餬ʸηϤ߽ФǤʤ¤ꡤθ⤹Ǥ¾ǻȤƤʸѤ뤳ȤˤäʸαѤϤϤǤ롥ȼѸθʤ¿쾯ʤۤʤħʤȤ櫓ˤäƤ櫓ǤꡤʸαѤˤäƤѸǤαѤ100%Τޤۤ櫓ǤϤʤ֤ʸηϤѤȤˤϡ餫Ѳ뤳Ȥʤϡ6˥Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ȤꡤƱ˴ܸ˼Ѥ줿ȤǤ롥
Görlach (35) ϡʸηϤμѤ˺ݤƲꤦ뤫6վǵƤ롥ɽʸǤ륢ե٥åȤμѤǰƬ֤ƤβվȻפ뤬ʲ˰Ѥ
Since no two languages have the same phonemic inventory, any transfer of an alphabet creates problems. The following solutions, especially to render 'new' phonemes, appear to be the most common:
1. New uses for unnecessary letters (Greek vowels).
2. Combinations (E. <th>) and fusions (Gk <>, OE <æ>, Fr <œ>, Ge <ß>).
3. Mixture of different alphabets (Runic additions in OE; <ȝ>: <g> in ME).
4. Freely invented new symbols (Gk <, , , >).
5. Modification of existing letters (Lat <G>, OE <ð>, Polish <ł>).
6. Use of diacritics (dieresis in Ge Bär, Fr Noël; tilde in Sp mañana; cedilla in Fr ça; various accents and so on).
ʤۤɡ¸ʸˡѤȤȤ⤢СʸФȤȤ⤢Ȥ褦͡ʥѥꤽ¿ϳΤ˸֤ǤʸηϤμѤ˺ݤƵ뤳Ȥ¿⤷ʤǤʤƤ⼫ȯŪ˵ܤ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
㤨о嵭1ˤĤƤϡƱǤäƤ̻Ū˵뤳Ȥ롥űѸ <y> /y/ ˤĤơѸˤƱǤ߿ȼäơƱʸǤϤ̣ǡספȤʤä櫓ѸˤϻҲ /j/ ɽ魯褦ˤʤä֤ˤä /i/ ΰ֤ȤǤϡܿľŪ˴ؤäƤʤ褦˻פ (cf. #3069. Ϣ9֤ʤ try tried Ȥʤꡤdie dying ȤʤΤס ([2017-09-21-1]))
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
Ѹ˾塤2ټѤ줿ȤΤ롥ˤƥñʤɤѤ줿塤̤λˤƱ줬餿ƼѤȤΤǤ롥1ܤ2ܤǤϰ̣ʤӾ֤ˤۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿
㤨Сƥ magister ϡűѸᤤʳǼѤ졤㴳Ѹ첽ֻ mægester ѤƤ10ˤ餿 magister ȤƸֻΤޤ줿 (cf. #1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1])ˡ
ѸȽѸ褦ʻ㤬ߤ롥fastidious Ȥƥñ1440ǯˡ½ʡפθǼѤ줿1ˤϡ֤ʡԲʡפθѤƤʸԤϸΡֵʤʡפθϢʤˡޤChaucer artificial, declination, hemisphere ŷʸѸȤƳθθߤŪʸϡ16κƼѻθ˴ŤѸˤĤƤϡBaugh and Cable (222--23) Τ褦äƤ롥
A word when introduced a second time often carries a different meaning, and in estimating the importance of the Latin and other loanwords of the Renaissance, it is just as essential to consider new meanings as new words. Indeed, the fact that a word had been borrowed once before and used in a different sense is of less significance than its reintroduction in a sense that has continued or been productive of new ones. Thus the word fastidious is found once in 1440 with the significance 'proud, scornful,' but this is of less importance than the fact that both More and Elyot use it a century later in its more usual Latin sense of 'distasteful, disgusting.' From this, it was possible for the modern meaning to develop, aided no doubt by the frequent use of the word in Latin with the force of 'easily disgusted, hard to please, over nice.' Chaucer uses the words artificial, declination, and hemisphere in astronomical sense but their present use is due to the sixteenth century; and the word abject, although found earlier in the sense of 'cast off, rejected,' was reintroduced in its present meaning in the Renaissance.
ˤäƤϡ嵭ΥǤϡƱñ줬2ټѤ줿Ȥϡ¸μѸФƱѸ¦ǰ̣ѹäȤۤŬڤǤϤʤȤոϤ֤Ϣ³ȤСִ¸ؤѹפȤʤꡤϢ³ȤС2٤μѡפȤʤ롥Baugh and Cable ǻŦƤ褦ˡ츻ŪˤƱΥƥñˤΤܤȤƤ⡤Ѹˤδϡ¼Ūˤϰۤʤ˰ۤʤѸ줿ȤߤۤŬڤǤ롥
OED Τ褦Ū§˴ŤԻǰƬˤȡfastidious ʤ artificial ʤФơ1ĤθФΩơβ˸1ʵˤȸ2ʿˤʤɤ֤ΤQŪƻüԤζŪʴФ¤ǤȤʤСष fastidious1 fastidious2 Τ褦˸Ф̤ΩƤƤ褤餤ΤΤǤϤʤԤθʤСˤΤʤǵѤƤä硤ѵ (dead sense) ȤѸ (dead word) Ȥ٤Ȥʤ롥ʡΤˤѸù (dead lexical item; dead lexeme) ȸƤ֤٤
ȴϢơ#3830. űѸΥƥѸϸޤ³ݤ ([2019-10-22-1]) ⻲ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ܥ֥ǤϡѸˤˤüѤˤĤƿ¿εǾҲ𤷤ƤѸ˸ǤϡѸ줬ɤθ줫ɤΤ褦ʡɤθ˼ڤƤΤȤϡ OED ʤɤѤĴ̤ƾܤ갷ƤƤꡤ¿ΤȤ餫ˤƤ롥ʶŪˤ borrowing statistics ʤɤγƵȤ줿
ǤϡѸˤȤϢοեˤĤơƱͤ䤤ȯƤߤȤɤʤեϤɤθ줫ɤΤ褦ʡɤθ˼ڤƤΤϱѸˤȤԤʤΤľĴ٤ƤߤȤϤʤäޤ Jones and Singh (31) ˴ؤʿɽĤΤǡƸʤȤȤ Guiraud (6) Ĵ̤ˤɽȤΤȡˡ
| Century | 12th | 13th | 14th | 15th | 16th | 17th | 18th | 19th |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabic | 20 | 22 | 36 | 26 | 70 | 30 | 24 | 41 |
| Italian | 2 | 7 | 50 | 79 | 320 | 188 | 101 | 67 |
| Spanish | 5 | 11 | 85 | 103 | 43 | 32 | ||
| Portuguese | 1 | 19 | 23 | 8 | 3 | |||
| Dutch | 16 | 23 | 35 | 22 | 32 | 52 | 24 | 10 |
| Germanic | 5 | 12 | 5 | 11 | 23 | 27 | 33 | 45 |
| English | 8 | 2 | 11 | 6 | 14 | 67 | 134 | 377 |
| Slavic | 2 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 11 | 10 | ||
| Turkish | 1 | 2 | 13 | 9 | 6 | 14 | ||
| Persian | 2 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 1 | ||
| Hindu | 1 | 4 | 8 | 5 | ||||
| Malaysian | 4 | 10 | 6 | 5 | ||||
| Japanese/Chinese | 36 | 25 | 21 | 7 | ||||
| Greek | 8 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 2 | ||
| Hebrew | 9 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 |
ѸäƤեѸˤĤơƥѸȸʬĤʤȤ츻ؾƬˤ꤬롥ˤĤƤϰʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])
#848. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ (2) ([2011-08-23-1])
#3581. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (1) ([2019-02-15-1])
#3582. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (2) ([2019-02-16-1])
Ǥϡե줫Ѹ줫θʬĤʤȤΤϤեȱѸ°ƤɤۤʤꡤΤ˶̤ϤʤΤǡΤ褦ϹͤʤȻפ뤫⤷ʤ
ΥեѸȥƥѸξȤϰۤʤ̣礤ǤϤ뤬ȽǤǤʤȤʤʤƤ뱾ȤǤϤʤ餹餫˥եñʤΤθ줬ƤƥȤѸƥȤʤΤեƥȤʤΤʬĤʤˡۤʤ꤬Ƥ롥⤷ʤѸƥȤǤФθϥե줫äƤѸǧꤵʤեƥȤǤФθϽեñǤꡤѸȤ̵طȽǤȤǤϤʤ
Ȥ¤ˤϱʩǤ礤θ줬١ȤʤäƤΤȽȤʤ "macaronic" 2ƥȤʤΤ롥С줿 code-switching Τʤ˽ФƤ롤ȤƤ餫˥ե°ñϡǤ˱Ѹ˼ѤƱѸäΰƤΤʤΤ뤤ϽեñȤѤƤˤʤΤΤʴबʤ¤ꡤȽǤŪˤʤʩΤۤƥؤäƤơ𤬤ˤ䤳ʤ⤢롥ˤĤơTrotter (1790) βʹ
Quantities of medieval documents survive in (often heavily abbreviated) medieval British Latin, into which have been inserted substantial numbers of Anglo-French or Middle English terms, usually of course substantives; analysis of this material is complicated by the abbreviation system, which may even have been designed to ensure that the language of the documents was flexible, and that words could have been read in more than one language . . ., but also by the fact that in the later period (that is, after around 1350) the distinction between Middle English and Anglo-French is increasingly hard to draw. As is apparent from even a cursory perusal of the Middle English Dictionary (MED, Kurath et al. 1952--2001) it is by no means always clear whether a given word, listed as Middle English but first attested in an Anglo-French context, actually is Middle English, or is perceived as an Anglo-French borrowing.
2ƥȤ˸ñ줬θ°Τꤹ뤳ȤϡɬñǤϤʤθäȤϲʤΤƹͤ롥Ϣưʲ⻲Ȥ줿
#2426. York Memorandum Book ˤߤʩ¿¿ͤʺ ([2015-12-18-1])
#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])
#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])
#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])
#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1])
#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1])
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
Ѹ˥ե줫μѸ줬̤ήȤϡѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ˤơ褽1250--1400ǯλˡȤƥԡãȤ⡤Ѹ˳ǤϹҤƤܥ֥Ǥʲεʤɤǡ٤Ȥʤ夲ƤǤ롥
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2357. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸäס ([2015-10-10-1])
#2385. OED ˤŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
#4138. եѸΤѸ˼ڤ줿Τ4䶯ǤĽ ([2020-08-25-1]),
եѸοˤĤƤСOED ʤɤѤҴŪĴŤ줿¤Ǥꡤ嵭Ρפ˰Ϥʤʤ餹٤ƽդ˴ŤĴ̤Ǥ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥⤷äդˤեѸΥԡ䤷̤ȤʤСԡϤäᤫäǽ⤤Trotter (1789) Τ褦Ƥ롥
In charting the chronology of the process, we are again at the mercy of the documentary evidence. The key period of lexical transfer appears to be the 14th century; but that may be, as much as anything else, because of the explosion of available documentation in both Anglo-French and, more particularly, Middle English at that time. In other words, the real dates of the transfers may not be the dates at which they are documented. Some evidence that this is not so is available in the form of English surnames, of Anglo-French origin . . . , and indeed in the capacity of some early Middle English texts to generate hybrids from Anglo-French and Middle English (forpreiseð; propreliche; priveiliche from Ancrene Wisse . . .).
1ĤϡŪ˥ԡȤƤ14ϡޤդεϿ¿Ĥ줿ǤꡤΤ˥եѸεϤ礭ˤʤȤȤ
⤦1Ĥϡդ˽ФǯäơΤޤޱѸ˽Фǯ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤȤcf. #2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) ([2015-10-28-1])ˡ̤θǤϤʤʿ̾ˤȤƼѤ줿եǤͤ碌ʤСᤤäƤڵ롥ޤѸʸڤ뺮¸ߤϡ̾ΥեѸ줬ޤǤˤ¿ή̤ƤȤcf. #96. ѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1])ˡ
ѸˤˤեѸΥԡϡդξڵŪĴ¤ˤƤϡ̤14ȤäƤ褤äդޤ֤ȤƤϡᤤˤäΤȿ¬ΤǤ롥
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
Ѹûˤˤ륮ꥷ (greek) ϡƥ졤ե졤ťΥɸΤ٤ȰŪˤΩʤȤ櫓ؤ䲽ؤʤɤγؽѥ쥸˸ꤹС礭ܥ֥Ǥ͡˼夲Ƥʲ˵뵭ʤɤȤ줿
#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])
#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1])
#616. Ѹβʳظäȯ ([2011-01-03-1])
#617. Ѹ5ʬθä̻ʬۡ ([2011-01-04-1])
#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1])
#3014. Ѹˤˤ륮ꥷο¸ߴ19 ([2017-07-28-1])
#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])
#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1])
#4191. ʳѸΰ̣νؤŤˤĤơ ([2020-10-17-1])
Joseph (1720) ѸȥꥷŪʴطˤĤƼΤ褦ŪˤޤȤƤ롥
English and Greek share some affinity in that both are members of the Indo-European language family, but within Indo-European, they are not particularly closely related. Nor is it the case that at any point in their respective prehistories were speakers of Greek and speakers of English in close contact with one another, and such is the case throughout most of historical times as well. Thus the story of language contact involving English and Greek is actually a relatively brief one.
However, the languages have not been inert over the centuries with respect to one another and some contact effects can be discerned. For the most part, these involve loanwords, as there are essentially no structural effects . . . and in many, if not most, instances, as the following discussion shows, the loans are either learned borrowings that do not even necessarily involve overt speaker-to-speaker contact, or ones that only indirectly involve Greek, being ultimately of Greek origin but entering English through a different source.
ѸʹߤˡꥷȤ˭ʸܳŪ˱ѸäƤȤΤˤŪʥ쥸ˤŪʸݤäȤФǤϤ뤬ϤѸθ礭ʥѥȤͿȤäƤ褤üȤ encephalograph Ǿ¤ƿޡˤ夲ȡϥꥷͳ褹 encephalon Ǿ + graph ʿޡˤȤ2ĤϢ (combining_form) 鹽롥 encephalography, electroencephalography, electroencephalographologist ʤɤδϢֱѸ¦ǡ״ñ߽ФȤǤΤǤ롥
ѸˤƤǡ1,3-dimethylamino-3,5-propylhexedrine ȤäʻĶ뤬ˤΤޤصʣפ߽ФȤǤ롥ʤߤˡ˥ꥷǤΤߤʤ벽ʪ̾ΤȤ bromochloroiodomethane ʤ줬 (Joseph (1722))
ˡ⤦ŪʷΩ줫餤СꥷǤˤϡαѸθȤƤŪޤäʣ (dvandva/copulative/appositional compound) ηȤǤѸŪ˰յ롥㤨 otorhinolaryngologist ʼɡʰˤϡʸ̤ɡʡʼԡˡפΰդǤ롥
dvandva compound ˤĤƤϡ#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ ([2016-07-31-1])#2653. ([2016-08-01-1]) ȡ
Joseph, Brian D. "English in Contact: Greek." Chapter 109 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1719--24.
ɸϡ#3701. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (1) ([2019-06-15-1]) ӡ#3702. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (2) ([2019-06-16-1]) Ǽ夲ƤǤ롥
̤˥줬Ѹ˵ڤܤʸˡŪƶϤۤȤɤʤȤ뤬βǽ뵩ʸܤȤơѸΥɳ߽ǹԤʤƤ;̾ es ŦƤʤۤˡ#140. եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kin ([2009-09-14-1])⻲ȡˡ
ΥƶˤĤơThomason and Kaufman (323) ʳ̣θĴǾҲ𤷲⤷ƤΤǡѤ褦
[T]here was a striking grammatical influence of Low Dutch on ME that is little known, because though introduced sometime before 1150, it is found in certain dialects only and disappeared by the end of the fourteenth century . . . .
In the Lindsey (Grimsby?), Norfolk, Essex, Kent (Canterbury and Shoreham), East Wessex (Southampton?), and West Wessex (Bristol?) dialects of ME, attested from just before 1200 down to at least 1375, there occurs a pronoun form that serves as the enclitic/unstressed object form of SHE and THEY. Its normal written shape is <(h)is> or <(h)es>, presumably /əs/; one text occasionally spells <hise>. This pronoun has no origin in OE. It does have one in Low Dutch, where the unstressed object form for SHE and THEY is /sə/, spelled <se> (this is cognate with High German sie). If the ME <h> was ever pronounced it was no doubt on the analogy of all the other third person pronoun forms of English. We do not know whether Low Dutch speakers settled in sizable numbers in all of the dialect areas where this pronoun occurs, but there is one striking correlation: all these dialect areas abut on the sea . . ., and after 1070 the seas near Britain, along with their ports, were the stomping grounds of the Flemings, Hollanders, and Low German traders. These facts should remove all doubt as to whether this pronoun is foreign or indigenous (and just happened not to show up in any OE texts!).
ѤκǸǽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤֵʤפȤʤ궯Ω줬ɽƤ롥p. 325 Ǥ "this clear instance of structural borrowing from Low Dutch into Middle English" ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤƤϤȤƤ⤪⤷λεǤ줿褦ˡ⤦ŤɬפȻפ롥West Midland ΦǤ㤬ĤäƤꡤƱñ˻ٻ뤳ȤϤǤʤϢѤƤ Hendriks (1668) ⡤Thomason and Kaufman ΤˤϲŪΩäƤꡤȤƼ夲ƤʤȤոƤ
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.
Ѹˤˤƹϥɥĸ (german) о줹뵡˾ʤϡ̣Ǥ϶ä٤Ȥ⤷ʤѸɥĸƱޥɤ°Ūˤ⥤ꥹȥɥĤϤۤɳ֤äƤ櫓ǤʤΤ顤äŪʸήäȤ⤪ʤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƥɥĸȤܿȤʤäƤΤϡäƤΤȤǤ롥Ѹȥɥĸδ֤ˤϡΤ˥ޥɤ֤ȤƤΡַطפ졤ֱƶطפäȤäƤ褤ʷȱƶζ̤ German Germanic ζ̤νˤĤƤϡ#369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#4380. ѸΥ롼ĤϥƥǤɥĸǤʤ ([2021-04-24-1])#4411. German Germanic ΰ㤤 --- 䤳̾ ([2021-05-25-1]) ȡ
嵭λǡܥ֥Ǥɥĸ¸ߴ#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])#2621. ɥĸαѸؤܳŪ19 ([2016-06-30-1])#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι ([2009-09-24-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ٤Ǥ롥
ϢѤƤ Hendriks ʸΥȥ "English in Contact: German and Dutch" ǤꡤGerman Dutch ΩäƤ櫓High German ΰϡ1/3ڡˤʤ1Τߡʲˤ٤ƤѤƤޤ٤ʬ̤Ǥ롥ʤHendriks (1660) κǽƤ̤ꡤ1117ޤǤθܿǤꡤ18ʹߤζḽˤϹθ鳰Ƥ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥
4.3 Influence from High German
The 16th century is frequently noted as the starting point for lexical influence from High German (Serjeantson 1961: 179; Viereck 1993: 70; Nielsen 2005: 182). During this period, German miners were brought to England to develop the mineral resources industry; it has been suggested (Luu 2005: 31) that the necessary contacts required to recruit southern German miners were established in the late 15th/early 16th century in the commercial center of Antwerp. Some of the words having entered the language as a result of this connection are zinc, cobalt, shale, and quartz. Regarding German influence on English dialects, Wakelin (1977: 23) states: "There has been contact with Germany since the Middle Ages, but from the dialectal point of view it is not until the seventeenth century that there is much to note". Again, this is a reference to mineralogy. A detailed, OED-based study of High German lexical influence on English is Carr (1934). Briefly noting loans prior to 1600, the study focuses primarily on cultural loans in English from the 17th-19th centuries. The words identified are frequently technical scientific terms or are from other domains of influence such as religion, the military, philosophy and music.
16˥ɥĤιפۻѤ٤ɤˤäƤȤȡޤΤξȾεȥפˤǤƤȤȤϽΤä
ˤѸˤˤƤϡ塤¼ŪˤϸԤʤСɥĸϤޤȤ˸ƤʤȤäƤ褵
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.
ε#4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ餤 (cf. #3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])ˡϱѸ˵Ҥ˴ؤ뾮ȹͤƤ뤬ʤäΤ
Hendriks (1660) ˤСᾮɾƤͳ1ĤȤơɽȤϽ줬ѸȶǤꡤġñθ츻꤬ǤŦƤ롥ѶŪ˥ͳǤȽǤʤ¤ꡤѸǤȤݼŪȽǤͥ褵Τ̵̤ȤѸˤϤޤäƱѸ¸ߤȤǤʾ塤ˤƶεŸ뤳Ȥ餫˱ѸȤϰۼθ츻ǤȽ䤹եʤơ٤ǤťΥɸˤ٤СϳΤǤ롥
[C]ontributions from the Scandinavian and French languages to the lexicon of English, for example, are discussed in terms of certainty, whereas contributions from the closely related varieties of "Low Dutch" or "Low German" are couched in terms of "probably" or "possibly" or are simply not discussed.
ʾ Hendriks ĴƤΤϡαѸˤɸŪͽطʤ˲ "purist language ideologies" (1659) Ǥ롥Hendriks ϤۤɲʪƤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ̤ȤƤŪʱѸ˵ҤФ붯ǿȽȤʤäƤȤäƤ褤ܤ٤ͤȻפ
Hendriks ϵ2˹ʤäƤ롥1ĤϡOED ʸإƥнŤؤȽǤ롥OED ŪˡѸˤʣκ "macaronic" ʥƥȤȤƽƤºݤˤϡΤ褦ʼŪǸŪʥƥȤޤ˥ʤɤοƳηƤ⤷ʤȤOED ˤǧʤäȤȤǤʤܲԻ3ǤˤƤϤDzȤȤ Hendriks (1669) ȤڤƤˡ
⤦1ĤϾ嵭ȤϢ뤬OED ϸɸѸϢʤѸѼˤƤƤʤäȤŦ줫μѸϡषɸѸ줫æ쥸㤨оʬ̾ʬ "macaronic" ʥ쥸ǤƤꤵ뤬OED ʤѸˤɸŪͽǤϡΤ褦ɸŪʥ쥸ϤޤȤ˰ƤʤäHendriks (1662) ۩
Non-literary sources such as macaronic business writings, however, may be more likely to reflect the vernacular of London than the more pure literary texts selected to compile the atlas. Given the literary emphasis in the OED and the LALME, the range of topics which appear in these sources may be considerably restricted. The consequence of this is that entire semantic fields --- such as those pertaining to industrial or commercial relations, that is, fields where the significant contribution of Low Dutch to the English lexicon would be observed --- remain undocumented.
ˡѸʹߤ˸¤СOED "Standard English" ʳΥڻ뤷ƤȤ¤Ŧʤ
פˡѸ줬¸ߴƤϤΥ쥸OED ɮƬȤɸŪեΥˤϴޤޤƤʤäȤȤʤΤϡѸˤ historiography ˤܼŪȸ虜ʤ
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.
ƤαѸ˳ǤϡDutch, Flemish, Afrikaans, Low German ʤɤ (the Low Countries) ν줫μѸˤĤơ¿εҤ롥ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ե줫μѸ٤еϤƶ⤺äȾᡤޤǥޥŪʰ֤ŤˤȤɤޤ롥
ȤαѸ˸ǤϡΤ褦˲ᾮɾƤ¤ơϽȤθܿѶŪɾ褦ȤޤäƤƤ롥
ܥ֥ǤϡϢ뵭ȤưʲƤ
#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])
#140. եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kin ([2009-09-14-1])
#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1])
#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1])
#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])
#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])
#3436. ɤӤȤܿˡ ([2018-09-23-1])
ϡOED ѤϽ줫μѸ"once-Dutch words" ȾΤƤˤĴ den Otter ˰͵ Hendriks (1667) ꡤ13--17˱ѸäƤѸΥץ
13th century:
asquint, bouse, gewgaw, muster, pack, scour, scum, slight, slip, slop, welter, wiggle
14th century:
bale, bundle, clamp, clock, fraught, grim, groove, keel, kit, mate, miller, north-north-east, north-north-west, rack, rover, school, scoop, slipper, slap, sled, spike, splint, splinter, tear, wainscot, wig, wind
15th century:
brake, cabbage, cooper, cope, cramer, dapper, deck, excise, freight, gold, graft, hackle, hop, leak, lighter, luck, marline, mart, meerkat, misdeal, mud, nappy, pace, peg, pickle, pink, pip, rack, rumple, rutter, scout, scuttle, slip, sod, stripe, stuff, tattle, warble, whirl
16th century:
aloof, anker, beleaguer, boor, boss, bumpkin, burgomaster, bush, cashier, clump, cramp, dike-grave, dock, dollar, domineer, drawl, ensconce, filibuster, flute, foist, forlorn hope, free-booter, frolic, gripe, gruff, jerkin, kermis, landscape, lazy, manikin, mesh, pad, pickle-herring, pram, push, rant, rash, reef, safflower, sconce, scone, scrabble, scrub, shoal, slap, snap, sniff, snuff, snuffle, span, spatter, stake, steady, stump, stutter, tattoo, uproar, wagon, wagoner, yacht
17th century:
back, balk, beer, blaze, boom, brandy, clank, cruise, cruiser, decoy, drill, duck, easel, enlist, etch, furlogh, gas, gherkin, hovel, hustle, kill, kink, knapsack, masterpiece, morass, outlander, plug, polder, skate, sketch, slim, slurp, smack, smuggle, smuggler, snow, snuff, speck, still life, stink-pot, stoker, tea, trigger (den Otter 1990: 265--266)
den Otter Ĵˤȡޤä "once Dutch words" ο1254Ǥꡤαƶĺ15äȤ³ơ161817Ȥ֡ (Hendriks 1667) ѸȤ16--17γѸ줬¿ʥºݤˤŪ̾졤ư졤ƻ¿ޤޤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
den Otter, Alice G. "Lekker Scrabbling: Discovery and Exploration of Once-Dutch Words in the Online Oxford English Dictionary." English Studies 71.3 (1990): 261--71.
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.
ܿ (contact) γƤ Winford ϡʸˡܤμѲǽϤƤʤΤΡŦƤʸˡѤλ¿ϡ̾θüѤ١ȤΤǤꡤȯŸǤȤ٤ΤΤǤϤʤȤͤƤ롥
㤨С̤Ѹˤϥե줫¿ܼѤ줿Ȥ롥 (suffix) ˸¤äƤ -acioun, -age, -aunce, -erie, -ment, -ite; -ant, -ard, -esse, -our; -able, -al, -iv, -ous, -ate, -ify, -ize ʤɤ (Winford 57) ѸüԤϡեäԥݥȤڤäƼƤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǤñ̤˼ƤθڤФơѸθŬѤΤŪ˥ե줫ܼѤΤ褦˸뤬ºݤΥץϡüѤθܼڤФŬѤȤȤʤΤ
Ʊͤˡ츫ŪʼѤ˸⡤칽¤ùܤμѤޤϢưǷŪ칽¤ΤΤ⥳ԡ줿̤ȤߤʤȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
㤨СWinford (66) Silva-Corvalán 1994ǯθȤơɸॹڥȡѸǻܿƤ륹ڥιʸӤƤ롥ѸǤ they broke my jaw 칽¤ԤǤͿ me ȼ y me quebraron la mandibula ȤʤΤΡԤǤϱѸ° mi ȼ y quebraron mi, mi jaw ȤʤȤ륹ڥιʸˤƱѸ줫ѤƤ褦ˤߤ뤬̩ˤСּѡפȤϡѸ칽¤ȤǤΥ륹ڥȤƤˡγĥȤ٤⤷ʤȤΤϡɸॹڥǤ⡤Ԥι¤ԼǤϤ뤬ƶоݤ֤פΤ褦ʿΤ̤ǤϤʤΤڤΥ̤νͭʪξˤϡ̤Ѥ뤫ĤޤꡤȤȤΥڥˤäѡŪ¤бѸ칽¤˿ȯơˤޤäΤ褦˻פ롥ּѡפȸƤ֤ȤǤΤȡФ Winford η (68)
Silva-Corvalán (1998) discusses several other examples like these, and argues that the changes involved are not the outcome of direct borrowing of a syntactic structures or rules from one language into another (1998: 225). Rather, what is involved is a kind of "lexico-syntactic calquing" (ibid.) triggered by partial congruence between Spanish and English words. This results in Spanish words assuming the semantic and/or subcategorization properties of the apparent English equivalents (faux amis). Her findings lead her to the conclusion that "what is borrowed across languages is not syntax, but lexicon and pragmatics" (1998: 226) This claim certainly seems to hold for cases of language maintenance with bilingualism such as that in LA.
ѡפ "lexico-syntactic calquing" (cf. loan_translation) Ȥơ뤤Ū "faux amis" (cf. false_friend) ȤƤȤ館ϤޤǤˤʤäܤ줿
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen. Language Contact and Change: Spanish in Los Angeles. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen. "On Borrowing as a Mechanism of Syntactic Change." Romance Linguistics: Theoretical Perspectives. Ed. Shwegler, Armin, Bernard Tranel, and Myriam Uribe-Etxebarria. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1998. 225--46.
ùܤμѤϤФ뤬ʸˡܤμѤϤޤǤ롥ΤȤϡ (borrowing) ܿ (contact) εǰŪǧƤ뤳ȤʸˡܤȤäƤ͡Ǥ롥㤨СŪѤϳΤ˵Τ褦ŪѤ˻礫ʤԤΤʤǤǤ϶Ǥùܤ˶ᤤ˼ѻ¿Ȥ롥ޤŪäǤ롥
ʸˡѤϤɤΤ褦ʾΤȤΤˤϤɤΤ褦ʸŪ¤ݤƤΤܿǤ⤿ӤƤǡܥ֥ǤϰʲεǸڤƤ
#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2113. ʸˡѤξ ([2015-02-08-1])
#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1])
#4410. ܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡ ([2021-05-24-1])
Winford (93--96) ϡWeinreich, Heath, Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤԸȤʤ顤ּѤ˲ݤ¤Ȥ4Ƥ롥
Morphological constraint 1 (borrowing):
The greater the congruence between morphological structures across languages in contact, the greater the ease of borrowing.
. . . .
Morphological constraint 2 (borrowing):
The greater the degree of transparency of a morpheme, the greater the likelihood of its diffusion. By contrast, the more opaque (complex, bound, phonologically reduced) a morpheme is, the less likely it is to be borrowed.
. . . .
Morphological constraint 3 (borrowing):
The existence of gaps in the morphemic inventory of a recipient language facilitates the importation of new morphemes and functional categories from a source language.
. . . .
Morphological constraint 4 (borrowing):
The lack of a functional category in a source language may lead to loss of a similar category in a recipient language
ԸǤǤ˻ŦƤ4Ȥǡ̤Ϥ褯ʤäƤ롥2ˤޤС2֤ι¤Ūפȡָ naturalnessפ˹Ԥ夯
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Heath, Jeffrey. Linguistic Diffusion in Arnhem Land. Australian Aboriginal Studies: Research and Regional Studies 13. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 1978.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ܿ (contact) θǡǯäȤƶϤäȤ Thomason and Kaufman Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) źθܿλƤ͡ʴ褦Ȥ˲ͤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦ʵǾҲ𤷤Ƥʤۤεɤˡ
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
Winford (23--24) Thomason and Kaufman ʬŪ˰͵Ĥ "Major outcomes of language contact" ꤹɽäƤ롥ָܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡפȤäƤ褤ܿݤ˾˼긵֤ƤȤĤǡʲ˼ *

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
45˥ȤֱѸƳ2021⡤3ܤޤΥưƤΡ5ޤ³©ĹʤΤǤܥ֥ɼԤγˤĨꤺˤդ礤Τۤɤꤤ夲ޤƥĤΥåĤʤ顤伫Ȥ˥ԥ졼åȤƤޤǯٽȤơʤʤեåǥʥʥץ˥Ǥ
ơǤϡ餷ۤɤ˥ʸȤݤƤߤޤѸ줬ʿ͡ʸʿͤˤϡäǤƼΤƤʤ褦ʸϤȻפޤʤࡤʤʸϡˡܴ褿˱ꥢåפ줿ƥĤֱѸʿͤΤαѸˡꤹ롤Υʸ˴źäͻǤƬ2ĤνФȤڤ褯Ϥ褤Ǥ͡
ְѸȤʤƤ⤤Ķ餷ƤסġĤΤ褦ʺߤĤߤΤäϡѸοʹ֤ʤа٤ȯȤơǯۤäɮԼȤΤ褦ˤܤƤդǤ⤢ä
Ѹοʹ֤פΤϡޤäơƤ벣ʸ¿Ǥ쥬ߥåȡӥƥġĤʤDZѸʤ뤤ϱѸͳѸ˻ȤʤФʤʤΤȡ˥塼ʤɤʤͤùߤʤǤ롥
ɤߤʤ륳ƥĤǤϤʤǤ礦ƤȤƤϡܤDZѸȸäƤ̡ȡ17ɤǥƥȸäƤ̱Ȥ֤֡ĶӤѸˤιƥĤȤʤäƤޤ
ܸˤ륫ʸȥͥɤΥƥѸоȤϡоȸ (contrastive_language_history) δ鶽̣οԤʤơޤǤ̤2ĤΤΤӤ褦ȤݤˤϡǤʤαդ뤳ȤפǤ嵭ƥǤϡտŪξԤζФƶŤƸƤ櫓Ǥܤ뤳Ȥǡζΰյ⤫Ӿ夬餻뤳ȤǤޤʲ2ŦƤޤ礦
1ܡܤDZѸȸäƤ̡Ȥ櫓ֱѸʤƷפǤΤƤ륿פȡ17ɤǥƥȸäƤ̱ȤǤϡƸФפʤۤʤޤֱѸʤƷפطʤˤϡŪ˱ѸФƴפΤǤϤʤȤƥĤǤλŦäƤȻפޤ17ɤν̱ϥƥַפǤΤƤƤϤʤäǤ礦ƥϡäȽʡƴסϤʤȤˤ֥פ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤäǤ礦
ξԤΰ㤤ϡüŪˤСؤФƤ뤫ݤˤޤܤǤϡȤѸ줬ƴפäȤƤ⡤̳ǶŪ˳ؤФȤ̣Ǥϡ¤γؽΡֶϫפåȤˤʤäƤޤعdzؤ֤٤ֲܡפȤʤäƤƤϡʤΤǤϤʤʤϤǤ17ɤǤϡ̱ˤȤäƥƥؽϤεΤΤޤβ֤Ǥꡤ¤γؽΡֶϫפȤ̵ʤˡƴפϽƴȤΤǤ
2ܤϡ17ɤǤϥƥѸ줬 inkhorn_term ȤȽ줿ȤΤϻ¤ǤȽμϡ㤤̡Ǥʤн̱ǤʤХХμͤǤSir John Cheke (1514--57) Τ褦ʥ֥åؤθŵ춵ѸȽƤۤɤʤΤǤξϡɤˤߤƤ⡤ܤαѸ̡ʸ˰֤ĤƤΤȤӤǤʤ褦˻פޤ
2ĤΤΤоȤȤˡŻ뤷ơӡפεˤäƤŻ뤷ơоȡפεˤäƤϡԤ˼Ǥ⤢ꡤäƤޤХȥåǤ⤢ޤˤƤӤˤˡоȤˤ϶դƤȹͻޤ롤ȤȤҤ٤Ƥޤ礦
Ϣϡܥ֥ȤƤϡ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1])#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ¾εǰäƤޤȥĥäƤΤǡɤ
ѸϸŪ˻θǤ롥Ѹˤؤ֤Ȥΰ̣ʬΤǤʤȥϥƥʤ֤üŪˤȡѸθä2/3Ϥ褽θ줫μѸǤ롥դˤСΡֱñפϱñ1/3ʤȤȤ
Ѹˤ̤ơҤ¾줫ñѤƤη̡ŪˤϤä껨ˤʤäƤޤäαѸŪʤʤɽСֻ (omnivorousness) Ȥʤ뤷ʤˤСŪʸá (cosmopolitan_vocabulary) Ȥʤ롥ȤʤäȾʤѤäƤ350ϤꡤŪˤŪˤޤˡŪפȤˤդ路ä˴ؤƤСֱѸϸŪˤϤϤѸǤϤʤפΤ (cf. #2468. ֱѸϸŪˤϤϤѸǤϤʤפɾ ([2016-01-29-1])ˡդϡܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӼ夲ƤؿΤϡ##151,756,201,152,153,390,3308ε
ơѸ˸äƤΤʤǡϥꥢ夲ꥢϺܸǤߤե륨ڥ顤Ρ顼ȡʥƥݡƥߥȥܡѥѥåӥ顤ԥեʡ졤եơ֥åޥˡޥ˥եȡޥꥢߥͥȥͤʤ¿ (cf. #1896. ܸäθ ([2014-07-06-1])ˡǤϡѸäꥢñˤϲ뤫arcade, balcony, ballot, bandit, ciao, concerto, falsetto, fiasco, giraffe, lava, mafia, opera, scampi, sonnet, soprano, studio, timpani, traffic, violin ʤɡ¿äƤ롥
Ѹäˤ¸ߴΤե졤ƥ졤ťΥɸʤɤ٤СꥢαƤȤäƤ褤ϡꥹȥꥢǻ̩ܿŪˤϤ褽ʹߤΤȤǤꡤήˤǤ롥Ǥ⡤Ū˱ƤȤǤꡤϤꤢ٤Υץ쥼ǧ뤳ȤǤΤΤꥢñμѤ˴ؤͻ##1411,1530,2329,2357,2385,2369,3586Ȥ줿
ꥢäƤʤ顤Ǥ߿Ȥ spaghetti ֥ѥƥפ˿Ƥʤä¤ϡΥꥢͳ1ñܤǡѸˤ̥Ϥָ뤳ȤǤ롥ϤޤäƤֱѸƳ2021ǡּѸ --- "spaghetti" Υڥ뤫餤 ---ȯɽƤ롥ɤ
夬Ūʬθäϰۤʤ֤ߤڤꤵ졤˸ȻŦƤ롥
ŵŪ˲ʳѸǰƬˤȡΤˤθäϾʤȤ͡θ֤ǡ¿ξ¿θ֤Ǥ⡤̤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿ȤƸ̤ǤϤʤʤäǤ⡤ΰ̣ʲʳŪˤϤۤƱݤΤ̤Ǥ롥Ūʬθä춭ۤŤƤˤĤơ (210--11) ϡ礤ʤϼ̡פȤŪ̾ͿʤŦƤ롥
礤ʤϼ
˭٤ʼѤϡ衼åѤνθäΤʤˡɤƱȿΤҤФƤ롥衼åѰʳΦνˤĤƤƱȤ롥ˡ衼åѰʳνϡä˭ˤ뤿˸ŵŪפꡤĤͤˤäθǤ롥ȤСҥǥ졤졤ӥʤɤνˤϥåȤȥѡ졤ܸˤϸŵ䷱ɴ졤ƥ륯ϸϸˤϸťȥ륳ȸť줬ˤ롥餹٤ƤθϤޤƱͤˡѸФɬפ뤿ˡѸˤäƤ롥ƤαѸ⡤¿γѸƥ졤ꥷθ캬ƤΤǤ롥
η̡¿Υ衼åѤ䤽¾ϰθ줬ꥷƥη°ʤȤƤ⡤ѸŪˤ褯Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ƱνưפˤꡤʤȤȤ䤹ƤȤ顤ᥤĴ褦ˡά͡Ϥ줾줿ε¤ʥԡȤʤäƤޤΤƸñ줬˰ۼʽʸΤϤƤʤ¿ͤʻǤϤʤʤξˤϤФдȤȤʤ롽٤Ƥʸ˶̤ʳǰоݤĤƱ褦ɽ魯ǤˤʤäƤΤǤСΤ褦ñͭϤȤ˼Ѥ˻ΤȤʤꡤкŪǤʤСγ˭ˤʤɤȤϡʤʤʤ
ºݤˤϡ衼åѤνǤϼ̤ϡŪʸäǤäƤ餺ΰ̣Ǹäʬ˸¤Ƥ롥ĤʬϤȤξ֤ΤޤޤǤꡤȤ˴ɽʤɤǤʤȤϤɽʬǤ«ݤʤ櫓ǤϤʤˡƲ⡤ҤȤĤθܼŤʸˡ¤ϡ줾ͭηǤĤŤƤ롥Ǥʾ塤¿θ줬Ф뤳Ȥϡ̵ŪǼؤǽƻ̤¸ߤΤȤϤ櫓ΤǤ롥Ūʬθä˸ΤϡΤ褦̿γ̷֤⤹ɤʸ³ŤƤΤǤ롥
μݤϡŪʬθä˴ؤƤгΤˡ礤ʤϼ̡פηϸ뤬ޤǤʬŪɽŪʤΤˤηΤ˴ؤƤΡ֤ʤ礤ʤϼ̡פʤɤʤȤȤѺǸǡ礤ʤϼ̤Ρʸ³פˤޤǸڤǤ롥¤ϸϼ̤ξʤ뤳ȤʤʸϤäΤǤϤʤȲᤷʤ
ѸˤΩ줫βʳѸ¤졦ŤˤĤƤϡ#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1])#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1])#3179. ֿŵŪʣפֱפ ([2018-01-09-1])#4191. ʳѸΰ̣νؤŤˤĤơ ([2020-10-17-1]) ʤɤεɤ
ɡˡë 𡦺 ľҡˡض̸ --- 衼åѽᤰء١ҡ2018ǯ
ˤ (borrowing) ˤĤơä˸μѡʤѸ (loan_word) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ϶¿ƤޤŪˤ͡˹ͻƤ㤨С#44. ּѡפˤߤ ([2009-06-11-1])#900. Ѥ ([2011-10-14-1])#901. Ѥʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1])#2663. ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡ (1) ([2016-08-11-1])#2664. ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡ (2) ([2016-08-12-1])#3008. ּѤȤϻͤˤǤ¤Ǥס ([2017-07-22-1])#3332. Aitchison ˤѤ4Ĥħ ([2018-06-11-1]) ʤɤȡ
ǶᡤѸΤ⤦1Ĥΰۤʤ븫 Meillet (22--23) ؤ줬Ѹ줫ݤϡ褽θ줫äƤݤˤäƷޤ櫓ǤϤʤλѤ夫η³ħŤƤʤɤˤäƷޤȤ㤨СɸѸδߤСεեƥǤäƤ⡤줬űѸѸȤŤäƤΤǤСʸ塤Ѹ̤ƸˤޤǷ³ŪѤƤ櫓Ǥ뤫顤ϼѸǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥դˤߤСűѸѸѤƤǤäƤ⡤ˤβǰѤȤʤꡤ餫ͳǸѸˤ褷ǤСľλ夫³ŪѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡѸȤȤˤʤ롥μѸˤȡñεȤʤ뤤ˤӸŪƱǤ뤫ɤϡκݴطʤȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤСפֵȤƻȤʤ뤤ˡפ˴ؤ륹ˤ롥פ100ǯȤΤ10ǯȤΤϤޤ1ǯȤΤޤֵȤƻȤʤ뤤ˡפ⡤ʤ궹ꤵ줿ϰҲ쥸ʤɤؤȤǤ롥μǡܤƤ줬Ѹ줫ݤޤäƤȤ̣ǤϡMeillet ϤŪȤ褦Ūʻäۤɻ¿ʤΤǤ롥Ĺ Meillet (22--23) ˿ʬѤƤºݤˤϡθˤ Meillet ǫʲ㤬³
Il importe de définir ici ce que l'on entend en linguistique par l'emprunt.
Soit une langue considérée à deux moments successifs de son développement; le vocabulaire de la seconde époque considérée se compose de deux parties, l'une qui continue le vocabulaire de la première ou qui a été constituée sur place dans l'intervalle à l'aide d'éléments compris dans ce vocabulaire, l'autre qui provient de langues étrangères (de même famille ou de familles différentes); s'il arrive que quelque mot soit créé de toutes pièces, ce n'est, semble-t-il, que d'une manière exceptionnelle, et les faits de ce genre entrent à peine en ligne de compte. Soit par exemple le latin à l'époque de la conquête de la Gaule par les Romains et le français (c'est-à-dire la langue de Paris) au commencement de XXe siècle; il y a des mots comme père, chien, lait, etċ, qui continuent simplement des mots latins; il y en a comme noyade ou pendaison qui ont été faits sur sol français avec des éléments d'origine latine, et il y en a d'autres qui sont entrés à des dates diverses: prêtre est un mot qui est entré par le groupe chrétien à l'époque impériale romaine, sous la forme presbyter; guerre, un mot germanique, apporté par les invasions germaniques, et entré dans la langue par le groupe des conquérants qui ont été maîtres du pays, à la suite de ces invasions; camp est un mot italien venu au XVe siècle par les éléments militaires qui ont fait les campagnes d'Italie; siècle est un mot pris dès avant le Xe siècle au latin écrit par les clercs et qui avait disparu de la langue commune; équiper est un terme de la langue des marins normands ou picards; foot-ball est un terme de sport venu de l'anglais il y a peu d'années; mais, par rapport au latin de l'époque de César, tous les mots en question sont également empruntés, car aucun n'est la continuation ininterrompue de mots latins de cette date, ni ne s'explique par des formes qui se soient perpétuées dans la langue sans interruption entre l'époque de César et le commencement du XXe siècle. Il n'importe pas que le mot soit emprunté à une langue non indo-européenne, comme il arrive pour orange, ou à une langue indo-européenne autre que le latin, comme prêtre, guerre, ou au latin écrit comme siècle, cause, ou à un dialecte roman comme camp, camarade, ou même à des parlers français plus ou moins proches du parisien, comme le mot foin, pris à des parlers ruraux, et que sa phonétique dénonce comme n'étant pas parisien; en aucun cas il n'y a eu continuation directe et ininterropmpue du mot latin à Paris depuis l'époque de César jusqu'au début du XXe siècle, et ceci suffit à définir l'emprunt pour la période considérée de l'histoire du français parisien. Donc la notion d'emprunt ne saurait être définie qu'à l'intérieur d'une période strictement délimitée, et pour une population strictement délimitée.
Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). 1921 ed. Rpt. Dodo P, 2009.
ʳѸ˸¤餺ŪѸʤŪʸŪʲͤĸäȤΰ̣ϡ춭ۤƹϰϤŤġ줫̤θؤȸäۤܤΤޤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢СƼޤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Ԥξˤ줬ӤӤ̣ϡƤꥸʥθǤ롥ȤΤϡ춭ۤŤΤϡ줽켫ΤȤϡषΰ̣ --- ȤʤäƤŪʸŪʲ ---
ˤСñθΤߤʤ餺ϢäޤȤޤäŤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤǤϡºݤŤƤΤϡ츫ȸä䤽ΰ̣Τ褦ˤߤơ¤ϤظǤ복ǰե (conceptual_metaphor) ʤΤǤϤʤȤͤǤ롥
ʾϡMeillet (20--21) ̾ʰ̣ѲɤǤȤˡդȵդȤǤ롥1ʸǰѤƤ
Le fait est particulièrement sensible dans les groupes composés de savants, ou bien où l'élément scientifique tient une place importante. Les savants, opérant sur des idées qui ne sauraient recevoir une existence sensible que parle langage, sont très sujets à créer des vocabulaire spéciaux dont l'usage se répand rapidement dans les pays intéressés. Et comme la science est éminemment internationale, les termes particuliers inventés par les savants sont ou reproduits ou traduits dans des groupes qui parlent les langues communes les plus diverses. L'un des meilleurs exemples de ce fait est fourni par la scholastique dont la langue a eu un caractère éminemment européen, et à laquelle l'Europe doit la plus grande partie de ce que, dans la bigarrure de ses langues, elle a d'unité de vacabulaire et d'unité de sens des mots. Un mot comme le latin conscientia a pris dans la langue de l'école un sens bien défini, et les groupes savants ont employé ce mot même en français } les nécessités de la traduction des textes étrangers et le désir d'exprimer exactement la même idée ont fait rendre la même idée par les savants germaniques au moyen de mith-wissei en, gothique, de gi-wizzani en vieux haut-allemand (allemand moderne gewissen). Souvent les mots techniques de ce genre sont trduits littéralement et n'ont guère de sens dans la langue où ils sont transférés; ainsi le nom de l'homme qui a de la pitié, latin misericors, a été traduit littéralement en gotique arma-hairts (allemand barm-herzig) et a passé du germanique en slave, par example russe milo-serdyj. Ce sont là de pures transcriptions cléricales de mots latins.
ѸˤʳѸˤĤƤϡ#616. Ѹβʳظäȯ ([2011-01-03-1])#617. Ѹ5ʬθä̻ʬۡ ([2011-01-04-1])#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤȴϢơȤ櫓#1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]) Ȥ줿
Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). 1921 ed. Rpt. Dodo P, 2009.
ε#4189. across a + cross ([2020-10-15-1]) ǡacross θ츻˿줿cross ȤѸ˼Ѥ줿Ǥꡤֻȼä across θƱѸ˽ФƤ롥ֻ̤Ϲ٤εǽȤơĤ (closed class) Ȥ뤬Τ褦ʸ˼ǤޤޤƤȤΤϡ츫ȵΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤ
ѸˤˤֻϡĤפ餷ƤȤȤ˼बƤǤ롥ΤʤˤϡեƥʤɤμǤޤΤ⾯ʤʤ#947. Ѹֻ ([2011-11-30-1]) įƤߤȡŪ٤ֻ˸¤äƤ⡤Ҥ across Τۤ (a)round, concerning, considering, despite, during, except, past ʤɤ˵롥ʣֻθСaccording to, apart from, because of, due to, in place of, regardless of ʤɤä롥ֻˤǤʤ
ŪֻäϡȤ櫓Ѹ줫Ѹˤcf. #1201. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤֻȯ ([2012-08-10-1])ˡƱΥեƥ줫ΥץåȤˤȤ礭Ȥ餫Ǥ롥̤Ȥơ¸ΤΤޤġֻλȤʬʣ뤳ȤˤʤꡤαѸؽԤǺޤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥Τ褦ĬήȤ٤ΤѸŪᤤ˽Ф across Ǥꡤaround Ǥ⤢ΤῼȤкῼ
ε#4145. ѸǤɤˤ뺮 ([2020-09-01-1]) ơܸλ¸Ǥޤޤʤȳ줫ʤ뺮ͤƤߤ褦֥饤ȡס֥ʲҡסŻҥס֥ƥáסֵӡסڥġפʤɤפ⤫֡ѤWաסIT̿סPCֽפʤɤ롥
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¸ߤϡܸ줬θͭǤǤ¸פˤơǤǤ졤ѶŪ˼ߤʤ顤ˤȤ߹碌뤳Ȥˤä¤Ԥʤä˭٤ˤƤаޤʪäƤ롥 (262)
ѸǤϡ#4149. Խ뤵븽κ ([2020-09-05-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡȤ˺ФŪ٤뤬ܸǤϤηŪ夤Ȥ
ؿܸ춵ŵ١ܸ춵ز ԡ罤۽Ź2005ǯ
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