǤ롥ʱѸ줬ե󥹸ͿƶȤλϡŪˤŪ˵Ǥ롥#1026. 18Ѹ줫ե󥹸äѸ ([2012-02-17-1])#1012. ˤѸ줫ե󥹸ؤαƶ ([2012-02-03-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ե󥹸򾯤Ǥ⤫äȤΤԤǤСʩǶ̤ϳΤ¿ɡ̣ߤˤƤȤ㤬ʤʤȤ˵ŤбäϤΤ̩ˡƱפǤ櫓ǤϤʤˤꡤfalse_friend (Fr. "faux amis") ꤬뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])) ե󥹸¦ model ȱѸ¦ loan Ȥδ֤ˡ̣Τ줬ƤޤΤϡäʤmodel loan ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
䤤ˤϡ(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݡ(2) ե󥹸äμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ3ˤĤ򤷤Ƥɬפ롥ϡ(1) ܤ褦äμѲ˵꤬ʸݤȤϡѸˤη̣¿ʤȤĤƼإԡΤ̤Ǥ뤳ȤޤܤСѸϡȤȯֻ¿쾯ʤηϤŬ礵ήΤ̾Ǥ롥㤨Сե󥹸α߿첻 /y/ Ÿɡ /ɲ/ ϡɬ⤽ΤޤޤηDZѸ˼줿ΤǤϤʤ¿ξ礽줾 /ɪʊ/, /nj/ ȤƼޤ줿 (cf. #1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])) ̯ʺۤǤϤ뤬μѤˤ model Τޤ˥ԡ櫓ǤϤʤȤ򼨤Ƥ롥Ѹ /ʃəːt/ (shirt) ܸ /shatsu/ ʥġˤȤƼޤʤɡäդäȤܤǤϡΤ褦ʥ줬Τ϶ˤ̤Ǥ롥
˰̣ܤƤ⡤model loan δ֤ˤϤФХåפѻ롥Ȥ櫓ѤˤƤ model θΰΤߤѤ뤳Ȥ¿̣ϰϤȤƤ model > loan δطΩĤȤ¿ͭ̾ưʪ󤲤ȡѸ beef ϸťե󥹸 boef, buefѤǤ롥model ˤϵȵξθޤޤ뤬loan ˤϵθޤޤʤǤϥեñ줬̣̾DZѸؼѤƤʤ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ⻲ȡˡƱͤˡѸ room ϡ֥롼פȤθˤܸäƤ뤬;Ϥθϡ֥롼פˤϤʤ
ǵ󤲤ƤǤϡñȥեñδ֤κۤϤäȤƤŪΤäե󥹸ؽˤƽвñαʩ֤ΥȰ´ϡФФä礭õˤϡ(2) (3) λȤɬפǤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-07-1] [2015-04-20-1]

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2015-04-01 Wed

#2165. 20ȾμѸ쥽 [loan_word][statistics][lexicology][french][japanese][borrowing]

ѸοƳˤƤϡʣ (compounding) (derivation) 礿ˡȤʤäƤƤꡤ (borrowing) ι׸٤Ū㤤1ۤɤοܤߤƤ⡤ѤγŪܸꤷƤ (cf. #873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡 ([2011-09-17-1]) #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]))
Ū˸äƤƤȤϤüѤϸѸǤ³Ƥ롥#874 Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬΤʤǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡѤ餺¿ͤǤ롥#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǤϡѸؤθ󶡼ԤȤưƳܸ줬ͭϤǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ܸʤɤޤ᤿̤Τܤ礬ΤꤿȤ
Algeo (78) ϡGarland Cannon (Historical Change and English Word-Formation. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. pp. 69--97) Ĵ˴Ťơ20ȾäƤѸäΥ̳󼨤Ƥ롥Ūˤϡ褽1963--88ǯδ֤˱ѸäƤѸϿ4ĤμĴоݤȤ̤˼Ѹ夲줾γФ4ĤμȤϡ(1) The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963 (1973), (2) The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1980), (3) Webster's Third (1961), (4) The Barnhart Dictionary Companion Index (1987) Ǥ롥줾줫407, 332, 523, 166򽸤᤿1428ξýǤϤ뤬˴ŤưʲĴ̤줿

 (1) BDNE(2) BENE2(3) 81W3(4) BDCRank
French31.4%17.521.212.01
Spanish6.610.86.112.72
Russian3.45.42.124.13
Japanese7.99.36.39.04
African6.17.26.73.05
Italian4.74.510.72.46
German5.95.44.85.47
Greek6.94.88.01.28
Latin5.25.19.4 9
Yiddish5.72.75.03.610
Arabic2.03.91.76.011
Chinese1.74.23.66.012
Portuguese1.02.71.01.813
Hindi2.20.90.22.414
Hebrew0.71.50.41.215
Sanskrit1.71.20.8 16
Persian0.21.2 1.817
Afrikaans0.51.50.4 18
Dutch0.20.3 1.819
Indonesian0.20.30.81.220
Malayo-Polynesian 2.10.2 21
Norwegian0.2 1.50.622
Swedish1.00.31.0 23
Korean 0.60.80.624
Vietnamese1.00.30.6 25
Amerindian 1.20.6 26
Bengali0.50.90.2 27
Danish0.5 1.0 28
Eskimo0.50.30.20.629


ɽ˵Ƥʤ30--56̤θ췲Ϲ碌ƤΤȤ1%ˤʤǰΤ˼Τ褦ʸǤ롥Amharic, Annamese, Basque, Bhutanese, Catalan, Czech, Hawaiian, Hungarian, Irish, Khmer, Mongolian, Papuan, Pashto, Pidgin English, Pilipino, Polish, Provençal, Punjabi, Samoan, Scots (Gaelic), Serbo-Croatian, Tahitian, Thai (and Lao), Turkish, Urdu, Welsh, West Indian.
BDC ǥ줬̯˹⤤򼨤Ƥ뤬ԽФ˵ǽ롥Фβǽ򺹤ƹͤȡϽ̤ȤƤϥӥδ֤12դȻפ롥
15̤ޤǤθˤĤƥղΤޤǤ롥

Source Languages of New Loanwords from 1963 to 1988


Υդϡ#874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1]) Ǥߤ Bauer Ĵ˴ŤդξȥλۤʤΤǡӤˤȤ뤬ե󥹸졤ꥷ졤ƥ졤ɥĸʤɤ̤ǷƮƤͻҤϤΥդ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ롥ڥ䥤ꥢʤɤΥޥ󥹽ĴȤäƤ褤ΤʤǡȤɮƬΩäƤΤܸǤ롥եꥫ졤ӥ졤³ƤꡤѸ cosmopolitan vocabulary ϸˤƤߤȤ

Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.

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2015-03-16 Mon

#2149. ̣ [borrowing][loan_word][loan_translation][semantic_change][lexicology][old_norse][semantic_borrowing][christianity]

ܥ֥ΤĤε ̣semantic_borrowing, 뤤 "semantic loan" ȤѸȤäƤȤꤿƤˤȤϤʤäΤǡ󤤤Ĥ󤲤Ƥ̣ѤϤȤ (loan_translation) ȺƱѤ뤳Ȥ뤬2ĤϰۤʤǤ롥ѤˤƤϿʸùܤ߽Ф뤬̣ѤˤƤϴ¸θùܤ˿ʸɲä뤫줬Ť֤뤫Τߤǡʸùܤ߽ФʤѸη֤ȿǤʤȤǶ롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Haugen Ѹ˽С importation ǤϤʤ substitution ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹˤˤ̣Ѥŵ1Ĥˡdream 롥űѸ drēam "joy, music" ʴӡڡˤΰդѤ줿бťΥɸ draumr "vision" ̴ˤΰդäƤȤˤꡤαƶѸޤǤˡ̴פθȤȤΥޥʳǤθ֡ʶʤɤˤǤ路פΰ̣ȯŸˤ֡ʴڤˤ˶ڡӡפηȡָơ̴פηȤ¸Ƥȹͤ뤬ԤϸűѸؤʤä褦ºݤˤϡűѸˤ⡤ťΥɸαƶζǤϡ̴פθԤƤפ롥
ۤˤ褯ΤƤΤȤơbloom 롥űѸ blōma "ingot of iron" ʲŴˤ̣ťΥɸ blóm "flower, blossom" ʲ֡ˤαƶǡѸޤǤ˿ʤˤϰ⤢ˡdwell űѸñ dwellan, dwelian "to lead astray" ¤碌ˤѤ줿ťΥɸ dvelja ʤ롨ȤɤޤˤȯŸŪʸֽפѤȤ롥ޤ#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡbread ϸűѸǤ brēad "morsel of food" ۤɤΰ̣äťΥɸ brauð "bread" ֥ѥפθڤƤ褦 (Old Northumbrian ˡ֥ѥפȤƤ㤬ߤˡ
ťΥɸ줫ΰ̣Ѥ򤤤Ĥ󤲤ƥ줫Ȥƥƥ rēs ֽ񡨤ȡΡפθäƤȤ顤ֽפΤߤ̣űѸ þing ֤ȡΡפΰ̣Ȥ롥ƱͤˡűѸ Dryhten "lord" "the Lord" θɲä줿Τ⡤бƥ dominus αƶʴϢơ#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) 򻲾ȡˡűѸˤΥꥹȶѸˤϡбƥαƶǿ˰̣Τ¿ (ex. wītega "prophet", þrōþung "suffering", getimbran "edify", cniht "pupil" (cf. Strang 368--69)
ۤˤϡֿΡפΰ̣ǥե󥹸줫ѸäƤnovel θ她ڥڤӥꥢб줫ʪ졨פΰ̣줿ʤɤ롥
Ѹ줬̣ߤФ¦ȤʤäƤ⤢롥ե󥹸 realizer ʤϤä򤹤ˤ introduirʾҲ𤹤ˤΤ줾θϡѸб줫μѤǤ롥ޤꥫäݥȥ engenho ϡֵѡפ̣Ѹ engine ֵؼ֡פΰ̣ѤˡֿܸסʧפϤ줾ʪŪʰ̣Τۤˡ֡ʤɤˡ˸ڤס֡աɰդʤɤʧפΰ̣Ĥб touch, pay ξĤȤαƶȤ롥

Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.

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2015-02-08 Sun

#2113. ʸˡѤξ [methodology][borrowing][contact][french_influence_on_grammar]

֤μѤȤФޤǽ˸ùܤפ⤫֤ʸˡܤμѤΤƤʤ櫓ǤϤʤʸˡѤŪޤǤ뤳Ȥϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1]) ε䡤#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) ˥󥯤ĥä¾ΤĤεǤ夲Ƥ̤źθϤʸˡѤθڤ⤤ȸĤ롥Ѹˤ˸¤äƤ⡤ʸˡѤβǽȤȤǤСȸ졤ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ե󥹸ʤɤ͡ʸ䤬󤲤Ƥ
ʸˡܤμѤϸùܤμѤƱꤷˤͳ1ĤʸˡܤŪùܤΤ褦ʶŪʤΤǤаθ줫¾θذܤäȤȤǧ䤹칽¤ޤ줿ŪʸˡܤξˤϡľܰܤäΤɤǧˤͳ2ܤϡùܤȤϤ¸ߤΤФơʸˡƤ̸ŪˤबŪʤ̵ط2ĤθƱʸˡƤΩȯȤȤ⤢뤿ᡤѤβǽäȤƤ⿵ŤʤȤ
Thomason (93--94) 󤹤ȡʸˡѤ뤤Ϲ¤Ū (structural interference) ˤϡ5򼨤ȤɬפǤ롥

(1) evidence of interference elsewhere in the language's structure
(2) to identify a source language, or at least its relative language(s)
(3) to find shared structural features in the proposed source and receiving language
(4) to show that the shared features were not present in the receiving language before it came into close contact with the source language
(5) to show that the shared features were present in the source language before it came into close contact with the receiving language.


5ĤξڵСA줫BʸˡܤѤ줿ȤϤäƸڤ뤳ȤǤȤȤȤ櫓ŪʲȤƤʸˡѤˤƤˤϡΤ褦ʾڵ·븫ߤϸ¤ʤ˶ᤤȤΤϡڵ·ˡ2ζŪʵҤξȤޤҲŪʾεҤܺ٤ˤʤƤʤФʤʤ
Ǥ⡤嵭5Τ٤ƤˤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⤢٤ʥϤ롥Τ褦ʾˤ⡤ǰΤˡʸˡܤ촳Ĥη̤ȤƤǤϤʤŪΩȯǽθɬפ롥װˤǡʸˡѤΰȤߤʤΤŤˤƲΩʸˡѤ̥ŪǿŤפǤ롥

Thomason, Sarah Grey. Language Contact. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-02-1] [2017-12-13-1]

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2015-01-05 Mon

#2079. fusion mixture [contact][borrowing][loan_word][loan_translation][bilingualism][substratum_theory][typology][register][lexical_stratification]

#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1]) ǰ򲡤褦ˡμ (borrowing) ϲǤꡤѸ (loanword) Ϸ̤Ǥ롥Weinreich Ūˤζ̤ĤԤϾʤäȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Roberts ȤԤ᤯ζ̤ˤĤƤ롥Roberts (31--32) ϡܿβ "fusion" ȸƤӡ̤ȤƤξ֤ "mixture" ȸƤʬޤRoberts "fusion" "mixture" 򤽤줾ʬȤȤˡΤ褦ʲ̤ʳˤ2ѾΥפ2ĤʬΤȤƸܿ෿Ȥ٤Τ󵯤Ƥ롥ʲRoberts (32) ο޼Ƹ褦

Roberts' Typography of Bilingualism and Contact


ľʸɤߤʤ򤷤ˤ޼ȴ¿Ѹ줬Ω¤Ǥ뤬줾ŪʻȤδ֤ߤδطȤ館ˤΤBILINGUALISM FUSION MIXTURE ȤŪ󼨤ȸ2ν̤ɾǤȤƤ⡤ʳˤĤƤѸ줬äƤݤǤꡤƤɤδطƤRoberts (31--32) ˤΤޤ޸äƤ餪

   When a bilingual situation ends, the surviving language (that is, the language whose grammar prevails) is colored in greater or less degree by the perishing language (that is, the language whose grammar succumbs). The extent of this coloring depends upon the relationship of the two languages during the antecedent bilingualism. Subordinative bilingualism results in admixture; a portion of the weaker language is added to the stronger, which still retains both its grammatical and its lexical integrity. Co-ordinative bilingualism results in intermixture; virtually the entire vocabulary of the weaker language is swallowed up by the stronger, which thereby loses its lexical, though not its grammatical, integrity.
   The words admixture and intermixture, as here used, denote accomplished situations, the results of processes. To designate the generative processes, the terms affusion and interfusion, corresponding respectively to admixture and intermixture, are proposed. Affusion has three modalities: infusion, suffusion, and superfusion. Interfusion has three stages or temporalities: diffusion, circumfusion, and retrofusion.


Affusion 鸫ƤȡInfusion ̾θμѤ롥Suffusion ϡظƶ (substratum_theory) ξظ줫θŪƶ롥Superfusion (loan_translation) 롥importation substitution ȤΩȡռŪʴĤ̵ռŪʴĤȤΩޤˤʤä褦ʬ
Interfusion ܤȡDiffusion äȼѸäѰ˴ؤʬؤƤ롥Ѹäˤ̤λع¤ʤɤˤߤФ褤 Interfusion ʳ餵˿ʤȡCircumfusion ʳȤʤ롥Ǥ㤨ƸϤ٤ƥե󥹡ƥѸǤäƤ⡤괬ǽȤʤ褦ʾ߽Ф롥ˡRetrofusion ϥ줫ΰΡפβǤꡤե󥹸θˡαƶ house beautiful, knights templars, sufficient likelihood, nocturnal darkness ʤɤɽ߽Ф롥
Roberts 2 (bilingualism) δǤΩƤ褦ȤŪǤʸ񤤤褦ǰʤ餦ޤäƤ褦ˤϻפʤϤΤܿ෿ȤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Thomason and Kaufman ˤǥ뤬ǯǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
Ѥ˴ؤȷ̤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ⻲ȡޤϢơ#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1]) εȤĥä󥯤⻲Ȥ줿

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Roberts, Murat H. "The Problem of the Hybrid Language". Journal of English and Germanic Philology 38 (1939): 23--41.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-18-1]

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2014-12-26 Fri

#2069. ؤءˡ [loan_translation][purism][borrowing][contact][language_shift][loan_word]

¾줫Ѥ硤֤򤪤褽Τޤ޼ڤ importation ȡƼڤ substitution ̤롥̤ԤϼѸ (loanword) ȸƤФ졤Ԥѡʸ (loan_translation) ȸƤФ롥٤ʬѸ Haugen ˰͵򤷤ƽ񤤤#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ˾뤬2μˡŪ礤㤷Ƥ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥
2Ĥμˡ̤ȤʤΤϡ̸θüѤθġλˤơˡǼѤ뤫ꤷƤΤϤʤװȤȤˤäơ뤤ϻˤäơ줫ޤȤΤϱѸˡܸˡ¾θˤǤǧƤꡤġη뤳ȤǤʤƱƱθġμѤλߤȡΤˤĤƤ importation ̤ΤΤˤĤƤ substitution ǤȤä롥ˤĤƤϸ̤˸ŪŪװõꡤ줾װθΤɬפΤºݾϳǧɽŪˤϼˡϥǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥ޤimportation substitution ΤʤȾ˺Ѥ֥磻פΤ褦 loanblend λ⸫졤ˡηϤʣˤʤ롥դˤĤƤϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1])#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ෿ ([2014-07-05-1])#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ǤʬŪ˿Ƥ̤
importation ǤϤʤ substitution 򤹤쳰ŪװȤƿ˻פ⤫֤ΤϡüԡʽġˤƤ뤫⤷ʤؤŪ (cf. #2068. ؤ ([2014-12-25-1])) ؤΰ夬жۤɡ¾줫μؤܤ˸ƶӽȻפΤ̤򲡤ƤǤäѤȤȤˤʤСΤޤ޼ѤǤϤʤѤ깥ޤΤ⼫Ǥ롥Τ褦ǤСΤޤ޼Ѥؤ񹳴
¾˹ͤѥ᡼ȤƤϡѤطʤˤܿꤷ2ѾʤΤ뤤üԤθؤȼΤʤΤȤ̤롥ԤǤ substitution ¿ԤǤ importation ¿ȤWeinreich (109) ". . . language shifts are characterized by word transfers, while loan translations are the typical mark of stable bilingualism without a shift" Ȥǽ˸ڤƤ롥
ǡ#1638. ե󥹸ȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥ󥰤ζ ([2013-10-21-1]) Ǽ򿶤֤ȶ̣űѸΥƥѤǤ substitution ¿äѸΥե󥹸ѤȽѸΥƥѤǤ importation ¿äơԤ2ĤθüѤȤϡΡְŪ2Ѿפ졤ΡָءפϤ᤿礦ɤΥߥ󥰤ǴѻΤǤ롥βǤϡְŪ2Ѿפȡָءפ֤ƤΤΡºݤˤϢ³ΤǤꡤΤʶߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ȤϤ롥βΤĴߤ礭ˡȤŪŪȡؤؤΤ褦ʼҲŪȤ󥯤ǽ뤫⤳ˤϴؿ󤻤Ƥ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-08-12-1] [2015-10-02-1]

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2014-12-24 Wed

#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ [contact][borrowing][loan_word][causation]

촳Ĥװ٤ˤĤơޤǰʲε͡˹ͤƤ

#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])
#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])
#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1])
#2065. ʸμѼ (2) ([2014-12-22-1])

ϡ촳Ĥ¥ʤ롦˳빽¤Ū¤ŪװˤƤޤȤ᤿ Weinreich (64--65) ˤɽǤ褦PDFǤįʤ顤Ѳ̤Ʊͤ˸촳ĤˤѲ⡤ŪŪξװˤäƾդƤǽˤ뤳ȤǧϢơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ڤ multiple causation γƵ⻲Ȥ줿

FORM OF INTERFERENCEEXAMPLESTRUCTURALNON-STRUCTURAL
STIMULIRESISTANCE FACTORSSTIMULIRESISTANCE FACTORS
All interference Any points of difference between two systemsStability of systems; requirements of intelligibilitySocial value of source (model, primary) language; bilingual interlocutors; affective speech; individual propensity for speech mixture; etc.Social value of recipient language; intolerance of interference; puristic attitudes toward recipient (secondary) language; loyalty to mother-tongue; unilingual interlocutors; etc.
Phonic     
   Under-differentiation of phonemes/d/ and /t/ not differentiatedAbsence of corresponding distinctions in primary languageFunctional yield of the distinction---Loyalty to secondary language
   Over-differentiation of phonemes[k] and [kh] treated as separate phonemesPresence of distinction (only) in primary language---------
   Reinterpretation of relevant featuresVoiceless /p/ treated as phonemically tense and only concomitantly voicelessDifferent phonemic systemsExistence of appropriate holes in the pattern------
   Phone substitution[r] for [R] where there is only one trill phonemeDifferent pronunciations equivalent phonemesDanger of confusion with another phonemeSocial value of primary languageLoyalty to secondary language
   Integration of loanwordsEnglish /rajs/ into Hawaiian /lɑiki/Difference in phonemic systems; homogeneous but different type of word structure in recipient languagePotential homonymy (?)Intolerance of recognizable loanwords; unilingualism of speakerSocial value of source language
Grammatical     
   Transfer of morphemesSlovak-German in Pressburg-u; Yiddish-English job-shmobCongruent systems, much common vocabulary, relatively unbound morphemes, greater phonemic bulkNon-congruent systems; complicated functions of morphemesAffectiveness of categoriesLoyalty to recipient language
   Transfer of grammatical relationsGerman-English I come soon homeDifferent relation patternsConflict with existing relationsAffectiveness of categoriesLoyalty to recipient language
   Change in function of "indigenous" morpheme or categoryGerman-English how long are you here?Greater explicitness of model (usually)------Loyalty to recipient language
   Abandonment of obligatory categoriesLoss of old French tense system in CreoleVery different grammatical systems---Makeshift languageLoyalty to recipient language
   Integration of loanwordsEnglish change into Amer. Portuguese chinjarHomogeneous word structure in recipient language---Intolerance of recognizable loanwords; unilingualism of speakerSocial value of source language
Lexical     
   Lexical interference as such---Structural weak points in recipient vocabulary, need to match differentiations in source languageExistence of adequate vocabularyLexical inadequacy in face of innovations; oblivion of infrequent words, need for synonyms, prestige of source language, stylistic effect of mixtureLoyalty to recipient language
   Outright transfer of words (rather than semantic extension)German Telephon rather than FernsprecherCongenial form of word; possibility of polysemy (?)Potential homonymy (?); uncongenial word formBilingualism of interlocutorsLoyalty to recipient language
   Phonic adjustment of cognatesSpanish /euˈropa/ into /juˈropa/ on English modelEconomy of a single form------Loyalty to recipient language
   Specialized retention of an "indigenous" word after borrowing of an equivalentFrench chose, retained and distinguished from causeNo confusion in semantemesElimination of superfluous terms------


Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2014-12-22 Mon

#2065. ʸμѼ (2) [contact][borrowing][loan_word][anthropology][sociolinguistics][speed_of_change][exaptation]

ε#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ³ʸμѤˤߤ붦ˤĤơʸΰȤСѤ˺ݤƤξԤδ֤˶뤳ȤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ⤷ʤޤꤳΤ褦ʻӤϤƤʤäȻפΤǡηˤĤƤθڤߤĤȡʤۤɤȴƤޤ
ƱͤˡWeinreich Linton (Linton, Ralph, ed. Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes. New York, 1940) ˰͵򤷤ʤ顤ʤ붦2ĤۤɻŦƤ롥1Ĥϡ¸θƱ줬¾줫Ѥ˴ؤ롥Ǥ˼¸ߤƱ줬¾줫Ѥˤϡ(1) ξΰ̣˺Ʊ롤(2) Ѹ줬֤롤(2) ξθ줬̣㤨ʤ鶦¸롤Τ줫Ȥ롥(3) ƻʤɤʸŪʹܤμѤˤĤƤ뤳ȤǤϤʤWeinreich (55fn) ۩

Similarly in culture contact. "The substitution of a new culture element," Linton writes . . ., "by no means always results in the complete elimination of the old one. There are many cases of partial . . . replacement. . . . Stone knives may continue to be used for ritual purposes long after the metal ones have superseded them elsewhere."


¸ιबòʤɤʤ餢ޤĤȤϡʸˡʤɤܤƤ exaptation ˤӤ (cf. #1586. ʬβ̶ʬ ([2013-08-30-1]))
ʸμѤˤߤ2ܤζϡѤ¥ʤװ˳װ˴ؤΤǤ롥μѼ٤η˴Ϳװϡ¤ŪʸŪˤʤΤ¤Ūʸ쳰ŪˤʤΤ2ʬ롥ԤϸηϤؤٹ礤˴ؤꡤԤ㤨2ѼԤνȯäξܿμҲʸŪĶʤɤޤʡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ⻲)Weinreich (66--67fn)ϡʸؼԤƶ˿ʤ顤ʸμѤˤƱͤ˹¤Ū¤ŪװǧȤƤ롥

Distinctions parallel to those between stimuli and resistance, structural and non-structural factors, occur implicitly in studies of acculturation, too. Thus, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits . . . distinguish culture traits "presented" (=stimuli) from those "selected" in acculturation situations, and stress the "significance of understanding the resistance to traits as well as the acceptance of them." They also name "congruity of existing culture-patterns" as a reason for a selection of traits; this corresponds to structural stimuli in language contact. When Linton observes . . . that "new things are borrowed on the basis of their utility, compatibility with preëxisting culture patterns, and prestige associations," his three factors are equivalent, roughly, to structural stimuli of interference, structural resistance, and nonstructural stimuli, respectively. Kroeber . . . devotes a special discussion to resistance against diffusion. Resistance to cultural borrowing is also the subject of a separate article by Devereux and Loeb . . ., who distinguish between "resistance to the cultural item"---corresponding roughly to structural resistance in language contact---and "resistance to the lender." These authors also discuss resistance ON THE PART OF the "lender," e.g. the attempts of the Dutch to prevent Malayans, by law, from learning the Dutch language. No equivalent lender's resistance seems to operate in language contact, unless the inconspicuousness of a strongly varying, phonemically slight morpheme with complicated grammatical functions be considered as a point of resistance to transfer within the source language . . . .


Τ褦ʸȸˤѤӤϡؤʸؤȤγغŪʸꡤؤθơޤˤʤ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2014-12-21 Sun

#2064. ʸμѼ (1) [contact][borrowing][loan_word][anthropology][sociolinguistics][loan_translation]

μѼ (scale of adoptability) ˤĤơ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤŪˤϡäǤеǽƸ줬Ūʰ̣ĸ϶Ūʰ̣ĸΤ֤ۤǤμѤưפǤ롥ΤȤϳΤľˤ礦٤ϼ¾ڤƤ⤤롥
Whitney, Haugen, Moravcsik, Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤƱѤؤδؿ Weinreich (35) μѼ٤ˤĤƹ͵椷Ƥ뤬礤Ϥ俵ŤǤ롥

It may be possible to range the morpheme classes of a language in a continuous series from the most structurally and syntagmatically integrated inflectional ending, through such "grammatical words" as prepositions, articles, or auxiliary verbs, to full-fledged words like nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and on to independent adverbs and completely unintegrated interjections. Then this hypothesis might be set up: The fuller the integration of the morpheme, the less likelihood of its transfer. A scale of this type was envisaged by Whitney in 1881 . . . and by many linguistics since. Haugen . . . discusses it as the "scale of adoptability," without, perhaps, sufficiently emphasizing its still hypothetical nature as far as bilinguals' speech is concerned. It should be clear how much painstaking observation and analysis is necessary before this hypothesis can be put to the test.


Weinreich ˴ؤǡ׸򤷤ƤΤϡμѤʸμ (acculturation) δ֤ŦƤ뤳ȤΰѤƱڡεˡΤ褦ˤ롥

Students of acculturation face a similar problem---almost equally unexplored---of rating culture elements according to their transferability. "It seems," says Linton in a tentative remark . . ., "that, other things [e.g. prestige associations] being equal, certain sorts of culture elements are more easily transferable than others. Tangible objects such as tools, utensils, or ornaments are taken over with great ease, in fact they are usually the first things transferred in contact situations. . . . The transfer of elements which lack the concreteness and ready observability of objects is the most difficult of all. . . . In general, the more abstract the element, the more difficult the transfer."


ˤʸˤ衤ζȼѲǽϢƤȤȤޤǤϻĤʤϡΤȤȼѤimportation substitution ȤˤȤδ֤ˤⲿ餫شطꤦȤȤ㤨СŪʸʸϡݤˡפ˥ǥΤޤ޼뷹 (importation) äꡤդŪʤΤϡפƼ෹ (substitution or loan_translation) äꤹ뤤ϡषդη򼨤Τ
Ѥˤ importation substitution ˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1])#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ෿ ([2014-07-05-1]) ʤɤǰäƤˤȤɤޤ餺礭ʸˤʤꤦȤȤ⤷ʤ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2014-12-18 Thu

#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳 [contact][borrowing][bilingualism][loan_word][lexical_diffusion][terminology][language_change]

μ (borrowing) ȼѸ (loanword) Ȥϰۤʤ롥ԤϲǤꡤԤϷ̤Ǥ롥ξԤ̤ɬפˤĤơ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǰäƤ̤Ǥ롥
ܿʬ᤯餳ζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤĥƤԤ1ͤˡWeinreich (11) 롥

In speech, interference is like sand carried by a stream; in language, it is the sedimented sand deposited on the bottom of a lake. The two phases of interference should be distinguished. In speech, it occurs anew in the utterances of the bilingual speaker as a result of his personal knowledge of the other tongue. In language, we find interference phenomena which, having frequently occurred in the speech of bilinguals, have become habitualized and established. Their use is no longer dependent on bilingualism. When a speaker of language X uses a form of foreign origin not as an on-the-spot borrowing from language Y, but because he has heard it used by others in X-utterances, then this borrowed element can be considered, from the descriptive viewpoint, to have become a part of LANGUAGE X.


ȤƤμѤȷ̤ȤƤμѸϸ촳 (interference) 2Ĥΰۤʤ̤Ǥ롥Ԥ parole ˡԤ langue °ȸƤ褤⤷ʤ³ Weinreich Ʊڡεǡζ̤νǧƤԸϾʤȤʤ顤ʲθ˿Ƥ롥

The only one to have drawn the theoretical distinction seems to be Roberts (450, 31f.), who arbitrarily calls the generative process "fusion" and the accomplished result "mixture." In anthropology, Linton (312, 474) distinguishes in the introduction of a new culture element "(1) its initial acceptance by innovators, (2) its dissemination to other members of the society, and (3) the modifications by which it is finally adjusted to the preexisting culture matrix."


ä˿ؼ Linton ΰʬܤʸޤȹͤʸŪǤƳˤ3ʳ̤ȤŦ뤬ϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ (1) potential for change, (3) diffusion, (2) implementation ˴ˤ䤫бƤ褦˻פ롥ѤϡѸμơ硤ȤʳФʤʹԤƤȤμѤˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʣŪưŪʤȤ館ɬפǤ롥"dissemination" "diffusion" ΥơȴϢơóȻ (lexical_diffusion) γƵȤ櫓#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-08-1] [2015-01-05-1]

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2014-10-29 Wed

#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ [contact][borrowing][loan_word][implicational_scale]

ε#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ǰѤ Moravcsik ϡɤΤ褦ʸबѤ䤹ʤɡѤˤĤŪʹͻäƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1]) Ǥ夲Ѽ (scale of adoptability) Ǥ롥
Moravcsik (110--13) ϡѤζȤ7ܤ󤲤Ƥ롥ʲιܤʬΤߤվ񤭤ȴФ

(1) No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexical items from the same source language.
(2) No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the class of properties borrowed from a particular source language unless some members of another constituent class are also so included which do serve as domains of accentuation and which properly include the same members of the former class.
(3) No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this class also includes at least one noun.
(4) A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
(5) No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed from a language unless at least one derivational affix also belongs to the set.
(6) A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) cannot be included in the set of properties borrowed from a language unless the rule that determines its linear order with respect to its head is also so included.
(7) Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that class are not inflected in that language, if the language has borrowed lexical items that belong to that constituent class, at least some of these must also be uninflected.


äƤޤäǤꡤ䤱ʣʰݤͿ뤬줾פȤФǸ񤷤ȤǤϤʤľŪˤ⤢ʤȤǤꡤŤ Haugen Thomason and Kaufman ŦƤतδްռ (implicational_scale) ؤθڤǤ롥(1) ϡùܤμѤʤùܡʸˡܤʤɡˤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(2) ϡ«Ǥޤ༫ͳŵŪˤϸˤΩƼѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ(3) ϡ̾μѤʤ̾ΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(4) ϡư줬Ọ̇̄򤽤Τޤݤäޤ޼Ѥ뤳ȤϤʤȤ㤨СܸΡ֥ܥåȤפʤɤϥưλ٤ư첽ƤΤǤꡤѸư boycott ΤޤưȤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ϡǤμѤʤ޷ǤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(6) ϡ㤨ֻβỌ̇̄ΤߤѤ졤֤Ȥ쵬§ΤϼѤʤȤȤϤꤨʤȤʤĤޤꡤֻѤƤʤ顤ֻȤѤȤ褦ϤʤȤˡ(7) ϡǤ̵޷¸ߤˤ⤫餺¾줫μѸϰ̵޷ǤϤꤨʤȤϤʤȤ
Moravcsik ϰʾиŪƳФ줿ΤȤƤ뤫顤θθȿ㤬ĤʤѹɬפȤʤϤǤ롥ˤ Moravcsik Ƥ϶ˤƹ¤ŪʡŪȯۤ˴ŤǤꡤߤθܿǽŻ뤵ƤѼԸĿͤο䤽νĤμҲŪʤɤδϤܴۤ˼ξݤƤcf. #1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])ˡȤлʤΤŪؤδؿƤȤϤΤΡ¤Ūʻˤȿ;ϤϻĤƤΤǤϤʤȤפ෿Ω줫顤ްռ٤εҤ̲ƤȤǤ

Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.

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2014-10-28 Tue

#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 [borrowing][contact][terminology][neolinguistics]

ε#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǡּѡ (borrowing) ʤɤѸ˸ڤ̩ˤСˤּѡפȤѸ̷ϤǤ롥A줫BؤबּѡפȤBˤ錄ΤϤθʣʥԡˤǤꡤΤA˻ĤΤΡּѡפδŪȡѸ̷ˤĤƤϡ#44. ּѡפˤߤ ([2009-06-11-1]) ǸȤǤ롥
Ѥι¤Ū Moravcsik (99 fn) ⡤ѸȤƤμѤȡ̤ˤʪμѤȤΥˤĤưʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Needless to say, this use of the term "borrowing" is very different from the way the term is used in everyday language. Whereas, according to everyday usage, an object is borrowed if it passes from the use of the owner into the temporary use of someone else and thus at no point in time is it being used by both, according to linguistic usage the source language may continue to include the particular property that has been "borrowed" from it. Thus, what the latter implies is 'permanently' acquiring a copy of an object,' rather than 'temporarily' acquiring an object itself.'


ʤۤɡˤѤϡ֥ԡʵŪ˳뤳ȡפȤŦǼǤ롥ϡε ([2009-06-11-1]) (3) ˤĤƽҤ٤Τ򤷤Ƥ褤顤ѲγȻȤϳ׿ŪʸΥԡüԤ餽ٿͤذư뤳ȤϢ³ǤȤǽȤʤ롥
ˤѡʤ뤤ϤŪ˸ѲγȻˤȤϡԡʤϢ³ˤǤȤȴϢƻפФΤϡꥢο (neolinguistics) ΩϡѲγȻ˺ݤƤΤϥԡǤϤʤȸڤ롥üԤٿͤ׿ŪʸΡʣ (copy) äƤΤǤϤʤθ (imitation) 뤤ϡֺ¤ (re-creation) ƤΤȼĥ롥Bonfante (356) ۩

The neolinguists assert that linguistic creations, whether phonetic, morphological, syntactic, or lexical, spread by imitation. Imitation is not a slavish copying; it is the re-creation of an impulse or spiritual stimulus received from outside, a re-creation which gives to the linguistic fact a new shape and a new spirit, the imprint of the speaker's own personality.


ˤƼѤȤѸ줬̷򤫤ƤȤŪ꤫ȯơΤˤϥԡʣˤȸƤ֤٤Ȥ夤Ȼפ䡤ؤλ顤䤽Ǥ¤ǤȤƤФ줿#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤ󤸤ѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǤҤ٤ؤθѤˤϡüԸĿͤ¤Ż뤹롥ػˤˤƿؤϼήɤˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤȤʤäƤȾ˺줿¸ߤԻ׵Ĥ̥Ϥäɾ٤ɤȻפ

Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.

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2014-10-27 Mon

#2009. ؤˤܿ2 [contact][borrowing][bilingualism][terminology][code-switching]

ɸ˵󤲤ѸϡܿʬѽФѸǤꡤͤŪˤⶦͭƤ褦˻פ롥٤ߤФϸԤˤۤʤäƤꡤŪ˵뤿ˤϡǧƤɬפΤѸ췲Ǥ⤢롥㤨 (borrowing) ȤѸ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡ񤷤ϤǤ롥
ε#2008. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡܿʬζ1ĤȤ Weinreich Languages in Contact 󤲤롥ƬˡɸѸͿƤ롥

   In the present study, two or more languages will be said to be IN CONTACT if they are used alternately by the same persons. The language-using individuals are thus the locus of the contact.
   The practice of alternately using two languages will be called BILINGUALISM, and the persons involved, BILINGUAL. Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be refereed to as INTERFERENCE phenomena. It is these phenomena of speech, and their impact on the norms of either language exposed to contact, that invite the interest of the linguist. (Weinreich 1)


ΰѤ³ǡ¤Ω줫顤"interference" Ϲ¤ȤؤްդΤǤȤΤ褦ʴްդĤȤϸ¤ʤ "borrowing" Ȥ϶̤٤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥¤ȤؤȼʤɽŪʸäμѤʤɤؤ "borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤȤƤ⡤äμѤȤƴ¸θạ̈ι¤˱ƶͿ뤳Ȥꤦʾ塤"borrowing" ȤѸλѤˤϿŤǤ٤Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
ܽκμĥ1Ĥ嵭Ѥ2ʸʤʤܽ2ʸˤ˽󤵤Ƥ롥ܿξϡХ󥬥ĿͤǤȤȤޤХ󥬥ȤѸϺ¤˹ᤵƤ뤳Ȥˤդ줿̤鷺2ĤѼ˰ۤʤ줫˶ᤤޤˤ餫ͼǺ礷ؤꤹѤ bilingualism ǤꡤĿͤ bilingual Ǥ롥äơˤСñʤΡּѡפ⡤츫ȹ٤ʵѤˤߤ code-switching ⡤Ȥ bilingualism ȤȤˤʤ롥ơΰĤҤȤĤζŪʸθ줬ĤȤȤˤʤ롥
줯餤ȡϢƹͤ뤢븽ݤܿȤʤ롥ѸΥХȤ뤤ϵΤ褵ε ([2014-10-26-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬ̵¤γƤȤȤ⤷ʤ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2014-10-07 Tue

#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ [borrowing][contact][pragmatics][discourse_marker][subjectification][intersubjectification][evolution]

ܿʬǤϡѤ䤹Ϥ뤫ȤꡤʤѼ (scale of adoptability, or borrowability scale) äƵ깭ƤThomason and Kaufman ϼѤʤϤʤƤ뤬ȤƤѤ䤹ܤȤǤʤܤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ʤɤǵΰüߤƤŪʴˤ٤ä褽ɽȤ뼫Ωι⤤֤ǤѤ䤹ǡ޷Ǥʤɤι«줿֤³ȤäΤʤ˲졤̣ʤɤμѤ⺮äƤ뤬ϽȤƤŪΤۤǤ롥
Ω줬ǤѤ䤹ŪʸˡܤǤѤˤȤŪʼ٤ϡľŪˤ䤹ġ㳰ŪʻϤˤ衤褽ƱդƤȤäƤ褤ȤǡŪʴǤϤʤǽŪʴˤѼ٤ȤΤϤˤĤ Matras (209--10) ̣Ŧ򤷤Ƥ롥

. . . it was proposed that borrowing hierarchies are sensitive to functional properties of discourse organization and speaker-hearer interaction. Items expressing contrast and change are more likely to be borrowed than items expressing addition and continuation. Discourse markers such as tags and interjections are on the whole more likely to be borrowed than conjunctions, and categories expressing attitudes to propositions (such as focus particles, phrasal adverbs like still or already, or modals) are more likely to be borrowed than categories that are part of the propositional content itself (such as prepositions, or adverbs of time and place). Contact susceptibility is thus stronger in categories that convey a stronger link to hearer expectations, indicating that contact-related change is initiated through the convergence of communication patterns . . . . In the domain of phonology and phonetics, sentence melody, intonation and tones appear more susceptible to borrowing than segmental features. One might take this a step further and suggest that contact first affects those functions of language that are primary or, in evolutionary perspective, primitive. Reacting to external stimuli, seeking attention, and seeking common ground with a counterpart or interlocutor. Contact-induced language change thus has the potential to help illuminate the internal composition of the grammatical apparatus, and indeed even its evolution.


ղûϤȤɸ (discourse_marker) ٤ɽ魯ʤɡʹռߥ˥εǽɽΤۤ̿ŪؼŪʵǽɽѤ䤹ȤŦǤ롥ɸϤƤʸ¾ǤΩƤ롤뤤ϴΩƤϤʤȤ⡤٤ʬΥǽݻƤ롥ĤޤꡤεǽŪʴˤ٤ϡŪΩ伫ͳ٤ȴϢƤ¤ˤơηŪʴˤ٤Ȥ̷⤷ʤषηŪʴΤʤ˼ޤʹˤʤΤǤϤʤ
ȡޤǹͻȤǡΰѤθȾǽҤ٤Ƥ첻˴ؤѼ٤ΤǤϡʬ᲻֤֤겻פǤαΧŪǤΤۤѤ䤹Ȥ롥ηŪʴǤϡʬ᲻䲻ǤμѤؤθڤϤäΧŪǤμѤϤۤȤˤ줿ȤʤΤǤϤʤʺε#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1]) (6) 򻲾ȡˡΧŪǤŪ˼Ѥ䤹ȤŦȹ碌ơѤȾʬƤɾȡǽŪʼѼ٤Ƥ˰롥äʹΥߥ˥ľܴͿࡤСʴ֡˼ޤबǤʤΤѤ䤹ȤΤϡεǽȤߤơΤ˹Ūοʲ (evolution) ؤƶˤڤǤꡤɷŪǤ롥
Τ褦˰츫ʤۤɤȻפ碌ǤϤ뤬Ѥ줿ܤοȤߤȡdiscourse marker μѤϡʳ̿ŪؼŪʵǽɽŵŪˤ̾ưˤ٤ơŪ˾ʤȤϵ褦ʤŪʴȵǽŪʴबߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطǺѤѼ٤ƤΤ¿λ㸦椬ɬפˤʤäƤ

Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.

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2014-10-06 Mon

#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) [loan_word][borrowing][contact][pragmatics][methodology][bilingualism][code-switching][discourse_marker]

Treffers-Daller μѤ˴ؤʸ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸɤߡ#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) դ­٤ܤ¿뤳ȤΤäʲˡĤƤߤ롥

(1) ѤˤϸѲβ1ĤȤƹͻ٤¦̤뤬θǤϼȤƸŪ¦̤ܤƤܿǤˤ⤫餺쳰Ū¦̤ιͻҲŪʻ­ʤäΤǤϤʤŪˤϡѤηȻɾθ椬٤Ƥ롥Treffers-Dalle (17--18) ΰʲλŦ狼䤹

. . . researchers have mainly focused on what Weinreich, Herzog and Labov (1968) have called the embedding problem and the constraints problem. . . . Other questions have received less systematic attention. The actuation problem and the transition problem (how and when do borrowed features enter the borrowing language and how do they spread through the system and among different groups of borrowing language speakers) have only recently been studied. The evaluation problem (the subjective evaluation of borrowing by different speaker groups) has not been investigated in much detail, even though many researchers report that borrowing is evaluated negatively.


(2) ѸΤߤʤ餺ܿΥơΤ˴ؤ뤬ǯϥ󥿡ͥåȤϤȤǥȯŸˤꡤѤεʪŪʾ¸ߤȤʤʤäƤĤޤꡤܿμѤäƤȤȤǤꡤѲϼѡʸˤμ̤ˤƶڤܤ

Due to modern advances in telecommunication and information technology and to more extensive traveling, members within such groupings, although not being physically adjacent, come into close contact with one another, and their language and communicative behaviors in general take on features from a joint pool . . . . (Meeuwis and Östman 38)


(3) Ūʸ桥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ "scale of adoptability" (or "borrowability scale") βˤĤơ2ѼԤäեѥѤƸڤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤOttawa-Hull Υե󥹸ˤѸѤ䡤ե󥹸ȥ2쥳ѥˤѤηڥȥ奢2¸女ѥˤʬϤʤɤϤƤ롥

(4) ˤѤȤʥ뤬ڤ곫ĤĤ롥ޤοϾʤ2ѼԤˤɸ (discourse marker) õǽμѤλ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥

(5) 嵭 (3) (4) Ȥط뤬2ѼԤμѤ˺ݤ뿴ŪʥץŪʬǤ롥#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡcode-switching ȤδϢȤʤ롥

(6) ȥ͡ꥺʤɱΧŪǤμ̡

ƺǿμѸϡηϤȤδϢˤƸȤϡüԸĿͤ뤤ϼҲȤδϢˤƸؿܤƤƤ褦ޤ̤ȤƤμѸ (loanword) ܤȤϡȤƤμ (borrowing) ܤȤؿѲ⤢褦
ĿͤȤƤϡ跿θηϤȤδϢˤƤμѤθˤƤ⡤ޤ­ʤȤϤȹͤƤ롥㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ʤɤϡ¿;ϤĤƤȻפäƤ롥

Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. "Borrowing." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 17--35.
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.

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2014-10-03 Fri

#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ [contact][loan_word][borrowing][sociolinguistics][language_change][causation][substratum_theory][code-switching][pidgin][creole][koine][koineisation]

#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ񤷤¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվ񤭤ǵ

(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼󤬳ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ򤷹礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤ŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե󥹸 magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥Х󥬥θĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ

borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳Ȥ򲡤Ƥ

Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.

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2014-08-24 Sun

#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ [typology][loan_word][latin][oe][christianity][borrowing][statistics]

#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ³ơűѸΥƥѸꡥűѸˤƥѸοϡˤ뤬ɴĤȤ롥򻲾Ȥ Miller (53) ϡο600--700ĤۤɤȸѤäƤ롥

Old English had some 600--700 loanwords from Latin, about 500 of which are common to Northwest Germanic . . ., and 287 of which are ultimately from Greek, seventy-nine via Christianity . . . .


ĿȤȤ˳ꤷΤϤ줾μѸμǯǤ롥[2013-04-03-1]εǤϡSerjeantson ˽äƼǯ (i) Φ塤(ii) c. 450--c. 650, (iii) c. 650--c. 1100 3ʬƼ¿ԤˤäƺѤƤŪʻʬǤ롥ȤۤܽŤʤ뤬4μѤȤäʲ4ʬƤƤ롥

(1) continental borrowings
(2) insular borrowings during the settlement phase [c. 450--600]
(3) borrowings [600+] from christianization
(4) learned borrowings that accompanied and followed the Benedictine Reform [c10e]

4ʬ򤵤˺٤ Dennis H. Green (Language and History in the Early Germanic World. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.) ˤʬ⤢ꡤMiller (54) Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥줾ħˤĤ Miller Ѥ˴ñդ

(1a) an early continental phase, when the Angles and Saxons were in Schleswig-Holstein (contact with merchants) and on the North Sea littoral as far as the mouth of the Ems (direct contact with the Romans)
ϾʤȤƾȸ줬¿ޤξʡƻʤɡwine ŵ㡥
(1b) a later continental period, when the Angles and Saxons had penetrated to the litus Saxonicum (Flanders and Normandy)
饤ϸǥ޿ͤȤľܿƼѤ줿Ȼפ street, tile ŵ㡥
(2a) an early phase, featuring possible borrowing via Celtic
λ°ȻפϡꥢäƤ¯ƥȲŪ˰פƤꡤ֥ƥǤμѤɤϵ路Ȥ⤤롥
(2b) a later phase, with loans from the continental Franks as part of their influence across the Channel, especially on Kent
(3) begins "with the coming of Augustine and his 40 companions in 597, and possibly even at an earlier date, with the arrival of Bishop Liudhard in the retinue of Queen Bertha of Kent in the 560s"
λμѸϸűѸβѲۤȤɼʤǡ¾λΤΤȰۤʤäƤ롥¿϶ƥѸǤ롥
(4) of a learned nature, culled from classical Latin texts, and differ little from the classical written form

ºݤˤϡޤǺ٤ȤꤷƤ⡤Ѹ򤤤ȤˤϤ٤οäƷ褹뤳Ȥ񤷤continental insular Ȥ绨ĤʬǤ񤷤ۣ early later 餤դȤȤ⾯ʤʤ

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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