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phonology - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-28 00:27

2023-02-10 Fri

#5037. ɡβǤȤƤðۤ2 [consonant][phoneme][allophone][phonology][phonemicisation][syllable][h]

Ѹˤͭɡ [ŋ] /ŋ/ Ȥ1ĤβǤǧƤ롥[ŋ] ̤β /n/ ΰ۲ȤƤδġѸβηϤˤ [ŋ] /ŋ/ Ⱦüʰ֤ŤͿƤ롥βǡˤΰ֤Ťˤϡ줬ѸˤŪʳdzΩȤȴط롥δϢ뵭Ȥưʲ󤲤Ƥ

#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])
#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])
#3855. ʤֿסʤ󤳤ˤΥ޻ɽ *Shingkoiwa Ȥʤ餺 Shinkoiwa ȤʤΤǤ ([2019-11-16-1])
#4344. -in' -ing ξάǤϤʤ ([2021-03-19-1])

Minkova (138) ˤȡ /ŋ/ ˤ2Ĥð롥1ĤϡβǤ coda ˤʤȡ2Ĥˤϡ˲ä domain-final ˤʤȤǤ롥Ԥϲ١ǡԤϷ֡å١ȹͤƤ褤ԤͭΤˤСñ줴Ȥ˼¸ /ŋ/ /ŋg/ ۤʤΤաȽҤ٤ƤΤƱǤ롥

   The distribution of contrastive /ŋ/ prompts some interesting phonological questions. Like PDF /h-/, which can appear only in onsets, /ŋ/ is a 'defectively distributed' phoneme: it can be distinctive only in coda position. The restriction reflects its historical origin since it is only through the loss of the voiced velar stop in the coda that /ŋ/ became contrastive: kin--king, ban--bang, run--rung. Before /k/, as in plank, sink, hunk, [-ŋ] remains a positional allophone followed by the voiceless stop. Thus, we get a three-way opposition in pin [pɪn]--ping [pɪŋ]--pink [pɪŋk], sin, sing, sink, and so on.
   Another peculiarity of contrastive /ŋ/ is that it has to be domain-final, that is, the [-g-] is preserved stem-internally, rendering [-ŋ-] allophonic, as in Bangor, bingo, tango, single, hungry, Hungary, all with [-ŋg-]. Note that the preservation of [-g-] does not depend only on syllabification, because in forms derived with -ing or the agentive suffix -er, the [-g-] of the stem is not realised, and the derived form copies the shape of the base form: singing, singer with just [-ŋ-]. In addition to the most frequent -ing and -er, the majority of the native suffixes such as -y, -dom, -hood, -ness, -ish, -less, -ling, also -let (OFr), preserve the shape of the base: slangy, kingdom, thinghood, youngness, strongish, fangless, kingling, ringlet have [-ŋ-]. The addition of a comparative suffix, -er or -est, as in longer, strongest, youngly, however, results in heterosyllabic [ŋ].[g]. The addition of Latinate suffixes generally preserves the [g], as in fungation, diphthongal, but not always, as in ringette, nothingism. Then there is vacillation with some derivatives: prolong and prolonging are always just [-ŋ], prolongation varies between [-ŋ-] and [-ŋg-], and prolongate is always [-ŋg-]. There are some idiosyncrasies: dinghy, hangar allow both pronunciations, and so do English and England. The behaviour of [-ŋ] in clitic groups and phrases is also variable; the variability of [-ŋ] is of continuous theoretical interest. In our diachronic context, the deletion of the [g] and the possibility of phonemic [ŋ] in narrowly defined contexts in late ME and EModE is most notable as an addition to the inventory of contrastive sounds in English.


Ѹʹ [ŋ] ϲDz (phonemicisation) ФˤʬۤŰ줵椨ˡŪʰϺ˻ޤǾ񤷤

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.

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2022-10-29 Sat

#4933. wh ȯ [pronunciation][spelling][phonetics][phonology][phoneme][ame_bre][digraph][consonant]

<wh> Ȥ2Ż (digraph) ϵΤ褦ʹٸ˸Τ߿2ŻбȯˤĤƤ褯򤷤ƤѸؽԤ¿ʤ
what, which ֥ۥåȡס֥եåפȥʽ񤭤ȯꤹͤ¿⤷ʤꥹɸѸˤƤϡ֥åȡס֥åפǤ롥ĤޤꡤWatt, witch ȤޤäƱȯȤʤ롥Ūˤ̵ [ʍ] ǤϤʤޤͭ [w] ȤȤ
嵭ϥꥹɸѸäǤꡤꥫѸϤθ¤ǤϤʤ what, which ϳơ [ʍɑt], [ʍɪtʃ] ŪȤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ºݾͭ [w] ǤȯޤäƤƤ褦
<wh> ɽ魯ҲθˤĤ Cruttenden 򻲾ȤƤߤ褦

In CGB (= Conspicuous General British) and in GB speech in a more formal style (e.g. in verse-speaking), words such as when are pronounced with the voiceless labial-velar fricative [ʍ]. In such speech, which contains oppositions of the kind wine, whine, . . . /ʍ/ has phonemic status. Among GB speakers the use of /ʍ/ as a phoneme has declined rapidly. Even if /ʍ/ does occur distinctively in any idiolect, it may nevertheless be interpreted phonemically as /h/ + /w/ . . . . (Cruttenden 233)


ʤߤ˾嵭ʸ "CGB (= Conspicuous General British)" Cruttenden (81) ˤȡ"that type of GB which is commonly considered to be 'posh', to be associated with upper-class families, with public schools and with professions which have traditionally recruited from such families, e.g. officers in the navy and in some army regiments" Ȥ롥 "RP" (= Received Pronunciation) ˶ᤤΤªƤ褤͡ͳ RP ȸƤ֤٤ǤʤȤΩ줬ꡤΤ褦Ѹ츯򤷤ƤΤǤ롥
¾ѼˤĤƤϡΰѤͤˤʤ

The only regional variation concerns the more regular use of [ʍ] in words with <wh> in the spelling. This happens in Standard Scottish English, in most varieties of Irish English and is often presented as the norm in the U.S., although the change from [ʍ] to /w/ seems to be more common than is thought by some. (Cruttenden 234)


긵ˤä Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.) "wh Spelling-to-sound" Ƥߤ

Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is w, as in white waɪt. An alternative pronunciation, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors, is hw, thus hwaɪt. This h pronunciation is usual in Scottish and Irish English, and decreasingly so in AmE, but not otherwise. (Among those who pronounce simple w, the pronunciation with hw tends to be considered 'better', and so is used by some people in formal styles only.) Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w.


ѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ䤿ѸؽԤϰ̤ <wh> /w/ 򤷤ƤƤĤʤ
<wh> ȴϢơ#3870. Ѹˤ wh- ʤ q- ֻ ([2019-12-01-1])#3871. åȥɱѸˤ wh- ǤϤʤ quh- ֻʸ Alexander Hume ([2019-12-02-1]) ε⻲ȡ

Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

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2022-10-22 Sat

#4926. yacht <ch> [dutch][loan_word][silent_letter][consonant][spelling_pronunciation][metathesis][phoneme][grapheme][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][consonant][phonology][orthography][digraph][eebo]

<ch> ۻ (silent_letter) Ȥʤñ줬4ĤȤȤ򶵤ƤäʵŤʾ򤢤꤬Ȥˡdrachm /dræm/, fuchsia /ˈfjuːʃə/, schism /sɪzm/, yacht /jɑt/ Ǥ롥ŵϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲 (7) Ǥ롥
yacht ܤƤߤθ16Υ jaght(e) ѤΤǡOED ˤȽϰʲʸǤcf. #4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1]t λҲߤʤΤˤʤȤǤϤ롥

a1584 S. Borough in R. Hakluyt Princ. Navigations (1589) ii. 330 A barke which was of Dronton, and three or foure Norway yeaghes, belonging to Northbarne.


ѸǤνֻʤ餯ȯˤϡ gh ȯɤΤ褦ˤƼफɤ줬ä餷͡ä褦OED βˤȡ

Owing to the presence in the Dutch word of the unfamiliar guttural spirant denoted by g(h), the English spellings have been various and erratic; how far they represent varieties of pronunciation it is difficult to say. That a pronunciation /jɔtʃ/ or /jatʃ/, denoted by yatch, once existed seems to be indicated by the plural yatches; it may have been suggested by catch, ketch.


<t> <ch> ȿž yatch Ȥʣֻ EEBO ǸƤߤȡ1670ǯ夫1690ǯޤǤ50ۤɾ夬äƤʤߤˡΤ褦ֻȿžѸǤʤȤ櫓 "guttural spirant" ؤˤϤ褯줿Τạ̇̄ǤϤʤѸˤޤǤϤ߽ФƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
yatch ȯֻˤĤƤϡDobson (371) Τ褦˸ڤƤ롥

Yawt or yatch 'yacht' are two variant pronunciations which are well evidenced by OED; the former is due to the identification of the Dutch spirant [χ] with ME [χ], of which traces still remained when yacht was adopted in the sixteenth century, so that it was accommodated to the model of, for example, fraught and developed with it, while OED suggests that the latter is due to analogy with catch and ketch---it is certainly due to some sort of corrupt spelling-pronunciation, in the attempt to accommodate the word to native models.


<t> <ch> ֻȿžȡ³ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) η߽Ф줿 yacht ̯ʰ۷ȤȤˤʤ롥

Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

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2022-09-10 Sat

#4884. Ѹ2첻3첻 [diphthong][triphthong][vowel][phoneme][phonology][sound_change]

Ѹ2첻 (diphthong) 3첻 (triphthong) ϡˤΤʤǼࡦȤѲ³Ƥ͡Ѳ뤲Ƥ̡ѸɸѼˤǤϷ13郎ǧƤ롥ŪʴȡʲΤ褦ηŪʿޤȤʤ롥οޤ Crystal (251) οޤѤΤǤSVG⤢ˡ

diphthong

2첻ϡ2⡼첻 (1) ۣ첻 /ə/ ǽ뤫(2) 첻 /ɪ/, /ʊ/ ǽ뤫η3˸¤Ȥħ롥
3첻ϡ嵭ι첻ǽ2첻θˡ3⡼Ȥۣ첻 /ə/ դ5˸¤롥
Ūˤߤȡ2첻3첻Τߤʤ餺ñ첻 (monophthong) ⤪ѲƤѸΤȤ첻㤷󤷤ƤȤаޤ롥ɤΤ褦ѲƤΤʤۤѲƤΤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾ȡ

#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])
#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1])
#2181. űѸ첻ηϡ ([2015-04-17-1])
#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])
#4108. boy, join, loiter --- 2첻μŪʡ ([2020-07-26-1])
#4521. Ѹ˾μפ첻Ѳ ([2021-09-12-1])

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.

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2022-08-23 Tue

#4866. Ѹβȷ2ʬ --- ̿󥰡ֱѸء Day 2 [english_linguistics][phonetics][phonology][voicy][reference][double_articulation][2022_summer_schooling_english_linguistics]

ֱѸءץ󥰤 Day 2 Ǥ褤ܳŪȤäƤޤΥɤ2ʬ (double_articulation) (phoneme) (morphology) ǤָȤϲפȤȴʤʤǤ夲Ȼפޤ֤դϥͥǤʾСˡ



1. Ѹ: #3093. դ tongue twisters ([2017-10-15-1])
2. ء
2.1 2ʬ: #767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1])
2.2 ǤȲ (morpheme vs phoneme)
2.3 ǤȲ (phoneme vs phone): Ȳؤΰ㤤
3.
3.1 첻: #19. 첻շ ([2009-05-17-1])
3.2 Ҳ: #1813. IPA ٵήˤҲʬ ([2014-04-14-1])
3.3 Ѹܸβ: #1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1])
3.4 Χ (prosody): ͡ʱΧŪħ
4.
3.1 ä: Ȥϲ
3.2 ޷: #2653. ([2016-08-01-1])
3.3 ʣä: ͡ʣ
5. heldio #449. 2ʬȤϲεå




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2022-08-11 Thu

#4854. ⡼ꥺȶꥺ [syllable][mora][phonology][prosody][typology][japanese][rhythm][stress][world_englishes]

ε#4853. ȥ⡼ ([2022-08-10-1]) ˰³ѸαΧоȤ롥ʲ (27--28) 򻲾Ȥ롥
ܸϥ⡼ʲꥺ (mora-timed/syllable-timed rhythm) Ѹ϶ꥺ (stress-timed rhythm) ĤȤ롥
ܸΥ⡼ʲꥺȤϡƱĹñ̡ʥ⡼䲻ʤɤñ̤ǡܸξˤŵŪ˥⡼ˤϢ³ƸΤǡϢ³Υꥺ (rhythm of succession) 뤤ϡֵؽƥꥺ (machine-gun rhythm) ȤƤФ롥ѸüԤˤȤäơܸΥꥺϡ֥פΤ褦ñĴʤΤʹȤ
ѸζꥺȤϡΤ벻ȤʤȤŵŪ˸ߤ˸ΤǡָؤΥꥺ (rhythm of alternation) 뤤ϡ֥⡼륹ꥺ (Morse-code rhythm) Ȥ⤤롥ܸüԤˤȤäơѸΥꥺ϶ΥϥΤ벻βη֤ʹ롥ѸδŪʥꥺശϡΤ褦෿ŪоŪʤᡤߤ˰´礭
Ѹ줬ꥺĤȤϴְ㤤ʤѸˤδϡλ¤ǤвªƤɬפ롥űѸϽʶꥺθǤϤʤäȤ⤢뤷ѸǤФвꥺबʹ뤳ȤΤǤ롥ѸߤĤꥺळѸˤ̤˭٤ˤߤ첻ѲθưϤäȤ븫⤢롥Ѹˤˤꥺ (rhythm) ϡפΤۤ礭ʲε׻ȡ

#1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])
#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])
#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])
#4470. եꥫϤαѸˤߤꥺȶη ([2021-07-23-1])
#4799. Jenkins ˤ "The Lingua Franca Core" ([2022-06-17-1])

ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס 򹯡 ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ

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2022-08-10 Wed

#4853. ȥ⡼ [syllable][mora][phonology][phonetics][prosody][typology][japanese]

塤 (syllable) ȥ⡼ (mora) ϰۤʤñ̤Ǥ롥⡼Τۤñ̤ǤꡤƤĹ첻2첻ϲȤƤ1ȥȤ뤬⡼ȤƤ2⡼ȥȤ롥ܸ줫㤫顤ξԤδطƤʷp. 15ˡ

ñ
---------------------- ----------------------------- -----------
Х 3 (o.ba.ma) 3 (o-ba-ma)
֥å 2 (bus.syu) 3 (bu-s-syu)
ȥ 3 (ku.rin.ton) 5 (ku-ri-n-to-n)
ȥ西 3 (to.yo.ta) 3 (to-yo-ta)
ۥ 2 (hon.da) 3 (ho-n-da)
˥å 2 (nis.san) 4 (ni-s-sa-n)

θؼ Trubetkoy ˤСθϡ֥⡼פȡֲפʬǤȤ˽ȡܸϥ⡼졤ѸϲȤȤˤʤ롥 (16--17) ϡǾ (minimality constraint) λ˿ʤ顤Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥

ʹ֤θȥ⡼ʬͤϡ֤ΰ㤤򤢤ªƤǡȥ⡼¸Ǥʤñ̤ȤªȤϤǤ롥ºݤˤϡѸΤ褦ʡֲפˤ⡼ɬפǤꡤܸɸˤΤ褦ˡ֥⡼פȤˤⲻ᤬ԲķȤʤ롥
㤨бѸǤϡ1θ¿1⡼θϵƤʤ[pin] pin [pi:] pea Ȥ2⡼1¸ߤ뤬[pi] Ȥ1⡼Ĺ1¸ߤʤ¸ߤʤΤǤϤʤ¤Ū˵ƤʤΤǤ롥ġġά͡ġĺǾϱѸΥե٥åȯˤɽƤꡤե٥åȤ1ĤĸȤȯˤ A [æ] ǤϤʤ [ei]B [b] [bi] ǤϤʤ [bi:] 2⡼ʰʾˤĹȯ롥
⡼ȤܸɸˤεҤˤⲻȤñ̤ԲķȤʤ롥㤨гû̷ˤϡά͡2⡼ʾפȤǤʤ2ʾפȤݤ롥祳ʡ祳졼ȡˤ䥹ȡʡ㥹ȥ饤ˤȤ22⡼ṳ̂ϤäƤ⡤*ѥʡѥեåȡˤ*ʡ㥷ݥˡ*ѡʡѡޥȡʥˡˤȤû̷ƤʤΤϤΤǤ롥2⡼βǻϤޤ3⡼ܤޤǤĤơ2û̷ʥѥաݡѡޡˤФ롥


顤ȥ⡼ΧȿŪñ̤ǤϤʤ1ĤθΤʤƱ路䴰Ūʴطˤñ̤ȤȤ館ɬפ뤳Ȥʬ롥ܸβ⡼ˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ

#1023. ܸμȿ ([2012-02-14-1])
#3719. ܸϳ졤ѸIJ ([2019-07-03-1])
#3720. ʤѸ make ܸ˼Ѥȸ첻 /u/ ΤĤ meiku /meiku/ ȤʤΤǤ ([2019-07-04-1])
#4621. ⡼ --- ܸ줫ΰ̲ؤι׸ ([2021-12-21-1])
#4624. ܸΥ⡼鴶С ([2021-12-24-1])

ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס 򹯡 ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ

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2022-05-29 Sun

#4780. weaken Ф strengthen, shorten Ф lengthen [suffix][word_formation][phonology][morphology][chiguhagu_channel][antonymy][word_formation][derivation]

khelfʷѸ˥եˤؤäǶ̤ǤѸˡѸؾͷӤΤ褦ʤΤȤơ֤Ϥͥ (chiguhagu_channel) Ȥ򡤤줳2ǯۤ³Ƥޤγɤ֤ϤפФƤΤǡܳŪʵνȯȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ڤǤޤSlack ȤåȥġΤʤΡ֥ͥסʥʡΤ褦ʤΡˤȤΩƤΤǡ̾ĤƤޤΰյϼ̤ꡥ
'

ȿε17ʸ31ʸɽΤж硤ûΤȤСʱѸˤԾ1~2ԤɽΤ֤ϤͥפǤڤ̣Ǿ餹褷֤Ϥס֤򤫤פǾ餹褷Ǿ餹褷ؼԤǿ̤ͤʤƱɶǡֱӤפȤŰͥǤ


ơرԤ֤ϤפƤޤʤرȤϡܲΡرѸ˿ʹ2ԽѰĹ̳ƤƤǤ2𤦤ԡˡ

weakʷˡweakenư
strength̾ˡstrengthenư


ä2ԤǤƱԳѤʻŦäȤʤޤθ塤Ρ֤Ϥפ˥󥹥ԥ졼䤫鼡Τ褦ʼݤǡֲΡפޤ

ΤϤ˴ؾ褵Ƥ餤ޤ

shortʷˡshortenư
length̾ˡlengthenư

ͤʤ顤ɤɤȤʤȵλ򤿤ɤäƤʤΤǤư -en ϡΤΤβ֡˳äʡˤȤȤäȻפΤǤ͡ƻ strong long IJ /ŋ/ ǽΤǡ-en ³ʤʤȤ³ǤʤˤȤȤǤϤʤȡäĴ٤ƤߤޤȤפФƤߤޤ


θ塤ŵפФɤ夯ȤǤޤJespersen ǤJespersen pp. 355--56 濴Ȥơư -en ˴ؤܺ٤ʲ⤬ޤ§Ȥ -en ˳ (obstruent) ǽΤˤĤIJ (sonorant) 첻ǽΤˤϤĤʤȤȤǤΤ *strongen *longen ȤϤʤΥ롼ˤʤ̤δΡʺΥǤ̾ strength, lengthˤФ졤 -en ĤȤȤǤ

   There are no examples of n-vbs formed from adjs in vowels (or diphthongs): free, blue, low, slow, hight, sly, shy, new; narrow, yellow, steady, holy; nor of such disyllables as able, noble; nor of adjs in m, n, ŋ, r: slim, thin, brown, clean, long, strong; far, poor, near. Note the contrast in Kipling L 135 to see the smoke roll outward, thin and thicken again | Hardy L 147 her hair greyed and whitened | Quincey 295 to soften and refine the feelings.
   . . . .
   Our rule accounts for the formation of length(en) and strength(en): there are no vbs long or longen 'make or become long, strong or strongen. On the analogy of these we have the rare depthen (17th c.) and breadthen (19th c.); no corresponding vbs without -en.
   Adjs in -l generally have no vbs in -en (thus none from small, full, still); the two named above [= dullen and palen] are exceptional and late.


Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-30-1]

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2022-02-04 Fri

#4666. Ѹǰˤ th-sound [fricative][phonetics][phonology][world_englishes][th]

Ѹ th-sound ̸ŪȯǤ뤳Ȥϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ¾ǸƤɸѸˤƤ th-sound ȾΤ໤ [θ, ð] ϡ [t, d] Ȥ໤ [s, z] Ȥ⿰໤ [f, v] ȤۤʤҲǤꡤΩǤƤ롥¿θǤϤαѸ th-sound ΩǤȤƤäƤʤᡤѸäݤˤ̤λҲؤʤɲ餫нˡɬפȤʤ롥
Ѹʸ̮ǤȤʤ롥㤨СܸǤ th-sound ϡ֥פ뤤ϡ֥פȤƼ뤳ȤܤȤʤäƤ뤬 s/z Ȥζ̤Ĥʤơ֥󥰡פ sing ˤ thing ˤб뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ֥פ Zen ˤ then ˤбȤä֤Ȥʤ롥
ϡܸǤϤʤθǹѻǤ롥¿θ줬λҲƤäǺǤΤMesthrie and Bhatt (126--27) ϡth-sound ŪƤˤĤƼΤ褦˵ҤƤ롥

Fricatives: The most striking feature among fricatives is that all New Englishes varieties treat /θ/ and /ð/ as something other than an interdental fricative. /θ ð/ are realised similarly as a pair as follows:

   Dental stops [t̪ d̪] in CFl [= Cape Flats] Eng (variably) and regularly in IndSAf Eng, Pak Eng;
   An aspirated dental stop [t̪h] occurs widely in Ind Eng, but its voice counterpart [d̪] is not usually aspirated;
   Alveolar stops [t d] in EAf Eng, Ghan Eng, Sgp Eng, Mal Eng, Phl Eng;
   Variably as [t t̪] for /θ/ and [d d̪] for /ð/ in BlSAf Eng and Ghan Eng;
   Affricate realisations [t θ] and [d ð] are reported as lesser variants in Ghan Eng.

/θ/ is realised as [f] word-finally in some words in EAf Eng, Ghan Eng and Sgp Engl
   In EAfr Eng /θ/ and /ð/ may be realised as [t s f] and [d z v] respectively, Other changes to fricatives are less widespread;


쥢եꥫѸѼ濴Ȥơ¿Ѽˤ th-sound ϡɸѸƱ褦ĴƤʤȤ狼

Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-10-07-1]

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2021-12-24 Fri

#4624. ܸΥ⡼鴶 [syllable][phonology][japanese][mora]

ܸĹ¥Τ褦ü첻ǤϡǤϰ̲Ȥβ (syllable) 뤳ȤϤǤʤΤΡܸüԤˤȤäƤϻ¾β1ñ̤ȤǧƤ롥ǧƤȤ⡤ܸβδפΤΤǤꡤ줬ʤܸβ²ΤжΩʤȤۤɤɬǤȤ롥
?ס֤áס֤פɽ蘆벻Ǥ򡤡֤ס֤ס֤פƱñ̡ʥ⡼ˤȤߤʤޤ礦ȤäȤǡܸ2ȤƳؽԤˤȤäƤ񤷤褦Ǥ롥ؿܸ춵ŵ٤ p. 16 ˼Τ褦ʰ᤬롥

ܸ춵θǤϡüΥ⡼鴶Ф򶵤뤳Ȥκ񤵡Ĥޤꡤü1⡼ȤƤĹȯˤϤɤ褤򶵤뤳Ȥ񤷤ĤȤ˻ŦƤ롥Ҳ뤤첻1ĤüϡҲ첻̾μΩʤȤСܡ/me/ֺ/sa/ʤɡˤ³֤ûΤΡܸüԤˤ1⡼ʬĹĤγФ롥⡼ȤǰϡܸΤߤѤ櫓ǤϤʤ⡼ȤܸǤϡ⡼Ȥñ̤ԲķǤ뤳Ȥءİвء쿴ءءǾʳؤʤɡޤޤʬθ椫餫ˤƤ롥


ܸˤȤäƤΥ⡼ȤϲʤΤܸؤˤǤꡤ䤬ʾ򶴤櫓ˤ⤤ʤȤƤľѤ򡤵ҴŪʸѸˤäư֤ŤȤ񤷤ħȤơ夲ƤߤΡ#4621. ⡼ --- ܸ줫ΰ̲ؤι׸ ([2021-12-21-1]) ε򻲾ȡ

ؿܸ춵ŵ١ܸ춵ز ԡ罤۽Ź2005ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-03-08-1] [2022-08-10-1]

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2021-12-21 Tue

#4621. ⡼ --- ܸ줫ΰ̲ؤι׸ [syllable][phonology][grammatology][syllabary][hiragana][katakana][japanese][writing][terminology][mora]

ʸˤ⤷Ƥ Daniels (63) ˡܸβ̾ʿ̾Ҳ̾ˤ⡼˴ŤʸǤ뤳ȤڤƤ롥λ¤ΤΤܸؤǤ뤵ƤܿȤǤⲿǤʤ (syllable) ǤϤʤ⡼ (mora) ȤŪñ̤ؤ˻ޤ줿ۤʤܸ츦ˤäȤȤΤäܸβ̾ɽ䲻Τ˥⡼ȤǰȤɬפݡޤˤΤƳ줿ǰäΤ

The term 'mora' was introduced into modern linguistics by McCawley (1968) to render a term (equivalent to 'letter') for the characters in the two Japanese 'syllabaries' ('kana'), hiragana and katakana, which denote not merely the (C)V syllables of the language but also a syllable-closing nasal or length.


⡼Ȳ᤬ۤʤñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥϡʲ㤫ʬ롥פˡĹ¥Τ褦ü첻ǤϡΩˤϤʤʤΩ⡼ˤϤʤ롥

֤ʤ (Nagasaki) 4⡼4
֤ (Ōsaka) 4⡼3
֥åȡ (roketto) 4⡼3
֤֤ (shimbun) 4⡼2

Ȥϰۤʤ뤬ܸüԤˤȤäƤ餫ΩʤȤߤʤƤ⤦1ĤβŪñ̡줬ܸΥ⡼Ǥ롥̾γʸˤϡ褽줤1ĤΥ⡼餬бƤ롥

Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
McCawley, James D. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2021-09-19 Sun

#4528. ꥹμϰ˻Ĥ3Ĥȯ [pronunciation][h][r][rhotic][vowel][centralisation][phonology][phonetics][phoneme][substratum_theory][celtic_hypothesis][cockney]

ꥹΤΤʤ濴ŪʱѸȤС֥ƥΥ󥰥ɤΥɥ濴Ȥ륤󥰥ɸѸΤȤؤΤ̤Ǥ롥ʳΥ󥰥ɤ䡤륺åȥɡɡ¾ʤɤޤȤƼϰȸƤ֤ȤˤȡμϰαѸѼˤϤФиŤħ (relic features) ѻ롥ŪħȤơCorrigan (355) 3Ĥͭ̾ʻ󤲤Ƥ

(1) "FOOT/STRUT split"
Ū /ʊ/ 濴ϰ /ʊ/ /ʌ/ ʬѲ򤵤17岽 (centralisation) ȸƤФǡˤ첻Ǥ1Ȥˤʤ롥ϰǤʬϵäƤʤ foot strut Ѥ餺 /ʊt/ ǵӱƧࡥ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) Ͽޤ򼨤褦ˡʬ̵ͭʬۤΤǤ롥

(2) "non-prevocalic /r/"
ܥ֥Ǥ rhotic ¿εˤƤ#452. 󥰥ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ϿޤǺܤƤ뤬Ǥ첻֤ʤŪ r ¸³Ƥ뤬濴Ǥϼ¸ʤåȥɤ䥢ɤ rhotic Ǥʤ륺Ǥϰ non-rhotic Ǥˡ

(3) "h-dropping"
Cockney ȯȤƤ褯ΤƤ h æ븽ݡ¤ Cockney ˸¤餺Ѹʹߡ濴ϰǹԤʤƤh-dropping ϰѼȤƤħǤϤʤҲѼȤƤħȤߤ뤳Ȥ¿ϰѼǤϤޤ긫ʤȤ¤⤢ꡤȤñǤϤʤȷϤδؤıѸѼǤϰŪ˸Ƭ h ݻƤ롥

Τ褦˼ϰϸŤħݻƤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪʴʬۤǽʬʤΤϰϡŪʰ̣ǼդǤǤʤȷϸ졦ؤˤıѸѼ郎ԤʤƤϰȤ̱²Ūʰ̣ǤդǤ롥Corrigan Ͼ嵭ħȸزˤΤȶĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤ򼨺ǾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

Corrigan, Karen P. "The Atlantic Archipelago of the British Isles." Chapter 17 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 335--70.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-23-1]

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2021-09-12 Sun

#4521. Ѹ˾μפ첻Ѳ [sound_change][vowel][phonetics][phonology][diphthong][gvs][r]

#3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1]) 첻Ǥ񤤤ƤʤäΤǡϱѸˤˤ첻βѲˤĤơפʤΤޤȤ᤿
ȤϤäƤ⡤Ѹ˾βѲϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ⼨褦ˡ첻ѲΤۤäȼ䵬ϤäơμѲˤޤȤ夲Τ񤷤ǡCruttenden (72) ˽äơűѸȸѸ첻ηϤоȤȤ˺ΩĥݥȤ6󤲤뤳Ȥǡ̤βȤ

(1) OE rounded front vowels [yː, ʏ] were lost by ME (following even earlier loss of [øː, œ]).
(2) Vowels in weakly accented final syllables (particularly in suffixes) were elided or obscured to [ə] or [ɪ] in ME or eModE.
(3) All OE long vowels closed or diphthongised in eModE or soon after.
(4) Short vowels have remained relatively stable. The principal exception is the splitting of ME [ʊ] into [ʌ] and [ʊ], the latter remaining only in some labial and velar contexts.
(5) ME [a] was lengthened and retracted before [f,θ,s] in the eighteenth century.
(6) The loss of post-vocalic [r] in the eighteenth century gave rise to the centring diphthongs /iə,eə,ɔə,ʊə/ (later /ɔə/ had merged with /ɔː/ by 1950 and /eə/ became /ɛː/ by 2000). The pure vowel /ɜː/ arose in the same way and the same disappearance of post-vocalic [r] introduced /ɑː,ɔː/ into new categories of words, e.g. cart, port


(3) 첻ܡ (gvs) ˴ϢѲǤ롤
Ѹ˾¿첻ѲΤʤDzŻ뤷ͭյȤ뤫ȤΤϤʤʤ񤷤ʤΤƾιܤ˹ʤä󼨤̯Ǽ롥˻ͤˤʤꥹȤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ

Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-10-1]

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2021-08-20 Fri

#4498. ѸȺŬ [ot][phonology][world_englishes][pidgin][contact][sociolinguistics]

ҲŪʸ̮ǵ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹ (world_englishes) ȡȤƤκŬ (Optimality Theory; ot) 2ĤȤ߹碌ƹͤƤߤ뤳ȤʤɡޤǤʤäUffmann ޤˤΤ褦ͤ󼨤Ƥ롥
"World Englishes and Phonological Theory" Ȥ򸫤Ȥˤϡ͡ʱѸѼβ٤ơŬˤŪ褦ȤΤȻפäɤ⤽櫓ǤϤʤ褦ˤɸȤƤϤΤ褦ʤȤͤƤΤ⤷ʤͤǤϡ Vernacular Liberian English (cf. #1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1])) ȤL2ѸѼβħL1ʤΥ󥭥󥰡ˤۤ줿Ȥͳ褹ȤΤˡŬѤƤ롥
ɷŪʸäܿ (contact) ȤƼҲŪȡηϤ˴ؤŪȤŬΥ󥭥󥰤𤷤ƷӤĤȤФ褤ʸξԤηӤĤɬ䤫󼨤줿櫓ǤϤʤޤǺβȤƼˤȤɤޤäƤϤ롥Ǥ⡤̤ȤƤͭ˾Uffmann (79--80) ϼΤ褦˸̤Ƥ롥

   We also still do not have a clear idea of how the social factors in language contact interface with the formal properties of a grammar. With respect to creoles, Uffmann . . . suggests that there are three main processes at work whose relative weighting will depend on the exact nature of the contact situation: (a) transfer of substrate rankings, (b) levelling across substrates, which will be levelling to the unmarked (unless the marked option is shared by a majority of speakers), that is, choosing the ranking from the pool of grammars in which markedness constraints are ranked highest, and (c) acquisition of the superstrate grammar, as reranking via constraint demotion . . . . How does this proposal transfer to other contact varieties?
   In this context, a particularly interesting model to look at could be the Dynamic Model of postcolonial Englishes proposed in Schneider (2007; this volume). It is interesting not only because it is the best developed framework to date to account for all postcolonial varieties, from settler varieties, via nativized varieties, to pidgins and creoles. Its special relevance lies in the fact that it links sociolinguistic and socio-historical conditions to identify construction and to linguistic effects. Why and how then do specific contact settings yield specific linguistic outcomes? How could this proposal tie in with Uffmann's model of constraint transfer, levelling to the unmarked and reranking (as acquisition)? This chapter cannot answer these questions. It can only serve as a call for more serious research in this field. Linking World Englishes to phonological theory and applying the models of phonological theorizing to varieties of English from around the world can be an exciting endeavour, and it is to be hoped that it can enrich our understanding of both the processes that lead to the emergence of new Englishes and of the fundamental principles that underlie phonological computation and processing.


ǤϡܿҲŪѥ᡼ζ١ظαƶŪ¸ߡȤäؤüüޤǤʤ򡤺ŬΥ󥭥󥰤Ȥ1Ĥ֤˼̤ƤȤ롥
ŬˤĤƤϡ#3848. 󥭥󥰤 "Optimality Theory" ([2019-11-09-1])#3867. Optimality Theory --- äʹΥˡθ줿 ([2019-11-28-1])#1581. Optimality Theory Ρϡס ([2013-08-25-1])#3910. Ŭ (Optimality Theory) Υ󥭥ɽɤ ([2020-01-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ΰѤǻȤƤ Schneider "Dynamic Model" ˤĤƤϡε#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Uffmann, Christian. "World Englishes and Phonological Theory." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 63--83.
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.

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2021-08-04 Wed

#4482. Shakespeare ȯ [shakespeare][pronunciation][reconstruction][phonetics][phonology][rhyme][pun]

Crystal ˤ The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation ѥѥįƤ롥Shakespeare 400ǯۤνηȤǤꡤǯΤܤäĸλ٤Τ̯ʴ뤫⤷ʤShakespeare Ρ֥ꥸʥȯפȤŪ줿ΤǤʾ塤ĸκƷ (reconstruction) ܼŪ˰ۤʤȤϤʤShakespeare ξˤϡֻ (spelling)ӱ (rhyme)ϸ (pun) ʤɡƷ٤ƤҥȤŪ¿Ȥü𤬤뤳ȤϳΤϼΰ㤤Ȥ̡٤ΰ㤤Ȥäۤ褤ºݡShakespeare ȯκƷˤĤƤ⡤٤ʲȤʤȡǤʤȤ¿褦
μΡ֥ꥸʥȯפμѤݤˡդʤФʤʤȤ롥 The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation ξǤС Shakespeare ȯ򶵤Ƥ뼭ǤϤʤȤȤơϤɤȤCrystal (xi) ⤳ĴƤΤǡϢսѤƤ

The notion of 'Modern English pronunciation' is actually an abstraction, realized by hundreds of different accents around the world, and the same kind of variation existed in earlier states of the language. People often loosely refer to OP as an accent', but this is as misleading as it would be to refer to Modern English pronunciation as 'an accent'. It would be even more misleading to describe OP as 'Shakespeare's accent', as is sometimes done. We know nothing about how Shakespeare himself spoke, though we can conjecture that his accent would have been a mixture of Warwickshire and London. It cannot be be stated too often that OP is a phonology---a sound system---which would have been realized in a variety of accents, all of which were different in certain respects from the variety we find in present-day English.


1ˡƱϡ Shakespeare ȤȯˤĤƶƤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥󼨤ƤΤ Shakespeare ȤȯǤϤʤShakespeare оʪʤɤ˸餻褦ȤƤդȯˤʤΥȥ뤬 "Shakespeare's Pronunciation" ǤϤʤƻѤƾܤ "Shakespearean Pronunciation" ȤʤäƤ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥
2ˡƱͿƤȯϡ̩ˤСShakespeare оʪʤɤ˸餻褦ȤƤդȯɽ路Ƥ餤ʤǤϲɽ蘆ƤΤȤСShakespeare оʪʤɤ˸餻褦ȤƤդβ (phonology) Ǥ롥ºݤоʪԡˤȯƤȯΤΡĤޤ phonetics ǤϤʤݲηϤǤ phonology ɽ路ƤΤǤ롥󡤤ϼºݤζ񸽲줿ȯˤٶƤϤȤϸΤǡѾ塤㤨ԤȯŪΤˤϽʬѤ­̩ˤСȯΤΤ򶵤Ƥ뼭ǤϤʤȤȤ򲡤ƤȤϽפǤ롥פˡμΤ "The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Phonology" Ȥ٤ΤǤ롥
Shakespeare ˸¤餺Ųݤ˹ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥϡ§ȤƲηϤʤΤȻפظ˼ºݤβƤ뤳ȤϤ褽ȤƤˤ衤ƷоݤȤʤΤϡޤäŪʲηϤǤ롥
(phonetics) Ȳ (phonology) ΰ㤤ˤĤƤϡ#3717. ؤȲϤɤ㤦ΤǤ ([2019-07-01-1]) ӡ#4232. ؤȲϡ֤ι¤ȥ ([2020-11-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Crystal, David. The Oxford Dictionary of Original Shakespearean Pronunciation. Oxford: OUP, 2016.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-11-18-1] [2021-08-21-1]

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2021-07-23 Fri

#4470. եꥫϤαѸˤߤꥺȶη [prosody][phonology][stress][syllable][rhythm][world_englishes][new_englishes][variety][esl][diatone]

ˤ͡ʱѸѼ郎ꡤҤä World Englishes New Englishes ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿䥢եꥫˤŪʷаޤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ѽ郎¿¿ΥեꥫѼ˶̤Ƹ뱤ΧħĤŦƤ롥Ǥ2󤲤褦1Ĥ "syllable-timing" ȸƤФꥺ (rhythm) ⤦1Ĥϸζ (stress) ΰ֤˴ؤ뷹Ǥ롥ʲ Mesthrie and Bhatt (129) 򻲾ȤƲ⤹롥
syllable-timing Ȥϡꥺδθ෿1ĤǡɸѸ줬 stress-timing ֤ΤǤ롥Ԥϲʥ⡼ˤֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡܸե󥹸줬򼨤Ԥ϶ֳ֤Ƿ֤ꥺǡɸѸɥĸ줬򼨤cf. #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1]
եꥫϤνˤ syllable-timing ĤΤ¿δؤξ˾äƤ ESL Ѽˤ syllable-timing ΥꥺबۤȤȤ㤨СɷեꥫѸ졤ͷեꥫѸ졤쥢եꥫѸ졤ʥꥢѸ졤ʱѸ졤ɱѸ졤ѥѸ졤󥬥ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤եԥѸʤɤ syllable-timing 򼨤Υꥺħ̤ħȤơѼˤϡ첻ˤ첻ŪƤݤȤ⤢롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡsyllable-timing ΥꥺϤ̣ǤͥȤäƤ褤
Ѽˤϡζ˴ؤƤⶦ̤Ƥߤ뷹롥ФɸѸȤϰۤʤ֤˶֤뤳Ȥrealíse Τ褦˶֤¦˴ΤȤ櫓¿롼ѸʤɤǤ adólescence Τ褦˺¦˴Τߤ롥ޤѼǤɸѸ ábsent (adj.) absént (v.) Τ褦ʡʻˤäƶ֤ư븽 (diatone) ϤߤʤȤ
ŪˤСظαƶβDZΧε§άΤȤäƤ褤ܸüԤˤȤäơͥױΧħǤꡤŸˤܤƤ

Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-11-1]

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2021-06-21 Mon

#4438. űѸ첻η [oe][vowel][monophthong][diphthong][phonetics][phonology][phoneme]

űѸ첻ʣηϤʤƤû첻Ĺ첻û2첻Ĺ2첻η󤬤ꡤűѸȾλˤäƤˤäƤ첻μȿϰۤʤäƤᡤűѸ첻ʲǡ˰ȤǤ롥ޤĹ2첻ηˤäɤäơ#3955. űѸ "digraph controversy" ([2020-02-24-1])#3964. űѸ "digraph controversy" (2) ([2020-03-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʷ㤷⤢ꡤǤϤʤ
Ǥ Prins (51--52) ˰͵򤷤ơűѸθȥ첻ηϤ򼨤Ȥˤ롥

Short Vowels
iüu
eö ( e )o
æ, a
Long Vowels
i:ü:u:
e:ö: ( e: )o:
æ:
ɑ:
Short Diphthongs
ie( i )
eo
ea
Long Diphthongs
i:e( ü )
e:o
e:a


Ƥ٤ϡ

(1) û첻 ö Ĺ첻 ö ϡ߿
(2) û첻 æ a Ʊ첻Ǥΰְ۲Ĺ첻 æ: ɑ: ϰۤʤ벻ǤǤ
(3) û2첻 ie ϡ i Ѳ
(4) Ĺ2첻 i:e ϡ ü: Ѳ

Ȥʤ롥
ƼѲ첻ηϤˤƷ󤴤Ȥ˲Ǥȡû첻6ǡĹ첻7ǡû2첻2ǡĹ2첻2ǤȤʤꡤʤѤäƤ17Ĥ첻ǤäȤˤʤ롥Ѹ첻Ǥ20ĤۤɤʣűѸ餱Ƥʤcf. #1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1])#1601. Ѹܸ첻ΰӡ ([2013-09-14-1])ˡѸǤʣ¤줿ΤΤȤƤߤˤ̤ƱѸ첻ηϤϹäƤȤäƤ褤

Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.

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2021-01-30 Sat

#4296. ǤȤϲ --- Crystal Ѹ켭ŵ [sobokunagimon][phoneme][phonetics][phonology][terminology][history_of_linguistics][linguistics]

(phoneme) ϡؤǤɬ夲δŪñ̤ǤȤʤ顤¤͡ˤꡤؾäȤޤߤγǰѸ1ĤǤ롥ػ˾褬䤨ڡΩ뤳ȤΤǤʤǤ롥ؤǤϡˤƤΤ褦ޤߤε롥㤨С (word) ȤŪñ̤顤ؤǤϤޤФͿƤʤ (cf. ָʤ񤷤פεå)
ǤȤΤäԤʤʤˤʤ櫓ˤ⤤ʤΤǡޤѸ켭ŵεҤäƤߤ褦ĤäƤߤΤΤ䤳ȿǤƤɤ⵭Ҥȥ졼ȤǤʤΤʤǤʬ䤹äΤ Crystal Ѹ켭ŵäΤǡóݤȤĹȰѤȤŪʬ䤹Ȥе䡥줯餤鿴Ԥˤϡʼ¤Ȥˤ˼äĤˤѸ졦ǰ

phoneme (n.) The minimal unit in the sound SYSTEM of a LANGUAGE, according to traditional PHONOLOGICAL theories. The original motivation for the concept stemmed from the concern to establish patterns of organization within the indefinitely large range of sounds heard in languages. The PHONETIC specifications of the sounds (or PHONES) heard in speech, it was realized, contain far more detail than is needed to identify the way languages make CONTRASTS in MEANINGS. The notion of the phoneme allowed linguists to group together sets of phonetically similar phones as VARIANTS, or 'members', of the same underlying unit. The phones were said to be REALIZATIONS of the phonemes, and the variants were referred to as allophones of the phonemes . . . . Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes; some languages have as few as fifteen phonemes; othes as many as eighty. An analysis in these terms will display a language's phonemic inventory/structure/system. No two languages have the same phonemic system.
   Sounds are considered to be members of the same phoneme if they are phonetically similar, and do not occur in the same ENVIRONMENT (i.e. they are in COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION) --- or, if they do, the substitution of one sound for the other does not cause a change in meaning (i.e. they are in FREE VARIATION). A sound is considered 'phonemic', on the other hand, if its substitution in a word does cause a change in meaning. In a phonemic transcription, only the phonemes are given symbols (compared with phonetic TRANSCRIPTIONS, where different degrees of allophonic detail are introduced, depending on one's purpose). Phonemic symbols are written between oblique brackets, compared with square brackets used for phonetic transcriptions; e.g. the phoneme /d/ has the allophones [d] (i.e. an ALVEOLAR VOICED variant), [d̥] (i.e. an alveolar devoiced variant), [d̪] (i.e. a DENTAL variant) in various complementary positions in English words. Putting this another way, it is not possible to find a pair of words in English which contrast in meaning solely on account of the difference between these features (though such contrasts may exist in other languages). The emphasis on transcription found in early phonemic studies is summarized in the subtitle of one book on the subject: 'a technique for reducing languages to writing'. The extent to which the relationship between the phonemes and the GRAPHEMES of a language is regular is called the 'phoneme-grapheme correspondence'.
   On this general basis, several approaches to phonemic analysis, or phonemics, have developed. The PRAGUE SCHOOL defined the phoneme as a BUNDLE of abstract DISTINCTIVE FEATURES, or OPPOSITIONS between sounds (such as VOICING, NASALITY), and approach which was developed later by Jakobson and Halle . . . , and GENERATIVE phonology. The approach of the British phonetician Daniel Jones (1881--1967) viewed the phoneme as a 'family' of related sounds, and not as oppositions. American linguists in the 1940s also emphasized the phonetic reality of phonemes, in their concern to devise PROCEDURES of analysis, paying particular attention to the DISTRIBUTION of sounds in an UTTERANCE. Apart from the question of definition, if the view is taken that all aspects of the sound system of a language can be analysed in terms of phonemes --- that is, the SUPRASEGMENTAL as well as the SEGMENTAL features --- then phonemics becomes equivalent to phonology (= phonemic phonology). This view was particularly common in later developments of the American STRUCTURALIST tradition of linguistic analysis, where linguists adopting this 'phonemic principle' were called phonemicists. Many phonologists, however (particularly in the British tradition), prefer not to analyse suprasegmental features in terms of phonemes, and have developed approaches which do without the phoneme altogether ('non-phonemic phonology', as in PROSODIC and DISTINCTIVE FEATURE theories).


Ǹ˽ɤθάҤƤ뤬䡤¤
(phone) Ȳ (phoneme) Ȥΰ㤤ˤĤơޤǤ˼Τ褦ʵ񤤤ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ

#669. ȯɽȱѸˡ ([2011-02-25-1])
#3717. ؤȲϤɤ㤦ΤǤ ([2019-07-01-1])
#4232. ؤȲϡ֤ι¤ȥ ([2020-11-27-1])

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.

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2020-11-27 Fri

#4232. ؤȲϡ֤ι¤ȥ [phonetics][phonology][sobokunagimon]

ε#4331. ѸˤΤβء ([2020-11-26-1]) ǡ (phonetics) Ȳ (phonology) ξʬŪʸҲ𤷤Ʊ첻򰷤ʬʤξԤ˰ۤʤΤȤ񤷤ˤĤơƹͤФˤĤƤϡ奢ʤ#3717. ؤȲϤɤ㤦ΤǤ ([2019-07-01-1]) εǾҲ𤷤ξԤζ̤ˤĤơäŪΩ줫ʸϤѤ粬ۤԡˤŪʸƬ (5) θǤ롥

(phonetics) Ȳ (phonology) Ϥɤⲻ򸦵椹Ǥ뤬θˡϼŪ˰ۤʤäƤ롥ʤؤϡΤʴѻȤεҤӲ䵡βͤ餤ȤƤΤФϡηϤ벻ΰ֤ŤӤ䵡ǽ뤳Ȥͤ餤ȤƤ롥
ؤȲγƸϼ֤ι¤ȥˤȤ뤳ȤǤ褦Ĥޤꡤɤʤ˥򤫤ä褯Ƥ֤ι¤˷٤Фμ֤ϰȤϤʤ֤ι¤ˤΤؤǡˤȤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ؤϲ¼ (phonetic substance) ȡΤʲҤ󶡤ϤξηϤŤʤФʤʤξԤޤ߹礦ȤǡȤƤοŸߤȹͤ롥ΤȤϲʳذ̤ˤĤƤ⤤뤳ȤǤ뤬ѻ (observation)--- (description)--- (comparison)--- (explanation) γ̤ӤطԲķǤ
طʤȤʤȤɬפȤʤΤϡоݤȤ֤٤ƴѻǤȤϤʤǤ롥κݤǥꤷ˽äƹͻʤᡤǽŪ˵Ҿ夹Ƥ뤫ݤȽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ؤϡоݤȤ벻¼ꡤɬɬפǤϤʤˤĤƤ硤̣Ȥδطǥǥɬȹͤ롥


ǤäѤ񤷤Ȥۤ⽽ʬˤꤽ줯餤첻˴ؤ븦ǾҲ𤹤ΤϺǤ롥ءʻˡˤؤ٤гؤ֤ۤɡϸܼ˺ǤᤤȤȤⴶ롥첻ȤΤ¦μΤ˰Ĥƹͤ뤫ʹ¦ǧ˰Ĥƹͤ뤫ȤϡɤΤȤȤΤϲʤΤȤ˹Ԥ夫ʤΤ

粬 ֡ ԡˡزء١ҡ1999ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-04-1] [2021-01-30-1]

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2020-11-26 Thu

#4231. ѸˤΤβء [phonetics][phonology][bibliography][hel_education][sound_change]

Ȼפʤ顤ʤʤ줺ˤֱѸˤΤβءפϤޤĿŪʱѸ˴Ѥ˴ŤǤѸˤ򤹤뤿ˤϲءѲ˴ؤŪμ礫ޤ󡥱ѸˤΤ⤷ǽˤϡ첻ФȤɬפǤѸˤ̥ϤȾʬϲˤȸäƤޤäƤ褤Ǥ礦
ʤʤ񤷤ΤϲءȤΤϡ٤ŪʬȤȤǤѸؤγŵŪˤʸȩοʹ֤ȻפޤءȤʬˤŪǤ¿ʬ˴ޤޤƤޤռΤ̵̤Ȥ⤷ޤ󡥤ʤΤǡषѸˤ˴ؿäϡδؿ١ȤơɬפȤβءμؤ֤ȤϤΤ褤Ȼפޤ˲ؤؤӡ˲ؿʤΤˡǤ
ޤϡѸˤؤδؿȤ½νޤ᤿ءνʲ˼ޤѸܸβӤȤؤܤˤȤ褤ȻפޤʤʤΤܸ첻ؤܤ⺮äƤޤˡǤиǤ դޤܤˤäƤϡɬǿǤǤϤʤ⤷ޤ󡥼ޤνҰȤȤǤ餺

ܸ첻١դ1977ǯ
ĤرѸβʳؤ١罤ۡ2007ǯ
סزء١ǡ1989ǯ
ס± رѸȯȱѻαΧ١ʱѸֺ7ˡĬҡ1991ǯ
ˡⶶ ͺ ͵롦± ز١αʸˡ3ҡ1985ǯ
ݡز١ؽӡ2003ǯ
ƣ ˡܸ첻ٲǡƲ2013ǯ
ҡԡˡز١īоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2014ǯ
رѸ첻ء١ҡ1996ǯ
ƣ ҡرѸ첻١罤ۡ2008ǯ
ԡˡزء١īоȸإ꡼ 2īҽŹ2012ǯ
ԡˡ˸ء١īоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ
塡ز١αѸإ꡼3ҡ1994ǯ
رѸ첻ء١Ӥ˼1976ǯ
ҥرѸ첻١Ѹ졦ʸ祷꡼ҡ1986
Abercrombie, David. Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1967.
Carr, Philip and Jean-Pierre Montreuil. Phonology. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Davenport, Mike and S. J. Hannahs. Introducing English Phonetics and Phonology. 3rd ed. Oxon: Routledge, 2010.
Hayes, Bruce. Introducing Phonology. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
International Phonetic Association. Handobook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the Internatonal Phoneti Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1999.
Jones, Daniel. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 18th ed. Ed. Peter Roach, Jane Setter and John Esling. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011.
Ladefoged, P. A Course in Phonetics. 3rd ed Orlando: Harcourt Brace, 1993.
Laver, John Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994.
Roach, Peter. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-21-1] [2020-11-27-1]

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