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borrowing - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-28 00:27

2013-08-27 Tue

#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ [french][lexicology][loan_word][etymology][popular_passage][diglossia][borrowing][register][lexical_stratification][animal]

#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) εǡѸˤͭ̾ calf vs veal, deer vs venison, fowl vs poultry, sheep vs mutton, swine (pig) vs pork, bacon, ox vs beef θ򸫤ޤˤ줤ʡֱѸ vs ե󥹸ѸפȤʤäƤꡤʤۤɤεǰˤκ򤬤뤳Ȥϡ#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ǤߤȤܤä줿ե󥹸äȤŪʸճؤιޤ򼨤ȤƤβͤѤʤʱѸäع¤ε򻲾ȡˡ
[2010-03-24-1]εǤ⿨줿Ȥꡤưʪθͭ̾ˤΤ Sir Walter Scott (1771--1832) Ǥ롥Scott ϡ1819ǯ˾ Ivanhoe Τʤоʪ˼Τ褦˸餻Ƥ롥

"The swine turned Normans to my comfort!" quoth Gurth; "expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed, to read riddles."
"Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about on their four legs?" demanded Wamba.
"Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, "every fool knows that."
"And swine is good Saxon," said the Jester; "but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung up by the heels, like a traitor?"
"Pork," answered the swine-herd.
"I am very glad every fool knows that too," said Wamba, "and pork, I think, is good Norman-French; and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast among the nobles what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?"
"It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's pate."
"Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba, in the same tone; "there is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in the like manner; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment."


ʩóؤϡѸʻˡˤ˴ؿΤ¿ο͡˥ԡ뤹뤬䤬˴ؿ󤻤ƤΤϡȤ櫓ҲŪ diglossia ȸŪ register δؤ礤εˤƤǤ롥#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ڤӡ#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1]) 褦ˡѸ diglossia ˴ŤҲŪʾ岼طκפŪ register ξ岼طȤüԤθ (lexicon) ΤʤȿǤƤ̣ҲŪʡʤ쳰ŪΩɤΤ褦ˤηŪʡʤŪΩžΤϡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) Ǽ夲ޥҲ (macro-sociolinguistics or sociology of language) ȥߥҲ (micro-sociolinguistics) Ȥˤ̤롥Ҳ¤ȸηϤϤɤΤ褦Ϣ³ƤΤ뤤ϤɤΤ褦䤷ƤΤ
Scott λŦ swine vs pork Ω켫ΤϡŪʺۤȤϰ̣ŪʡʻؼоݤΡ˺ۤŪʾ嵭˴Ū˴ؤäƤ롥

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2013-07-01 Mon

#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ [word_formation][japanese][timeline][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][compounding][affix][buddhism]

ʲˡѸܸθûˡˤоȤǤ褦ɽ줾λˤäħվ񤭤ˤΤǤ롥#1524. Ѹˤλʬ ([2013-06-29-1]) ȡ#1525. ܸˤλʬ ([2013-06-30-1]) Ǥ줾θλʬ򼨤ξԤ줤˽Ťʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɽǤϤ褽ζʬDz¤ӤˤѸ¦Ǥŵ򻲾Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤ¿ܥ֥Ǥ͡ʷǿƤΤǡɸ䥫ƥ꡼ѤƴϢ뵭ˤɤĤȤǤϤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ѸθˤĤƤϡ#883. Algeo ο쥽ʬ (1) ([2011-09-27-1]) 濴ȤƵǺ٤äƤΤǡ׻ȡܸ¦ϡإ꡼ܸ2ûˡ (p. 7) θûǯɽ˵ä

Old English* Germanic vocabulary¸ʤޤȤȤСˤʬ᤿
* monosyllabic bases2줬ܡ
* derivation and compoundingȤθήǴ줬Ѥ줿㡧㡡㡡ʤʤʩȤȤ줿ȤФˤϡ´̡ספΤ褦ʸ奤ɸ᥵󥹥åȸˤޤޤƤ롥
* Christianity-related vocabulary from Latin (some via Celtic)줬ڤ㡧ʤʤˡ©ʤˡǰڡʤˤˡܡʤȤߡˤ
* few Celtic wordsʸȴʸɸȤʸξΩ롥㡧ߥˡҸߤˡӢҥˡʷɸˡӢʷɸ
Middle English* Old Norse loanwords including basic wordsʣˤäơƻ줬¤줿
* a great influx of French words줬̲
* an influx of Latin technical wordsŸ졦θ졦˼ʤɡ꺹ˤĤƤǧ¸ߤ
Modern English* a great influx of Latin loanwordsαΤײɤळȤФ㡧ʤɤˡػҡʤˡġʤդȤˡƬʤޤ¤夦
* Greek loanwords directlyꥹȶ붵դ衤ޤ̾طʤɤˤꡤݥȥ줬Ѥ줿㡧ѥ󡡥륿ܥ󡡥åѡҹ籩
* loanwords from various languages줬̲˿Ʃ
* Shakespeare's vocabularyؤʬ˱Ƹäΰ꺹ޤä
* scientific vocabularyؤȤδطǥ줬Ѥ줿㡧륳롡᥹åס
Present-Day English* shorteningȤơ¤줬޷ä롥㡧ůءҡŴƻ̱
* many Japanese loanwordsƸɮƬȤơե󥹸졤ɥĸ졤ꥢʤɤγ줬ä롥
* compounding revivedĹʣάά줬¿Ѥ롥
* loanwords decreased 


ξȤ˼ѤȤʤǸä˭ˤƤȤ狼ʸˤȸμѤˤϾ̩ܤʴطˤ뤬Ѹܸθû˰ʾˤΤȤǡ¤˼ΤϤޤʤ෿ŪˤŪˤΥ줿ξ줬ûˤˤ¿ζäƤ뤳ȤõƤ

ȡƣ Ⱦ 졤ƣ 㲡إ꡼ܸ2ûˡ١ȽŹ2009ǯ

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2013-05-29 Wed

#1493. Ѹʤ̱ [latin][borrowing][semantic_change][word_formation][sign][loan_translation][lexicology][terminology][neo-latin][morphology][romancisation][false_friend][waseieigo]

ε#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 ([2013-05-28-1]) ǡѸȸƤФˤĤ̻ŪŪξͻ¤ΤȤιͻϱѸäˤۤȤɤΤޤƤϤޤ롥ܸȱѸδطϱѸȥƥδط
ѸˤˤơǤĹؤäƤϥƥǤ롥Φˤäޥλƥ줫äѤƤűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƥƥѸäΰӤ뤲ʹߤϥꥷȤȤ˼Ȥ neo-classical compounding Ȥ̤ơѸä˱ƶڤܤ³Ƥ (##1437,32,120,1211,478γƵ򻲾) ơѸϤĹܿˤΤʤǡƥθ§򼫤η˼Ǥ[2013-02-08-1]ε#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§סˡ
ơε (1) Ǥϡ˥ǥȤʤ signe ¸ߤĤ줬Ȥ줿ɤǡѸ줫Ѹ줫̤ȽҤ٤ƱȤϡѸȥƥˤĤƤ롥Ѹ줬ηϤⲽƥ쵬§˴Ťȼ˥ƥñ夲硤ϱǤ[2010-05-24-1]ε#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽פ򻲾ȡˡƥ˴¸Υǥ򻲾ȤƼϡƥѸǤ롥ξüδ֤Ūʥ졼󤬹äƤΤܸξƱͤǤ롥ܸξϡεǡֱѸ첣ʸʥʡ˸פȤ٥¨ʤ󼨤Ѹξ "Latinate word" ʥƥñˤȤѸ줬ѰդƤ롥ϱޤषƥѸޤषΤ狼ʤƥγäޤࡥ
ε (2) Ǥϡ֤¦̤顤ѸδĤƷ줿ܸñ4ĤʬषƱͤˡƥδĤƷ줿ñ4Ĥʬष褦

(a) ƥб signe ¸ߤ륿סʼѸŵŪ
(b) ƥб signifié ¸ߤ뤬 signifiant ϰۤʤ륿סѸŵŪ
(c) ƥб signifiant ¸ߤ뤬 signifié ϰۤʤ륿ס"false friends" 뤤 "faux amis" ŵŪ
(d) ƥб signe ¸ߤʤסʱŵŪ

Ѹ򤵤ʤƥüԤꤹȡüԤϱѸüԤˤäȯ줿 (c) (d) Τ褦ʸʹȡƬξ˥ϥƥʤ⤫֤ȤϡѸüԤѸʹȤƱȿǤ롥ѸˤƤ⡤Ѹ˰̣㤨Ƥ (c) Ǥ tradition ([2011-11-27-1]ε#944. ration reasonפ򻲾ȡˤ䡤(d) Ǥ antidisestablishmentarianism [2010-05-24-1]ε#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽פ򻲾ȡˤΤ褦ʸä䤷Ƥ椯Ȥˤäơ˭ɽϤ˻äΤǤ롥
ܸꡥ¾줫θüѤŪǤˤäƤϡ(a)--(d) Τ٤ƤΥפ¿쾯ʤ츫ΤʤΤǤϤʤѸϡ̣򤽤ȥԥåȤƤФм夲뤬̸ŪˤϷ褷ðۤʸݤǤϤʤΤ

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2013-05-28 Tue

#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 [japanese][borrowing][semantic_change][word_formation][terminology][sign][loan_translation][lexicology][morphology][false_friend][waseieigo]

#1471. golden ߽ФѲ ([2013-05-07-1]) εǡ֥ǥ󥦥 (Golden Week) Ȥܸɽ˿줿ȤѸȤƾҲ𤷤ƱؤΥȤꡤѸ춵˴ؤͭȤIs ǥ󥦥 wasei-eigo?ȤؤΥ󥯤򤤤ʤ꤬ȤޤˡεˤȡGoogle Books Ngram Viewer (see [2010-12-25-1]) Ǹ򤫤ȡgolden week Ȥɽ1951ǯ˱Ѹ¸ߤȤȤ狼Υڡ򻲾ȡˡ[2010-12-25-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡľΤȤ Google Books ΥѥȤƤɾϤˤȹͤƤ뤬ʤȤƱ¸ߤϻ¤ǤȼƤ褤Ѹ golden week ˡ緿Ϣ١פʤä櫓ǤϤʤޤǡ֡ʲΤ褦ˡ餷֡פۤɤΰ̣ѤƤ褦ơΤ褦ʾ˴դߤơϤܸΡ֥ǥ󥦥פѸȤߤʤƤ褤Τɤ
䤤ˤ͡¦̤Ȼפ뤬 (1) ̻֤¦̤ (2) ֤¦̤롥֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫ɤȤ䤤ϡäѤ (1) λȯ䤤Ǥꡤܸûˤܸ츻ؤˤƤϽפ(2) λϤ䤤ϤޤܼŪǤϤʤΤΡŪܸŪꤲȤǤƱ餤̣ʲ (1) (2) Τ줾ˤĤƵ

(1) ̻֤¦
ܸѸȤѸθ̩ǤΤϤĤѸ켭ŵ򻲾ȤƤȽȤʤäѸŵȤƵ󤲤֥ʥס֥Хåߥ顼פΤ褦㤫餽ħФСֱѸͳˤηǤѸε§˳§äȤ߹碌뤳ȤˤäƷܸȤƤθפȤȤˤʤꤽϡ (signifiant) ܸηǹԤʤƤѸΥǥ򻲾ȤƤʤ˾ƤǤ롥ޤϡθ̣ѲɤѸصռѤ줿ɤʤɤθȯŸˤϸڤʤǤꡤäѤܤȤ롥
ѸΩϡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥Ѹ¦ΥǥȤʤ뵭 (signe) 򻲾ȤۤܤΤޤܸηϤΤʤ˼Ǥ롥
ơѸܸ礬ѸǤ뤫ѸѸǤ뤫ϡ¸αѸǥ򻲾ȤɤˤäƤ롥֥ǥ󥦥פǤСѸˤǤ¸ߤƤ餷ǥ golden week 򻲾ȤѤΤ뤤ϱѸ¦Υǥ̵ͭϤɤǤ졤Ȥܸȼ˺夲ΤʤΤѸ¦˥ǥ뤬ʾ塤򻲾ȤȹͤΤȻפ줫⤷ʤɬ⤽ȤϤʤnighter ʤɤηֵ§ΤޤΤȤϰۤʤꡤgolden week 쵬§ΤޤΤǤꡤΤ褦ŪɽѸ¦ܸ¦ΩȯǽϽʬˤ롥θó׿Ԥǥ¸ߤΤʤäȤǽΤƤʤΤǤϤʤɤΤȤؤϡθó׿ԤѸǥ¸ߤΤäƤꡤ򻲾ȤݤȤˤäƤΤǤꡤΤ뤳ȤŪˤ񤷤ʾ塤䤤ˤϡ֤狼ʤפȤ褦ʤˤСθó׿Ԥǥ¸ߤΤäƤ뤫ݤ⡤ºݤΤȤyes no ڤʬǤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ golden week ɤǸʹȤ褦ʡȤܤʵˤʤ⤷ʤ⤽ѸˤϤäȥǥ뤬ꤽȤФѸηƧڤˤϽʬʤΤǤ롥
츻ؾ塤֥ǥ󥦥פܸǤηȹͤ뤫Ѹ줫μѤӰ̣ü첽ȹͤ뤫礭ʰ㤤Ǥ롥츻˽񤯤٤ȤѤäƤ뤫Ѹ˥ǥ뤬¸ߤʤ֥ʥפΤ褦ˡ餫Ѹ㤬üˤ롥Ѳ狼äƤ֥ѥפΤ褦ˡ餫ʼѤ㤬¾üˤ롥ξüδ֤ˡŪ𤬤褯狼ʤ졼󤬹äƤꡤɿŪʸ츻ؼԤǤ̵ˤɤ餫˽°뤳ȤˤˡѸ줫Ѹؤ³Ϣ³ΤΤΤ˲٥ƤȤΤ1Ĥβˡˤʤ뤫⤷ʤǥ뻲Ȥ̵ͭˤ餺 signifiant ѸǤȤΤǡֱѸ첣ʸʥʡ˸פʤɤȤƤΤ̵񤫤⤷ʤ

(2) ֤¦
δ֥ǥ󥦥פͤȡҤȤϰäǽˤʤ롥ѸδĤƷ줿ϡ (signe) δ4ĤΥפʬव롥

(a) Ѹб signe ¸ߤ륿סʼѸŵŪ
(b) Ѹб signifié ¸ߤ뤬 signifiant ϰۤʤ륿סѸŵŪ
(c) Ѹб signifiant ¸ߤ뤬 signifié ϰۤʤ륿ס"false friends" 뤤 "faux amis" ŵŪ
(d) Ѹб signe ¸ߤʤסѸŵŪ

(c) "false friends" Ȥϡ춵ʤɤǻŦƤֽ֤ǡ֤б뤬̣ϰۤʤ뤿դפפǤ롥ԴʼѲ䡤Ѹ̣ѲˤäƤ⤿餵뤳Ȥ¿ǥ¸ߤ˵Ť˺줿ѸʤɤǤΥפ°Τ뤫⤷ʤ
ѸˤޤȤĤ᡼ȤơֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפ뤬ºݤˤϡֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפϡ(c) (d) ˶̤ªƤɬפ롥(c) ˤϡ֡ʼư֤Ρ˥ϥɥסȤ򥵥ܤΰդǤΡ֥פס˿ڤˤؤ֥եߥ˥ȡפʤɤ(d) ˤϡ֥꡼ޥס֥Хåס֥٥åɥס֥Сȡפʤɤꡤ̤ʤμۤʤ롥෿˽С֥ǥ󥦥פ (c) Ȥʤ෿ϤޤǶŪ෿Ǥꡤ(1) ǰä˽Ť֤̻ŪʴȤоȤդ줿

ǤϡĤγ٤Ѹ¾θáʲˤŪ˰֤Ť褦ȻߤƤ˵ɬפѸפȤܼŪ (1) δ̾դ줿ѸǤ餷Ȥ狼äƤֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפȤϡ(2) °Ǥ롥ѸפȡֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפȤϡ̻֤ȶ֤ζ̤ƱͤˡäڤʬƵۤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
ϡϢѸ夲롥

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2013-05-27 Mon

#1491. diglossia borrowing δط [diglossia][borrowing][loan_word][register][synonym]

#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ǼѡʸˤˤĤˤȤˡѸˤ illumination ? light purchase ? buy ˤߤóؤϡdiglossia ˤҲŪʾ岼ط (borrowing) Ȥʤ̤ơηϤˤ register ξ岼طⲽΤǤȻŦ
diglossia borrowing δطõ뤳ȤϼҲؤؤõȤȤˤĤʤꡤ礭ʸơޤȤʤꤦ뤬ˤĤ Hudson (56--57) Ūʸ򼨤Ƥ롥Hudson ϡѸǤ get Τˤ[2009-10-13-1]ε#169. get give Ϥʤ /g/ äƤΤפǼ褦˸ťΥɸ쵯Ȥ٤ˤȥƥͳ褹 obtain 夲󥰥ɤα diglossia μҲŪʾ岼طѤȤ̤ơѸ register ξ岼طƤ줿ȤƤª diglossia äˤӡobtain ƥͳǤȤüԤεޤꡤĤƤ diglossia ¸ߤ岼طκפŪ̮򼺤ʤ顤register ξ岼طȤƸηϤΤʤ夷Hudson (57) οޤ򻲹ͤˤʤ顤Τ褦ˤޤȤƤߤ

Diglossia and Borrowing

1ʳǤϡobtain get λȤʬϡdiglossia ȤΤ˶̤2֤ˤȤʬˤۤʤʤ2ʳǤϡƥ줫Ѹ obtain Ѥ졤obtain get λȤʬϱѸǤ register ˤȤʬȤʤ롥ʳǤϡobtain ΥƥȤηӤĤ⤤ޤƤ롥3ʳǤϡdiglossia ä졤obtain ΥƥȤηӤĤ˺Ƥ롥obtain get λȤʬϡ register κȤƱѸä夷ΤǤ롥

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-05-25 Sat

#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia [diglossia][latin][french][me][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology]

3֤ε ([2013-05-22-1], [2013-05-23-1], [2013-05-24-1]) ǡFerguson 󾧤 diglossia 夲Ƥdiglossia ȤҲŪɾˤĤ¿褬깭ƤεΤȤơ󥰥ɤΥʥߥåʸͤǡνפʴͿƤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
εǿ줿̤ꡤFerguson ȤϤβŪʸ diglossia Ʊ2ѼʻѾȶۤʤ2ˤĤƤϰʤȡʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

. . . no attempt is made in this paper to examine the analogous situation where two distinct (related or unrelated) languages are used side by side throughout a speech community, each with a clearly defined role. (325, fn. 2)


2ʤ뤤Ϥʾθˤδ֤ˤ "the analogous situation" ϳΤ˸졤Ferguson ¿ƤϤޤ롥ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡ󥰥ɤˤѸ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ triglossia Ǥ롥ʲǤϡFerguson diglossia ʸ˰͵򤷤󥰥ɤ triglossia 򤷤褦Ȥݤ˹θ٤2ĤŦ1Ĥϡ#1486. diglossia ФȽ ([2013-05-23-1]) Ǥ⿨줿 diglossia Ťưꡤ⤦1ĤϡѼ (H) Ѽ (L) ήѸǤ롥
Ferguson ϡ§Ȥ diglossia ŪʡꤷȤȤ館

It might be supposed that diglossia is highly unstable, tending to change into a more stable language situation. This is not so. Diglossia typically persists at least several centuries, and evidence in some cases seems to show that it can last well over a thousand years. (332)


ŪǧȽΤȤȤʤäΤFerguson diglossia ɤΤ褦ɤΤ褦˲Τ줦뤫ȤưŪ¦̵̤뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤϻŦƤɬפ롥

Diglossia is likely to come into being when the following three conditions hold in a given speech community: (1) There is a sizable body of literature in a language closely related to (or even identical with) the natural language of the community, and this literature embodies, whether as source (e.g. divine revelation) or reinforcement, some of the fundamental values of the community. (2) Literacy in the community is limited to a small elite. (3) A suitable period of time, on the order of several centuries, passes from the establishment of (1) and (2). (338)


Diglossia seems to be accepted and not regarded as a "problem" by the community in which it is in force, until certain trends appear in the community. These include trends toward (a) more widespread literacy (whether for economic, ideological or other reasons), (b) broader communication among different regional and social segments of the community (e.g. for economic, administrative, military, or ideological reasons), (c) desire for a full-fledged standard "national" language as an attribute of autonomy or of sovereignty. (338)


. . . we must remind ourselves that the situation may remain stable for long periods of time. But if the trends mentioned above do appear and become strong, change may take place. (339)


1ΰѤ3ϡ󥰥ɤˤơ˥ƥե󥹸줬Ѹ̤ѼȤ夷Ȥ triglossia ˤĤƤȲ򤹤뤳ȤǤ롥2ΰѤ3ϡѸˤơʥƥ̤Ȥơ˱Ѹȥե󥹸 diglossia ˲ΤƤ椯Ⱦ˸ڤƤɤ롥
ˡѸˤѸȤδϢǤϡFerguson ʸ鼨ŪʰѤ2ĵ󤲤褦

. . . a striking feature of diglossia is the existence of many paired items, one H one L, referring to fairly common concepts frequently used in both H and L, where the range of meaning of the two items is roughly the same, and the use of one or the other immediately stamps the utterance or written sequence as H or L. (334)


. . . the formal-informal dimension in languages like English is a continuum in which the boundary between the two items in different pairs may not come at the same point, e.g. illumination, purchase, and children are not fully parallel in their formal-informal range of use. (334)


2ĤΰѤ碌ɤȡѡʸˤ˴ؤ붽̣꤬롥diglossia ˤСѼʥե󥹸ˤȲѼʱѸˤϡҲŪˤĬܤΤ褦Τ˶̤롥ϡ§ȤơĬܤϢ³ܤȤưȤǤȤȤǤ롥Ȥdiglossia ȤҲŪüѤȤʤͳƱѸäΤʤⲽȡillumination ? light purchase ? buy ʤɤ register ˤ岼طϳΤ˻ۤ줳뤬ĬܤιϸġΩڥˤäưۤʤ롥ʩΩڥʤäΤ򲣤¤٤Ȥregister ξ岼طɽ魯ĬܤϡҲŪ diglossia ĬܤۤΤ˰ܤʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤȤϡdiglossia monoglossia ؤȲΤƤ椯Ȥdiglossia ¸ߤҲŪʾ岼طmonoglossia θäˤäѤŪⲽ¸ȤȤ̣ΤǤϤʤ

Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.

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2013-04-23 Tue

#1457. Х˥ɡʰ² [indo-european][family_tree][albanian][map][indo-european_sub-family][contact][borrowing]

²θɲ⥷꡼ (see indo-european_sub-family) 4ơϡBaugh and Cable (27--28) Fennell (26) ˤꡤХ˥ (Albanian) β򤹤롥
Х˥ (Albania) ϥХ륫ȾߡꥷܤǤ롥Х˥ϤθɤͣιǤꡤȤƥХ˥̱300ͤΤۤȤɤäƤ뤬¾ˤ⥳ܡޥɥ˥ꥷ㡤ꥢꥢȥ륳ƹˤüԤ͸750ͤۤɤȿפ롥Х˥ϡ Tirana ն򶭤 Gheg ToskʸѸˤ̤뤬ǯϽ̤ޤäƤƤȤEthnologueAlbanian 򻲾ȡ
θʸɡˤˤˤĤƤϡĤƥꥷɤ˸äʬवƤۤɤǤꡤΤƤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤΤϡǸŤΥƥȤ15̤ˤʤĤλǤǤ˥ƥ졤ꥷ졤ȥ륳졤θǤ¿ʬ򤸤äƤ뤫Ȥ櫓ƥʤޥ󥹽ˤμѤϸäβȾᡤѸӤۤɡκٹ礤ϿӤ#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1]) ˤ̤ꡤХ˥ȱѸϡּѤѶŪʸ "Mischsprachen" ʺˡפȤƤζ̹ब롥
ˤϰäƤꥢ ( Illyrian) θȤ⤢뤬ˤ˳
ʾ̤ꥢХ˥ɡˤˤĤƤ¿εҤĤʤΤܥ֥Ǥϸܿδ饢Х˥˲٤ڤƤΤǡؤλȤ򼨤#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1])#1314. ([2012-12-01-1])

Map of Albania

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-05-03-1]

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2013-04-03 Wed

#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ [loan_word][latin][oe][christianity][borrowing]

ѸˤˤƥѤˤĤƤϡlatin loan_word δ¿εǼ夲ƤűѸΥƥѤˤĤƤϡ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) Ǵñʻ̤ʬ˿졤Ĥ󤲤ˤʤΤǡϤ⤦󤲤Ƥߤ
Crystal (59--65) ǤϡűѸΥƥѤSerjeantson (Appendix A) ˤä (1) Φ塤(2) c. 450--c. 650, (3) c. 650--c. 1100 Ȼ̤3ʬƤ롥ʲˡ줾λɽ򤤤Ĥ󤲤褦

(1) Φ
belt (belt) < L balteus
butere (butter) < L butyrum
camp (field, battle) < L campus
candel (candle) < L candela
catt (cat) < L cattus
ceaster (city) < L castra
cetel (kettle) < L catillus
cupp (cup) < L cuppa
cycene (kitchen) < L coquina
cyse (cheese) < L caseus
draca (dragon) < L draco
mæsse (mass) < L missa
mil (mile) < L mille
minte (mint) < L menta
munuc (monk) < L monachus
mynster (minster) < L monasterium
panne (pan) < L panna
piper (pepper) < L piper
pise (pea) < L pisum
plante (plant) < L planta
port (door, gate) < L porta
port (harbour, town) < L portus
pund (pound) < L pondo
sacc (sack, bag) < L saccus
sinoð (council, synod) < L synodus
stræt (road) < L strata
tigle (tile) < L tegula
weall (wall) < L vallum
win (wine) < L vinum
ynce (inch) < L uncia

(2) c. 450--c. 650
cocc (cock) < L coccus
cugle (cowl) < L cuculla
cyrtan (to shorten, curtail) < L curtus
forca (fork) < L furca
fossere (spade) < L fossorium
græf (stylus) < L graphium
læden (Latin) < L ladinus (Vulgar Latin)
leahtric (lettuce) < L lactuca
mægester (master) < L magister
nunne (nun) < L nonna
pere (pear) < L pirum
pinsian (to reflect, consider) < L pensare
punt (punt, flat boat) < L ponto
relic (relic) < L reliquia
renge (spider) < L aranea
seglian (to seal) < L sigillare
segn (mark, sign) < L signum
stropp (strap) < L stroppus
torr (tower) < L turris
turl (ladle, trowel) < L trulla

(3) c. 650--c. 1100
alter (altar) < L altar
biblioþece (library) < L bibliotheca
cancer (crab) < L cancer
creda (creed, belief) < L credo
cucumer (cucumber) < L cucumer
culpe (guilt, fault) < L culpa
diacon (deacon) < L diaconus
fenester (window) < L fenestra
fers (verse) < L versus
grammatic (grammar) < L grammatica
mamma (breast) < L mamma
notere (notary) < L notarius
offrian (sacrifice, offer) < L offere
orgel (organ) < L organum
papa (pope) < L papa
philosoph (philosopher) < L philosophus
predician (preach) < L praedicare
regol (religious rule) < L regula
sabbat (sabbath) < L sabbatum
scol (school) < L scola

Serjeantson ΥꥹȤˤС(1) ˤ183졤(2) ˤ114졤(3) ˤ244줬󤬤äƤ뤬ƸλʬɬݾڤƤ餺̤˼ˤդפ롥ñΰ̣ΰˤĤưŪˤС(1) ޤ̣ΰʤäƤ뤬(2) ǤϽŪʿ̤Ϥᡤ(3) ǤϽ˲äؼ򴶤ñ줬¿ꥹȶˡƥѸμѲȤ򸫤Ƽ뤳ȤǤ롥Ѥ޲˴ؤƤ⡤(1) (2) ϼȤäդä(3) ϼȤƽ񤭸դ̤ήꤵ롥
嵭ΥꥹȤǤϡ˸ѸޤǻĤäƥѸ󤲤Ƥ뤬ºݤˤϸѸˤޤĤʤäΤ¿ɸѸ˻ĤäƤΤϡ100줯餤ΤΤǤ롥¿˻ȤʤäطʤˤϡѸƱΥե󥹼Ѹ줬ήȤ𤬤롥ƳʹΤ褤ե󥹸줬Ťᤫƥ˼ääΤǤ롥ޤǻĤäƤƥѸ¿ϡäƱ餤Ф˱Ѹä˺դƤ롥
ʤűѸƱΥƥñ줬2ټѤ줿⤢ΤǡƤL calicem "cup" ΰ̣Ǻǽ celc Ȥơ calic ȤƸűѸ˼Ѥ줿Ʊͤ󤲤롥

cliroc, cleric (cleric, clergyman) < L clericus
læden, latin (Latin) < L latinus
leahtric, lactuca (lettuce) < L lactuca
minte, menta (mint) < L menta
spynge, sponge (sponge) < L spongea

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Serjeantson, Mary S. A History of Foreign Words in English. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1935.

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2012-12-22 Sat

#1335. Bloomfield ˤǯʸˡɤʸ [neogrammarian][phonetics][borrowing][wave_theory][geography][methodology][dialect]

Bloomfield ϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ѲβAusnahmslose Lautgesetze "sound laws without exception"ˤˤ͡ȽӤƤɭθؼԤϤߤ Neogrammarian ǤȤơƱɤζӤ⤯ɾƤ롥ȽκǤΤȤơѲ˼Ĥ줿 residue ¸ߤɤΤ褦ŤΤȤ꤬뤬Bloomfield Ϥष˸ꤲΤϡۤʤƱǤȤơȽȿ롥Language ǤϴϢڤߤƤ뤬Τ2Ѥ褦

The occurrence of sound-change, as defined by the neo-grammarians, is not a fact of direct observation, but an assumption. The neo-grammarians believe that this assumption is correct, because it alone has enabled linguists to find order in the factual data, and because it alone has led to a plausible formulation of other factors of linguistic change. (364)

The neo-grammarians claim that the assumption of phonetic change leaves residues which show striking correlations and allow us to understand the factors of linguistic change other than sound-change. The opponents of the neo-grammarian hypothesis imply that a different assumption concerning sound-change will leave a more intelligible residue, but they have never tested this by re-classifying the data. (392--93)


ǯʸˡɤȽԤϡƱɤ (borrowing) (analogy) 򡤼ˤäǤʤꤲॴȢȤưѤƤ뤳Ȥ򤷤ФлŦ뤬Bloomfield ˸碌СषǯʸˡɤϼѤŪϰ̤Ϳ뤳Ȥ˹׸ΤȤȤˤʤ롥
Bloomfield ϡε˴ؤƤ⡤ǯʸˡʸŸ롥벻ѲAˤƤϰ췲θˤʤѤ٤BˤƤϤñˤѤƤʤ褦ʥˤơǯʸˡɤϤ residue ñɤΤ褦Τ

[A]n irregular distribution shows that the new forms, in a part or in all of the area, are due not to sound-change, but to borrowing. The sound-change took place in some one center, and after this, forms which had undergone the change spread from this center by linguistic borrowing. In other cases, a community may have made a sound-change, but the changed forms may in part be superseded by unchanged forms which spread from a center which has not made the change. (362)


ơΰѤˤ³ơǯʸˡɤȽԤؤμ긷ȿ򷫤깭롥

Students of dialect geography make this inference and base on it their reconstruction of linguistic and cultural movements, but many of these students at the same profess to reject the assumption of regular phonetic change. If they stopped to examine the implications of this, they would soon see that their work is based on the supposition that sound-change is regular, for, if we admit the possibility of irregular sound-change, then the use of [hy:s] beside [mu:s] in a Dutch dialect, or of [ˈraðr] rather beside [ˈgɛðr] gather in standard English, would justify no deductions about linguistic borrowing. (362)


Bloomfield εɤߤʤ顤ǯʸˡɤβ⤬Ƚ䤹ΤϡषȤƼ餳ʤΤ⤷ʤȻפƤ

Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

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2012-12-01 Sat

#1314. [linguistic_area][phonetics][borrowing][world_languages][geolinguistics]

ε#1313. ɤΤ餤ŤޤǸ̤뤳ȤǤ뤫 ([2012-11-30-1]) ǡ (linguistic area) ȤͤƳϡˤĤƤ⤦ä
Ū٤礦ɤĹܿ³ȡħߤ˻̤äƤΤǤϤʤ뤳ȤǤ롥¿θħ«ˤʤäƸ춭ۤƱ褷Ū˼դθ줬ޤȤޤä򼨤ȤȤΤ褦ˤꤵ֤ΤȤ򡤸ȸƤǤ롥"linguistic area" Τۤ"Sprachbund", "diffusion area", "adstratum", "convergence area" ʤɤȤƤФ뤳Ȥ롥ȤǰϡѤ䤹ä⡤Ȥ櫓ʸˡˤƸ˸ڤ뤳Ȥ¿
褯ΤƤȤƤϡεǿ줿ɽ˴ؤ South Asian (or Indian subcontinent) linguistic area ΤۤBalkan linguistic area, Baltic linguistic area, Ethiopian linguistic area, Mesoamerican linguistic area, Northwest coast (of North America) linguistic area ʤɤ󤲤롥Ȥ櫓 Balkan linguistic area ͭ̾Ǥ롥Х륫Ⱦˤϡ ²ˤ°뤬Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian (Slavic) Romanian (Italic)Greek (Hellenic), Albanian (Albanian) ʤɰۤʤɤν줬Ҥ᤭äƤ롥Ūˤϸߤ˱󤤤ȤäƤ褤Τܤ餷ƤȤˤꡤĤζ̤ħĤˤäϥХ륫Ūħ (Balkanisms) ȸƤФƤ롥Х륫ŪħϡȤŪˤ϶ᤤطǤäƤνˤϴѻʤħǤ롥1ĤȤơAlbanian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian ˶̤Ƹ봧θ֤󤲤Ƥ¾Υ衼åѽǴθ֤򤪤ʤΤŪ˱Υ줿̲ΤߤǤ뤫顤Х륫ꤷʤ¤ꡤħǤʤ
⤦1ͭ̾ʤΤϡեꥫäƤ Sotho, Zulu, Xhosa ʤɤ Bantu 䡤Bushman, Khoikhoi ʤɤ Khoisan ˤޤäƹԤʤƤǤ (click) Ǥ롥θΤʤǤȯǤꡤ줬1ϰν˶̤ѤƤΤ϶ȤϹͤʤ[2012-03-17-1]εǼ夲#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤפ˴ؤǤ롥
ʾ塤Ȥƥȥåɥ (188--93) 򻲹ͤˤƼɮ

Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ

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2012-09-10 Mon

#1232. ѲϱϳǤ [language_change][causation][borrowing][sociolinguistics]

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1]) Ǽ夲ѲθˤĤơǶᡤ#1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]) Ǻƹͤ뵡ä
丫ˤСܿˤ¾줫αƶϡηϤѲ⤿餹ΤǤϤʤμѤϡηϤ̣ηϤˤФαƶͿȤϤ¿ξ硤ηϤΩΤȤƼ롥ޤ֡ؤαƶϡä٤٤ȤƾʤäȤƤ¦θηϤη֤ĤꡤǤŪ˻ϤޤäƤѲ¥ʤȤṲ̄ˤʤˤ衤¾줫αƶϡηѲƤ֤ΤǤϤʤǡ֤ĤꡤŪ˿ʹԤƤѲ˰첡äȤ䤽켫ΤϡޤǤ¿ʬŪǤäѲ򸲺߲ȤǡѲˤƽפϰ̤ƤȤͤ롥ѲϡŪηϲϤΤȤǽ졤ŪʰϤΤȤȯΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison αϳȤϡ¤˸̯Ǥ롥

Overall, then, borrowing does not suddenly disrupt the basic structure of a language. Foreign elements make use of existing tendencies, and commonly accelerate changes which are already under way. We may perhaps liken the situation to a house with ill-fitting windows. If rain beats against the windows, it does not normally break the window or pass through solid panes of glass. It simply infiltrates the cracks which are already there. If the rain caused extensive dry rot, we could perhaps say that in a superficial sense the rain 'caused' the building to change structurally. But a deeper and more revealing analysis would ask how and why the rain was able to get in the window in the first place. (145)


Ǥϡξ硤ϳθȤƤפʤΤϤɤʤΤΤҤӡŪװˤζʳŪװˤεǡ³ƹͤ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2012-03-29 Thu

#1067. Ѹȸܸθü [lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][emode][renaissance][latin][japanese][linguistic_imperialism][lexical_stratification]

Ѹܸθûˤϡä˼ѸμࡤϡƤ줿ȤǤФӤ롥üѤˤ˻Ƥ¿θʸȤξ˶̤뻰ع¤뤳Ȥ [2010-03-27-1], [2010-03-28-1] ξǿ줿
ѸäκǾؤˤƥ졤ꥷ줬ӤѸήΤϡѸλ塤ѹͥå (Renaissance) ΤȤǤʡ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1]) , #478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1]) 򻲾ȡˡۤʳؤʤʸ¿¦̤ˤƿμȯŪȤȤˡɽ뿷äɬפȤ줿Ȥ̼ѤľܤͳǤ롥ءƥ졤ꥷβ¤ϤȤŪħȡƧ߸Ǥ줿ŵؤƴȤŪǤȤؤäơĤƤѸΥե󥹸ѤϤǤΤۤɤμǮ
Ҥ뤬äܸˤθμѻˤ򿶤֤äƤߤȡ礭Ȥ3Ĥä1ܤ16--17Υݥȥ졤ڥ졤줫μѡ2ܤαʩϪγƸ줫μѡ3ܤμȤƱѸ줫μѤǤ롥μѤ⡤ܤˤȤäƻɷŪäʸܿľܤη̤Ǥ롥
ѹΥͥå󥹤ܤʸȤϡʸγ׿ȿμȤǤ褯ƤꡤʸˤȤϡѸΥƥ졤ꥷѤܤαѸѤȤӤĤƹͤ뤳ȤǤüѤμºݤ٤ƤߤȡѸξϡܤȤǤϤʤषܤξ˶ᤤαѸüѤϡѸθܸˤƼ̾ΰ̣ǤμѤ⤢Ϥ¿ϴϸˤȤǼƤΤħŪǤ롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ǼѤΥפǤСimportation ǤϤʤ substitution ǤäȤʴϢơ##902,903 ⻲ȡˡޤޤ᤿ѸѤεϤϤۤ礭ʤäܤαѸѤˡϡΤޤޥʸȤƼƤ importation ǤäޤѤεϤ٤Ǥ롥äơѤˡȵϤȤϡѹͥå󥹤ξܤξ˶ᤤȤ롥
¼ (60--61) ϡʸ˱Ѹ줬ҲŪͥʥޥ󥹸ܿơŪ˥̥Ūʿʹ֤߽Фʤ顤ɤϡޥ󥹸Ѹ˼ѸΰˤפȡѸμѻʹѤƲᤷƤ뤬ܤμѻɤؤȡܸ줬ҲŪͥʱѸܿơŪ˥̥Ūʿʹ֤߽Фʤ顤ɤϡѸܸ˼ܸΰˤפȤȤˤʤ롥ʸƬΡפפ˽񤭴ȼĥޤ褦˴뤬Τ褦˴ΤϡξμѤˡȵϤۤʤ뤫ǤϤʤ뤤ϡ֥̥ŪפȤͤΤäɽ˰ơ䤬Τ褦˴Ƥ⤷ʤ
ʹѤȤȤǤС¼ϡѸ˹Ω줫񤫤줿ʹѤζäѸˤǤ롥Ȥƶγ̻ˤ򰷤äƤꡤ쵭ҽŻαѸˤȤϰ褷Ƥ롥ȿѸζĴǸƤꡤҤΡ֥̥ŪפȤɽԤΤ餷⤷ŸƤĥˤϻݤѸüԤѸˤ֤뤳Ȥΰ̣ˤĤƿͤǤ롥

¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ

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2011-11-17 Thu

#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) [loan_word][borrowing][french][geography]

[2011-10-17-1]ε#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤפ³ԡˤäƼѸٹ礤ۤʤäƤˤĤơOtakar Vočadlo ȤԤ homogeneous, amalgamate, heterogeneous Ȥ3ʬ scale of receptivity ߤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿Ʊ3ʬˡѤƤ븦Ԥ Décsy 롥ʲ (62--63) ˤ Décsy ξҲ򻲾ȤĤġ3ʬȤ줾°ʥ衼åѸ󤲤褦

(1) ѤѶŪʸ "Mischsprachen" ʺ: English, French, Albanian, Romanian
(2) Ѥ˾öŪʸ "introvertierte Sprachen" Ūʸ: German, Icelandic, Czech, Modern Greek
(3) Ūʸ "neutrale Sprachen" ΩŪʸ: Polish, Danish, Swedish, Dutch

Mischsprachen ȤʬवƤμѸ򵭤ȡʲ̤ꡥ

English: Old English, French, Celtic, Latin
French: Latin, Frankish, Celtic
Albanian: Illyrian, Latin, Slavic, Turkish
Romanian: Latin, Slavic, French

ե󥹸϶ǯñμѤǤȤ᡼ꡤѸξʤ줫Τ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸۤɤȤϸ鷺Ȥ⡤ʤ Mischsprache Ǥ롥ؤΥȸ˥ƥ줬ʤ蘆äΤߤʤ餺ե󥯸줫μѸ⾯ʤʤޥϤȥޥ󥹷ϤŪƱ路ƤȤǤϡѸȥե󥹸ϰפƤ롥
[2011-10-17-1]εǤ⿨줿褦ˡѸ¿ɤϡθι¤ŪȤϡθζƱΤŪҲŪ٤ȤƤȤ館ۤΤ褦˻פ롥äȸС[2011-11-10-1]ε#927. ޥζޤοءפǼ夲褦ˡƱΤŪΩ֤¿¸ʤΤǤϤʤ

Vočadlo, Otakar. "Some Observations on Mixed Languages." Actes du IVe congrès internationale de linguistes. Copenhagen: 1937. 169--76.
ͺӸ١ҡ1999ǯ
Décsy, Gyula. Die linguistische Struktur Europas. Wiesbaden: Kommissionsverlag O. Harrassowitz, 1973.

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2011-10-23 Sun

#909. -wise ˤɥĸ -weise αƶ [suffix][word_formation][contact][borrowing][loan_word][ame][german]

[2010-12-11-1]ε#593. ˤߤäŤ -wiseפ³ԡ
Foster (100) ϡ-wise ϡꥫѸǻϤޤꡤطʤˤ American-German ˡαƶäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

It cannot be denied that such expressions as 'engineeringwise' are very readily coined in modern English and that this habit comes from America where in turn the astonishingly free use of the ending '-wise' owes something to the equally free application in German of the parallel -weise (as in beispeilsweise 'for example', gastweise 'as a guest', and others). . . . It may well be that the old usage had lingered on in the United States to a greater extent than in the English of Britain, but it can scarcely be doubted that its blossoming forth in the twentieth century was due to a more or less unconscious transference of a German habit, whether on the part of scholars or --- more likely --- of immigrants.


Foster ϡ-wise ˸¤餺ꥫѸˤ¿γ׿Ūɽɥĸ줫αƶˤΤǤ󵯤Ƥ롥ϡ路 The Changing English Language ΤӤĥȤۤɤǡʸ̤˼ȡꥫѸγ׿ʤơΥꥹѸؤšˤϡ硤̣ʸˡ˻ޤǥɥĸˡμ̤ǤϤʤȻפƤۤɤǤ롥
ʸ̤˼뤳ȤϤǤʤѤƶƱɬưפǤʤƱΤˤϡѤƶȤξζŪҤʤƤʤФʤ餺¾˼Ҳ¾ܺ٤ʬäƤʤФʤʤȤ¿Foster ⤹٤ƤˤĤƽʬʾڵͿƵƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɾˤϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤ
ȤϤ (loan translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ޤ᤿ substitution ([2011-10-15-1]) ѶŪɾ褦Ȥ륿פεϡĿŪˤϹǤ롥ҴŪʾڵ󤲤ƤεǤϤʤʾ塤ǰȤäۤ褤Τ⤷ʤ֤αƶˤ importation Τ褦ɽŪ˸ʾθ̤äȤϤȹͤ롥줫αƶˤĤơɾդ٤ᾮɾˤⵤĤʤФʤʤ褦˻פ
ꥫѸˤƳαƶᾮɾƤаޤˤĤƤϡFoster (86--87) Τ褯ޤȤƤ롥顤ȤʤʬȴФ

Writers on the subject of Americanisms have usually made little of the fact that, in the past, millions of Americans have had a foreign language as their mother-tongue, though in fact it is incredible that the language of the country should not have been affected thereby. . . . In other words there has been a natural tendency to see foreign influences as consisting solely in straightforward loan-words from German, Yiddish, Spanish, Italian or whatever the language of the immigrants may have been. / Fortunately there have been some signs in recent years that scholars are becoming rather more aware that foreign borrowing into American speech has been taking place on a larger scale than had been thought.


ѤƱˤϷ夬ĤʤȤ¿Τ󵯤Ť˵ȤץФ뤳ȤϽפ

Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.

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2011-10-19 Wed

#905. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 (2) [borrowing][loan_word][phonemicisation]

ε#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1]) ³ԡǼ夲Ƥ Haugen ʸǡFries and Pike ˤ붽̣̾ʸȤƤΤǡꤷɤǤߤѸββȰۤʤäƤ뤳ȤꡤκѸƱ˹׸뤫ݤȤɸȴؤäƤ뤫
ᥭ Oaxaca Υޥƥ²ˤää Mazateco Ǥϡ§ȤƤ٤Ƥ̵ĺɡθͭ롥㤨С /t/ ɡθǤϰ۲ [d] ȤƸ롥Ȥ㳰¸ߤ롥ڥѸ siento ɴˤǤϡ嵭θ§ˤɡθ [t] ȤθϹٸǡظ줬ʤˡ嵭θ§νפȿȤʤ롥ˤꡤ[nd] [nt] Ϥʬۤʤʤʤ뤿ᡤ¤ؤˡ˽С/d/ βǤȤƤϰ̤ǧᤶʤphonemicisation DzˤȤȤˤʤ
üԤȿĴȡsiento Τ褦ʶϤ㳰뤫Ȥäơ/d/ /t/ ȶ̤벻ǤȤưŪǧƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ڵ϶ʤȤŪ minimal pair ƥȤ餫ˤȤȡüԤΰռȤϰۤʤȤȤ̷ä٤Fries and Pike ϼΤ褦ʷ˻롥

The Mazateco evidence points to the conclusion, then, that two or more phonemic systems may coexist within a single dialect, even though one or more of these systems may be highly fragmentary. (31)


siento ʤɤξͽϡ¸βημ˰֤Ť櫓ǤϤʤ㦤ΩĤ⤦1ĤβηϤ˰֤Ť졤ξηϤüԤǶ¸ƤΤǤϤȤǤ롥ĿͤˤʣβηϤζ¸ϡѸΤ⤿餹ۼʲ뤿˻ФͤǤϤʤ̾ȯäβηϤȤ䤭βηϤϰۤʤ뤷βηϤȤۤʤȤä褦ˡ͡ʼǸ븽ݤȤΤFries and Pike μĥǤ롥
Ǥϡդ˸ȡʬۤܺ٤Ĵ٤뤳ȤˤäơŪʲηϤ礿벻ηϤ̤ǤȤȤǤСԤħŤƤȹͤѸä򶦻ŪƱǤȤȤˤʤΤñ˹ԤʤεǤҤ٤褦ˡ˲ꤷξηϤʬȤȤϤޤdzΨǤꡤʬۤܤĴ٤ȤΤϤǤˤʤsiento ѸǤȤȤ̤ξڵˤʬäƤ뤬椨˲Ȥ󵯤ǤȤ𤬤ΤǤꡤդ󵯡äѤ鶦ŪʴѻȤˡ줬ѸǤ˰㤤ʤƤϤϤ񤷤褦
Fries and Pike ϡʲηȤƤǤϤʤȤƤ롥

In a purely descriptive analysis of the dialect of a monolingual speaker there are no loans discoverable or describable. An element can be proved to be a loan word only when two dialects are compared. The description of a word as a loan is a mixture of approaches: the mixing of purely descriptive analysis with dialect study, comparative work, or historical study. Dialect mixture cannot be studied or legitimately affirmed to exist unless two systems have previously been studied separately. It follows that in a purely descriptive analysis of one particular language as spoken by a bilingual, no loans are discoverable. (31)


̤ˡѸϼ¦θβ˵ۼ䤹뤤ϡϸθβݻȤƤ⡤֤ȤȤ nativise 䤹ϤޤθβΤΤ¦θƳ졤˴Ťƺ줿ο줬Ѹȶ̤ǤʤʤȤ⤢롥
εȹ碌ơȤơɸ䤤Ф No ȸ虜ʤ

Fries, Charles C. and Kenneth L. Pike. "Coexistent Phonemic Systems." Language 25 (1949): 29--50.

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2011-10-18 Tue

#904. Ѹ򶦻ŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 [borrowing][loan_word][diachrony]

[2011-10-14-1]ε#900. פǿ줿̤ꡤ (borrowing) ŪʲǤꡤŪʷ̤ǤϤʤ̤ȤƶŪѤƤΤϡޤǼѸäǤ롥̻ŪʼѤȶŪʼѸäδ֤˰̴ط뤳ȤϸޤǤʤä˶ŪʴξԤΤ˶̤٤Ǥ롥ϡ˴ؤ롥"Can loanwords be identified by a student who knows nothing of the previous stages of a language?"
줬Ѹ줫ݤ̤붦Ūˡ1ĤȤơѸμۼʲ֤󤲤뤫⤷ʤѸϡͼ˴ƱƤʤ¤ꡤͼ򤤤֤󤫼ѤǤꡤۼʤΤȤ⤭ΩäƤǽ뤫δŪǤϤʤƱȰۼδ֤ΤܤȤ񤷤

Now it would be impossible to deny that, as we have shown in a preceding section, many loanwords have introduced features of arrangement which are numerically less common than certain other features and which sometimes stand in other relationships to the rest of the language than the previously existent patterns. But to identify the results of a historical process like borrowing is simply not possible by a purely synchronic study. What we find when we study a structure without reference to its history is not borrowing or loans, but something that might rather be described as 'structural irregularity'. This is not an absolute thing: word counts have shown that patterns vary in frequency from the extremely common to the extremely rare, with no absolute boundary between the two. Patterns of high frequency are certain not to sound 'queer' to native speakers; just how infrequent must a pattern be before it begins to 'feel foreign'? (Haugen 229--30)


Ȥְۼʲ֡פΨŪ˳ФȤǤȤƤ⡤򼨤äˤϼѸΤߤʤ餺Ѹΰޤޤ뤳ȤˤʤѸǤʤ餽˴ޤޤʤΤФƤۼʲ֤򼨤äϡ줳ΨŪ˸äˤ"items of LIMITED LEXICAL DISTRIBUTION" (Haugen 230) "systemic fragments" (Haugen 231) ȸƤФƤޤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
̻ŪʲǤѤη̤ȤƤμѸäüԤζŪʸμä˲ˤˤȿǤƤ뤫 --- Ūĩ򤻤ޤ礭Ǥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-17 Mon

#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ [borrowing][loan_word][icelandic]

ε#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 "scale of adoptability" ϡܤμѤ䤹ϡ줬ηϤ˹¤ŪȤ߹ޤƤ٤ȿ㤹Ȥݤäǡε䤬Ƥ롥ηϤι¤ϸˤäưۤʤΤ顤ŪѤ¿ȾʤȤΤ뤳ȤˤʤΤ
㤨СѸܸϤФмѤ¿ȸ뤬ϼѤʤȤʥɸ졤ʤɡˤȤӤˤƤʤƤڤˤʤѸѸˤƤθûˤϼѸˤȸƤ褤ۤɤǡѸǤƤΤΡ[2011-09-17-1]ε#873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡פ򻲾ȡˡѸΤѤˤȤȤԲǽǤϤʤ⤷ʤ[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפǼ褦ˡɸϡּѸѤ򤹤붯פäƤȤ졤ѤʤŵȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦˸ȡ֤ "scale of receptivity" ʤ롤Ѥμ䤹μ٤ߤ뤳ȤΤ褦˻פ롥Haugen (225) ˤСOtakar Vočadlo ȤԤhomogeneous, amalgamate, heterogeneous Ȥ3ʬ scale of receptivity ߤƤꡤμμ٤ŵ򼨤ƤȤ
֤μѤ¿ɤϤˤ衤줬칽¤˰¸ΤɤǤ롥Kiparsky ϡ칽¤¸ιͤꤷƤꡤѤ¿ɤüԤŪҲŪΩ˰¸ΤƤ (Haugen 225) ˤĤơHaugen (225) Ϥդ importation vs. substitution ζ̤ФơKiparsky ˶ᤤΩ줫鼡Τ褦˷Ƥ롥

Most of the differences brought out by Vočadlo are not differences in actual borrowing, but in the relationship between importation and substitution, as here defined. Some languages import the whole morpheme, others substitute their own morphemes; but all borrow if there is any social reason for doing so, such as the existence of a group of bilinguals with linguistic prestige.


Haugen θϤǤϡ㤨мѤ¿ȸѸȾʤȸ륢ɸκϡ¤ΤȤѤ¿ɤΤΤκǤϤʤ2ĤμѤˡ (importation and substitution) ΨκǤǽȤȤˤʤ롥importation Ф substitution ħϡŪŪ˼Ѥ餷ʤȤǤ뤫顤Ѥݤ substitution ˰¸Ψι⤤ϡʬѤξʤȤߤʤ뤳ȤˤʤξˡˤѤä碌Τ򤽤θμѤ̤ȹͤΤǤС̤˸Ƥۤɽ֤Ѥ¿ɤϤʤΤ⤷ʤѤεˤŪΩʤ loan translation ѡ semantic loan ʰ̣ѡˤɽ substitution νǧǤ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.
Vočadlo, Otakar. "Some Observations on Mixed Languages." Actes du IVe congrès internationale de linguistes. Copenhagen: 1937. 169--76.[sic]

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2011-10-16 Sun

#902. Ѥ䤹 [borrowing][loan_word]

ε#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ǽҤ٤ȤꡤѤäơHaugen ζĴ importation substitution ζ̤ϴפǤ롥ζ̤ϡѤ䤹ܤˤĤƹͤݤˤ⡤פʻ󶡤Ƥ롥
ľŪˤǤȻפ뤬¾줫ǤѤ䤹ܤȤСäǤꡤä̾Ǥ롥ʸˡܤμѤԲǽǤϤʤȤƤ⡤Ǥ㤬ʤȤȤϡϤľȤܤμѤ䤹٤Ȥɽ魯ȡ"scale of adoptability" ʤΤ롥William Dwight Whitney 1881ǯ scale ˤȡ̾줬ǤѤ䤹¾ʻ졤ܼ³ʸˡܤǤѤˤȤ (Haugen 224) ʴϢơѸο쥽76.7%̾ǤˤĤƤ[2011-09-23-1]ε򡤱Ѹäʻ̳ˤĤƤ[2011-02-22-1], [2011-02-23-1]ε򻲾ȡˡʸˡܤμѤˤˤĤƤϡWhitney ϡܤŪ뤤Ϲ¤ŪǤФʬο鼫ͳǤȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʸˡܤǤѤƤϤꡤҤ scale ϵ§ǤϤʤǤ롥 scale ¿θ줫¿μˤäƻٻƤ롥ˤĤơHaugen (224) importation vs. substitution λ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

All linguistic features can be borrowed, but they are distributed along a SCALE OF ADOPTABILITY which somehow is correlated to the structural organization. This is most easily understood in the light of the distinction made earlier between importation and substitution. Importation is a process affecting the individual item needed at a given moment; its effects are partly neutralized by the opposing force of entrenched habits, which substitute themselves for whatever can be replaced in the imported item. Structural features are correspondences which are frequently repeated. Furthermore, they are established in early childhood, whereas the items of vocabulary are gradually added to in later years. This is a matter of the fundamental patterning of language: the more habitual and subconscious a feature of language is, the harder it will be to change.


Ū˲᤹ȼΤ褦ˤʤѤϡܤɬפ˱ơʤ[2009-06-13-1]ε#46. ѤϤʤ뤫פǵ󤲤ͳ褦ʹ̣ǤΡɬספǤ¾줫龷Ǥꡤˡˤϥη֤Ƴ׿Ū importation ȡη֤ǺѤޤݼŪ substitution 롥ηϤˤۤɶޤƤ٤ޤޤǤ̾Τ褦ʼѤˤƤݼŪ substitution ǽˤΤ顤ηϤ˿¤ŪȤ߹ޤƤꡤ٤ʸˡŪʹܤϡѤɬפȤ뵡񤬵ǤФ꤫˼Ѥˤ׿Ū importation Ψ㤤Τ褦˹ͤȡѤˤ substitution ϰ츫 importation ΩʤξԤ­Ƽ100%Ȥ˸ԤȰۤʤꤽΨ0%ˤʤ뤳ȤϤʤȤȤˤʤΰŪʹͤ˽ä importation ѤγˤȤߤʤΤǤϤʤsubstitution ѤγˤȤߤʤȤˤʤСºݤΤȤˤϸܰʾ˼Ѥ¿ΤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-15 Sat

#901. ʬ [borrowing][terminology][loan_word][loan_translation]

ε#900. ([2011-10-14-1]) ˰³ϼѤʬHaugen ƤƤѤʬǤϡimportation substitution ζ̤Ȥ櫓פǤ롥ʬ򳵴ѤˡѸƳƤ

model: Ѹη
loan: Ѥˤ꼫夷
importation: model Ƚʬ򼫸ؼळ
substitution: model б뼫ηѤ뤳

Haugen (214--15) ϼѸ礭3ʬषƤ롥

  (1) LOANWORDS show morphemic importation without substitution. Any morphemic importation can be further classified according to the degree of its phonemic substitution: none, partial, or complete.
  (2) LOANBLENDS show morphemic substitution as well as importation. All substitution involves a certain degree of analysis by the speaker of the model that he is imitating; only such 'hybrids' as involve a discoverable foreign model are included here.
  (3) LOANSHIFTS show morphemic substitution without importation. These include what are usually called 'loan translations' and 'semantic loans'; the term 'shift' is suggested because they appear in the borrowing language only as functional shifts of native morphemes.


­ȡ(1) Ρʶ̣ǤΡ loanword ŵȤơѸ America ܸؤΤޤ޼Ѥ줿֥ꥫפ롥κݤΤϡŪ importation ǤꡤIJŪˤۤܤΤޤ model ѤƤ (imported) Ū importation ǤϤ뤬Ū˴ܸ첽 (substituted) ȹ֥ͤ֡ (love) 롥֥פȤƼѤ줿ΤǤС塤ʬŪܸ첽ɽǤ
(2) loanblend ȤƤϡʣμѤξʤɤǡŪ importation substitution Ʊ˸֥磻 (red wine) Τ褦㤬󤲤롥ФСhybrid ȤƸڤ뤬ȤƤ hybrid ȷ̤ȤƤ hybrid ϡ̤٤ΤǤʺε[2011-10-14-1]κǽ򻲾ȡˡ礬Ƥ֤ñ̤ˤäơblended stem, blended derivative, blended compound ̤롥
(3) loanshift ˤϡloan_translation ѡ calque Ȥ˸ƤФƤΡ semantic loan ʰ̣ѡˤȸƤФƤΤޤޤ롥ԤǤϼθϿ˿ morph Ͽ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬Ԥ˻äƤƱ֤Ǥ¸ߤΤǡ¾줫αƶ򼨤Τϰ̣ΤߤǤȤðۤǤ롥¸ morph Ọ̇̄δϢʾˤϡϿ˰ۤʤ morph ȤΩव뤫⤷ʤ̣ζˤ¸ morph ˽°ˤ loan synonyṃγ֤ˤ̤ morph ȤΩवˤ loan homonym ȸƤФ롥loan translation ʣĶƥǥʤɤϢȤñ̤صڤ֤ȡsyntactic substitution ȸƤ٤뤳Ȥˤʤ (ex. make believe < F fair croire )
Ѥˡ importation substitution Ѥñ̤ morphology phonology ˤä (1), (2), (3) ζʬȡʤ벼̶ʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥դΤϡɤμμѤǤ semantics Υ٥Ǥɬ importation Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ְ̣ѡפʤɤνѸǤ蘆ƤϤʤʤΤϡˤ衤̣ɬѤȤȤǤ롥
Haugen ϡ˺٤̶ʬ¿νѸƳʤ顤Ѥ̤ "analysis" Ƥ椯ѤȤα빥Ǥ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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2011-10-14 Fri

#900. [borrowing][terminology][loan_word]

ܤ (borrowing) ˤĤƤϡμѤ濴͡򰷤äƤѸˤˤƤ⡤μѻˤϹؿ⤿ơޤǤꡤ켫Τ礭ʼѸ˴ؤϡ头Ȥ뤤ϥ줴Ȥ˸󤷤ơỤ̄ŪħŪ˻Ŧꤹ뤳Ȥ¿ѤȤݤˤĤŪ˰äƤ븦ϤޤʤǡѤߤƤ Haugen ʸҲ𤷤
Haugen (210--11) ϡborrowing "Sprachmischung" (= language mixture) 뤤 "hybrid" ȸƤФȤ϶̤٤⤯Sprachmischung ϥƥ륷2κʪ褦ʲ뤬ºݤˤ2ѼԤǤäƤƱ2Ĥθ줫鼫ͳ˸ǤФȤȤϤʤξԤδ֤Ǥޤ뤷ؤ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤äƤΤϤɤ餫Ǥ롥äơSprachmischung borrowing Ʊ뤹뤳ȤϤǤʤƱˡ켫Τ̤ˤϴѻʤ츽ݤǤ롥ޤ"hybrid language" Ȥϡ "pure language" ¸ߤ뤫Τ褦ްդ뤬"pure language" ʤΤ¸ߤʤ
Τ褦ˡSprachmischung hybrid Ȥζ̤ΤˤǡHaugen (212) borrowing 򼡤Τ褦˵ҤŤ

(1) We shall assume it as axiomatic that EVERY SPEAKER ATTEMPTS TO REPRODUCE PREVIOUSLY LEARNED LINGUISTIC PATTERNS in an effort to cope with new linguistic situations. (2) AMONG THE NEW PATTERNS WHICH HE MAY LEARN ARE THOSE OF A LANGUAGE DIFFERENT FROM HIS OWN, and these too he may attempt to reproduce. (3) If he reproduces the new linguistic patterns, NOT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LANGUAGE IN WHICH HE LEARNED THEM, but in the context of another, he may be said to have 'borrowed' them from one language into another. The heart of our definition of borrowing is then THE ATTEMPTED REPRODUCTION IN ONE LANGUAGE OF PATTERNS PREVIOUSLY FOUND IN ANOTHER. . . The term reproduction does not imply that a mechanical imitation has taken place; on the contrary, the nature of the reproduction may differ very widely from the original . . . .


ѤεˤƤ⤦1ĽפϡѤϲǤ̤ǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥㤨СѸϼѤȤŪη̤ȤƶŪ˴ѻܤǤ롥줬Ѥ졤μѸ˴ŤƿʸԤʤ졤2Ū˿줬줿硤ο϶ŪˤϤѸΤ褦˸뤬ѤβФ櫓ǤϤʤȤդѤǤȤˤĤƤϡHaugen (213) äդ򴭵Ƥ롥

Borrowing as here defined is strictly a process and not a state, yet most of the terms used in discussing it are ordinarily descriptive of its results rather than of the process itself. . . . We are here concerned with the fact that the classifications of borrowed patterns implied in such terms as 'loanword', 'hybrid', 'loan translation', or 'semantic loan' are not organically related to the borrowing process itself. They are merely tags which various writers have applied to the observed results of borrowing.


Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.

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