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tense - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2016-11-06 Sun

#2750. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- Ѹ줫βȸߴλ [perfect][preterite][aspect][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle][me][french][prosody][poetic_license]

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1])#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1])ڤӺε#2749. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- ḽѸ줫Ρְȿ ([2016-11-05-1]) ˰³"Present Perfect Puzzle" ˤĤơѸˤϡΥѥȴϢȤơȸߴλư줬Ū뤤ʸ̮Ū󡦶Ƹ륱롥ξԤδ֤˺ΩäǽŪʶ̤ϴʤȤ顤ޤѸΤ褦Τʶ̤ϤʤäȤ򼨤ȲǤ롥Visser (2198) 顤Ĥ󤲤褦

c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 1956, Adoun by olde Januarie she lay, That sleep til that the coughe hath hym awaked.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. F 1082, His brother . . . Up caughte hym, and to bedde hath hym broght.
c1386 Chaucer, C. T. E 2132, er that dayes eighte Were passed . . . Januarie hath caught so greet a wille . . . hym for to pleye In his gardyn . . . That . . . unto this May seith he: Rys up, my wif!
c1390 Gower, Conf. Am. (Morley) II p. 107, And whan it came into the night, This wife with her hath to bedde dight Where that this maiden with her lay.
c1430 Syr Tryamowre (ed. Erdman Schmidt) 830, [he] bare hym downe of hys hors, And hath hym hurted sare.

ϡ"epic (present) perfect" ȤȤ򤹤뤳ȤǤ뤷ΧˤŪ (poetic_license) ͿƤ뤫⤷ʤVisser (2198) ϡե󥹸ˤƱͤɤ줬뤳Ȥ顤αƶβǽ⤢ꤽȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

It is not difficult to concur with 1960 Mustanoja and 1970 Bauer in assuming French influence as very likely. (As a matter of fact Modern colloquial French often prefers the type 'Je l'ai vu tomber' to that with the 'passé défini': 'Je le vis tomber.)'


Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-19-1]

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2016-11-05 Sat

#2749. "Present Perfect Puzzle" --- ḽѸ줫Ρְȿ [perfect][aspect][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle][mode]

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1])#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡѸˤϡߴλȲλɽ魯϶ǤʤȤ§롥ȤѸȤ櫓ѸǤϡΤ褦ʶ㤬롥ѸˤơʤΤ褦µ§ޤäΤȤꡤ "Present Perfect Puzzle" ˤĤƤϡ͡ƤʤƤˤϲƤʤ
Visser (2197) ꡤѸ20ޤ夫򤤤Ĥ

1601 Shakesp., All's Well IV, iii, 3, I have delivered it an hour since.
1669 Pepys's Diary April 11th, which I have forgot to set down in my Journal yesterday.
1777 Sheridan, School f. Sc. I, i, I am told he has had another execution in the house yesterday.
1820 Scott. Monastery XXX, The Englishman . . . has murdered young Halbert . . . yesterday morning.
1847 Ch. Brontë, Jane Eyre XVI, Indeed I have seen Blanche, six or seven years ago, when she was a girl of eighteen.
1912 Standard, Aug. 16, Prince Henry has decided to travel to Tokio by the overland route. Twice already he has visited Japan, in 1892 and 1900 (Kri).
1920 Galsworthy, In Chancery IV, I have been to Richmond last Sunday.
1962 Everyman's Dictionary of Literary Biography p. 609--10, He [sc. Shakespeare] is, of course, unmeasurably the greatest of all English writers, and has been so recognized even in those periods that were antipathetic to the Elizabethan genius.

Τ褦ʸŪʵ§æƤˤĤơVisser (2197) ¾θԤ򻲾ȤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Several scholars (e.g. 1958 F. T. Wood; 1926 Poutsma) account for these idioms by suggesting that the writer or speaker has embarked on the given form before the idea of a temporal adjunct comes into his mind, and then adds this adjunct as a kind of afterthought. Another explanation is based on the assumption that instances like those quoted here may be seen as survivals of a usage that formerly---when there was not yet the strict line of demarcation between the different uses---occurred quite normally.


Ǥ2ĤƤʤƤ뤬Ԥ "afterthought" 򤷤䤹嵭Τ٤Ƥ夫פĤƤդ­ȤǤ뤫ɤϡҴŪȽǤǤʤ褦˻פ롥2ΡָŤλ¸ϡ̤ʤΤ⤷ʤѸˤƤζ¤ݤ줿ΤϤʤȤ "Present Perfect Puzzle" ľܤΤǤϤʤ
Υѥ̤ȸ虜ʤ

Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-06-1]

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2016-11-03 Thu

#2747. Reichenbach λ [tense][aspect][deixis][perfect][preterite][future][semantics]

ˤͭ̾ʻߤˡReichenbach ΤΤ롥3ĤλȻѤ뤳Ȥǡ礿Ū褦ȤΤ3ĤλȻȤϡʲ̤Saeed (128) ѡˡ

S = the speech point, the time of utterance;
R = the reference point, the viewpoint or psychological vantage point adopted by the speaker;
E = event point, the described action's location in time.


S, R, E λּŪʰִطԤˤ "<"Ʊξˤ "="³ˤ ">" εɽ뤳Ȥˤ롥㤨Сʸ "I saw Helen", λʸ "I had seen Helen"̤ʸ "I will see Helen" Τ줾λϡʲΤ褦ɽ魯ȤǤ

                                           
"I saw Helen"        >
(R = E < S)               R, E             S
                                           
"I had seen Helen"   >
(E < R < S)                E       R       S
                                           
"I will see Helen"   >
(S < R = E)                S              R, E

SRE ʬϤˤȡѸληϤϰʲ7Ĥ˶ʬ (Saeed 132)

Simple past(R = E < S)"I saw Helen"
Present perfect(E < S = R)"I have seen Helen"
Past perfect(E < R < S)"I had seen Helen"
Simple present(S = R = E)"I see Helen"
Simple future(S < R = E)"I will see Helen"
Proximate future(S = R < E)"I'm going to see Helen"
Future perfect(S < E < R)"I will have seen Helen"


SRE 3δط͡S = R ȤʤΤߴλñ㸽ߡ̤3ĤξΤߤǤ뤳Ȥܤͤ롥ѸüԤˤ򤷤ˤߴλΡָߤؤδͿ (relevance to "now") Ȥ¦̤ϡReichenbach ǤϡS = RפȤɽΤǤ롥

Reichenbach, Hans. Elements of Symbolic Logic. London: Macmillan, 1947.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2016-08-28 Sun

#2680. deixis [pragmatics][deixis][demonstrative][personal_pronoun][tense][adverb]

δŪ1Ĥ deixis ʥľˤ롥Ѹϡꥷǡּؤפ̣ deikunúnai ͳ褹롥Huang (132) ˤСdeixis Ȥ "the phenomenon whereby features of context of utterance or speech event are encoded by lexical and/or grammatical means in a language" Ǥ롥ľɽ (deictic (expression)) ˤϡؼ (demonstrative)12;̾ (1st and 2nd personal_pronoun)ɸ (tense marker) (adverb of time and place)ưư (motion verb) ޤޤ롥
餫 deixis ⤿ʤ¸ߤʤϡdeixis ɸʤʤȡʹ֤̾Υߥ˥׵ȤǤʤΤˡֻס֤סֺפΤ褦ľŪǰʤǤϡʤΩʤդǽäӤΥ "Meet me here a month from now with a magic wand about this long." Ƚ񤫤ƤƤ⡤ïˡɤǡġɤΤ餤ĹξäƲ񤨤Ф褤ΤǤ롥ɤ߼꤬񤭼ΰտޤ deixis Ǥʤ륳ߥ˥㳲Ǥ롥
ѸľɽŵȤ you 󤲤褦̾äؤ you Ѥ졤Ⱦˤä you λؼоݤѤΤǤ뤫顤ŵŪľɽȤ롥If you travel on a train without a valid ticket, you will be liable to pay a penalty fare. Τ褦˰̿;ΤȤѤ you ǤϡľŪϤʤҤƤꡤ2;̾ you ľŪˡȤ٤
ľɽΤ⤦1ĤŵȤơthis 󤲤褦ؤʤɤʪŪʥ㡼ȼä this table ȸȤ this ϤľŪˡȤ뤬ʪŪʹưȼ鷺 this town ȸȤˤϡ this ľŪǤϤ뤬ħŪˡȤ롥ԤԤȯŸŪŪˡȹͤ졤ºݡ㡼ˡ (gestural) ǤѤ줺ħŪ (symbolic) ˡ礤Ƥե󥹸 voici, voilà Τ褦ľɽ⤢롥СħŪˡΤߤľɽȤΤϤꤽˤʤ
ʾꡤľɽˡϰʲΤ褦ʬव (Huang 135 οޤѡˡ

                                                     Gestural
                                                    
                          Deictic use 
                                                  
Deictic expression                           Symbolic
                         
                          Non-deictic use

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-11-24-1] [2016-08-30-1]

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2016-07-14 Thu

#2635. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (2) [perfect][syntax][wave_theory][linguistic_area][geolinguistics][geography][contact][grammaticalisation][preterite][french][german][tense][aspect]

ε ([2016-07-13-1]) ǡ衼å¦νǶ̤ have ˤ뱪ŪλΤϡȤȥꥷȯѥ󤬡˥ƥ蘆졤˸˽ϰŪ˳Ȼ (areal diffusion) ƤäǤȤ Drinka Ҳ𤷤ε (3) Ȥƿ줿⤦1ĤδϢĥ롥֥ե󥹸ɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥե󥹸äפȤĥǤ롥
ǤϡޤѥΥե󥹸DZŪλδλεǽȤƤǤϤʤεǽȤѤ褦ˤʤäȤĥƤ롥Drinka (22--24) ˤСѥΥե󥹸ǤϡǤ12ޤǤˡǽȤƤˡԤʤƤȤ

It is here, then, in Parisian French, that I would claim the innovation actually began. In the 12th century, the OF periphrastic perfect generally had an anterior meaning, but a past sense was already evident in vernacular Parisian French in the 12th and 13th c., connected with more vivid and emphatic usage, similar to the historical present . . . . During the 16th c., perfects had already begun to emerge in French literature in their new function as pasts, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the past meaning came to replace the anterior meaning completely in the language of the French petite bourgeoisie . . . .


¾Υޥ󥹽٤Ƥή˾äȻȤϡɤζۤƥɥĸˤ⹭ääʸкѥ󥿡Ȥ᤯ȯŸɥԻԤ Augsburg Nürnberg Ǥϡ1516ˤơλ®֤Ƥä¤ŦƤ (Drinka 25) ե󥹤˶ᤤ Cologne Trier ʤɤԻԤǤϡ12--14ȤᤤʳǡλȤѤФƤȤڵ⤢ (Drinka 26)
⤷Υʥꥪ¤ʤСҿ12ΥѥΥե󥹸줬λβǽȤƤˡήԤȤƶ٤θ졦ŤƤäȤȤˤʤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ΰȤʤꤦ롥

Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-07-15-1]

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2016-07-13 Wed

#2634. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (1) [perfect][syntax][wave_theory][linguistic_area][geolinguistics][geography][contact][grammaticalisation][preterite][greek][latin][tense][aspect]

Ѹޤ衼åѽǤϡhave be ưưβʬȤ߹碌ơִλפ뤳Ȥ롥衼åǤΤθϰŪʬۤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) Ω줫ĴơȯȳŪ餫ˤ褦Ȥʸ򸫤Ĥ
Ԥ Drinka ϡޤ衼åѤθϿޤϤǡ(1) have ˤ봰λȯãΤ¦Ǥꡤ¦Ǥ be ͥǤ뤳ȤŦˡ(2) ¦ have λȯȡʬưŪʰ̣ǽưŪʰ̣ؤȺƲᤵ줿εϡȤ˸奮ꥷ̤ꡤƥ줬ȤˤꡤΥޥ󥹽䤽¾θؤ⹭äƤäȵƤ롥Ǹˡ(3) ե󥹸ɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥե󥹸äƤ롥
(2) ˤĤơ⤦Ҥ٤褦ꥷǤϸ衤Ūλϡbe ܴλʬפǺäƤhave + ʬפζȤ˴λ˶ᤤ̣ɽ魯ȤäˡʸˡΥ롼Ȥ˾äƤä5ޤǤˤϡhave +ꥹʬפȤ졤ޤǤϹʸʤä¾ư⻲ۤɤ򼨤δˤ᤿ƥ¦θˤȤäƤϡΥꥷǤǤʸˡƤhave + ʬפΥѥ󤬡ʸ٥оݤȤʤäȤhave λθǤŪޤʹ¤Ǥ뤳Ȥͤȡƥʤ䤽¾¦θˤΩȯȹͤϡꥷȤܿˤΤȹͤۤȽҤ٤Ƥ (16) Drinka (20) have λΥꥷ쵯ˤĤưʲΤ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

My claim, then, is that the actual concept of HAVE periphrasis owes its existence largely to the Greek model, that the development of the HAVE perfect in Latin is tied closely to that of Greek, that it arose especially in literary contexts and in the language of educated speakers, and continued to be connected to the formal register in its later history. As a result of this learned calquing of the HAVE perfect from Greek into Latin, including ecclesiastical Latin, the Western European languages were, in turn, given a model to aspire to, a more elaborate temporal-aspectual system to imitate. The Romance languages, of course, all inherited these perfect structures, and, as I will argue elsewhere, most of the Germanic languages appear to have developed their HAVE perfect categories on the basis of this elaborated model, as well . . . . What is particularly fascinating to note is that the western languages have preserved and innovated upon this pattern to different extents, but continually show patterns of areal diffusion as these innovations spread from one language to another.


ѸˤȤδϢǵˤʤΤϡѸ have ˤ뱪ŪλεȯŸˤĤơDrinka ŪˤϤۤȤɽҤ٤ƤʤȤǤ롥Drinka ϡѸǤ⡤衼å¦ΡϰŪʳȻ (areal diffusion) ΰĤȸƤΤȤȡȤϰۤʤ롤ʤʲȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ˾δϢȤƤϡ#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ȡ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤεǤϡƥ줬ˡ򥮥ꥷ줫ּѡפȤǤϤʤ"model" Ȥפ˶ᤤѸ줬ѤƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ε⻲ͤˤ줿

Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.

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2016-07-12 Tue

#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle [perfect][aspect][preterite][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle][pragmatics][sobokunagimon]

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1]) Ǽ夲 Present Perfect Puzzle ȸƤФʸˡ꤬롥褯ΤƤ褦ˡߴλϲλؤȤ϶Ǥʤ㤨 Chris has left York. ȤʸˡŪʸˤơChris York ȯäΤϲΤϤΤؤ *Yesterday at ten, Chris has left York ȤʸˡŪȤʤäƤޤ "past-adverb constraint" ʤݤƤΤ뤳Ȥ񤷤"puzzle" ȤƤΤ
1ĤβˡȤƤƤΤ"scope solution" Ǥ롥ߴλư have ߤؤƤȤˡؤκѰ (scope) ʬޤˤϡξͤȤͤľΤ褦˸뤬Ĥ񤬤롥㤨СChris claims to have left York yesterday. Ǥϡ yesterday λѰ to have left York ޤǤޤǤꡤǤʸξλѰȰ㤤ʤ褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤϵƤΤǤ롥ޤǤϡߴλϡɤߤλؤȤⶦʤȤ뤳ȤǤʤĤޤꡤ*Chris has been in Pontefract last year. ʸǤǡ*Chris has been in Pontefract at present. ʸǤ뤳ȤǤʤ
ˡٻƤ뤤Ȥ "current relevance solution" 롥ߴλȤϡߤȤδϢɸʤǤȤͤޤDz鸽ߤؤη³򼨤Τ礿뵡ǽʤΤǤ뤫顤ȤζϵʤȤ롥üԤľˤ礦Ȥ뤬ȸߤδϢϡ¤ϲˤäɽ魯ȤǤǤϤʤȤȿ롥㤨СWhy is Chris so cheerful these days? --- Well, he won a million in the lottery. ǤϡߤȲδϢʤȤϸʤޤȸߤδϢ餫ǤäƤ⡤*Chris has been dead. ϵ줺Chris was dead. ϵ롥
Klein (546) Ͻ2ĤȽơŪʴ餳äTT (= "topic time" = "the time for which, on some occasion, a claim is made" (535)) TSit (= time of situation) Ȥ2λֻؼƳơ1ĤȯäΤʤǡTT TSit ɽȤΩƲŪʻ (p-definite (= point-definite)) ƤϤʤʤ󤬤Ȳꤷ

P-DEFINITENESS CONSTRAINT
   In an utterance, the expression of TT and the expression of TSit cannot both be independently p-definite.


Klein ε٤Ƹ뤳ȤϤǤʤĥ Present Perfect Puzzle 򤯸ϡˤϤʤˤȤȤ˵󤲤ƤʸϡŪ꤬ΤǤϤʤŪ˥ʥ󥻥󥹤ϤƤΤǤ롥"p-definite constraint" ϡΥѥ򤯤ȤǤǤϤʤ㤨 *Today, four times four makes sixteen. ʤƤʤΤʤ뤤ϥʥ󥻥󥹤ˤǤ롥Ǥϡư makes (TT) Today (TSit) ξΩơߤλɽ路Ƥ (p-definite) ˡŪʸȤʤΤȤ
"p-definiteness constraint" ϡ⤦1ĤΥѥβƤǤ롥

Klein, Wolfgang. "The Present Perfect Puzzle." Language 68 (1992): 525--52.

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2016-02-22 Mon

#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ [perfect][preterite][tense][aspect][syntax][auxiliary_verb][adverb][generative_grammar][present_perfect_puzzle]

#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ˴λʸŪ˳Ω⡤ǽŪˤϲȤʬϽѸޤǤۤΤʷǸʤäξڵˡˤϲλؼʶˤȴλ㤬ʤ餺ʸڤ롥ηˤĤơMustanoja (504) Ѥ褦

In ME and early Mod. E the functional distinction between the preterite and the compound tenses of the past is not, however, nearly so clear-cut as it is today, and the perfect, for example, may occur in conjunction with adverbs of past time: --- and homward he shal tellen othere two [tales], Of aventures that whilom han bifalle (Ch. CT A Prol. 795).


16--17ˤʤȤξѲѸΤ褦˴λȲʶˤζʤʤäƤե󥹸ɥĸʤɶ٤ν줬Ʊͤʣñɽ魯ΤݻƤΤоŪˡѸǤϤλ򶭤˴λȲ֡ǽȤΤ˶̤褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥ʤѸˤˤƤϡΤ褦ʶ̤ΤơʤȤ櫓λΤդϡʸˡŪΩ줫 "present perfect puzzle" ȸƤФƤ롥
ѸȶٽӤ Yanagi ˤСhave ư V-to-T movement ʸŤѸ졤ե󥹸졤ɥĸ졤ɸʤɡˤˤĤƤϲʬʿԤưư뤬ǤʤʸѸΦǥʥˤˤĤƤϲʬưʤơγƹŪʰư̵ͭ3 (Event Point, Speech Point, Reference Point) ߴطϢưƤꡤǽŪ˲˶Ťλ˶ŤꤹȤV-to-T movement ˤĤƤϡ̾ۤʤ졤¼ŪˤۤƱݤˤĤưä#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) 򻲾ȤƤΰ츫ƤŪʸݤȤǽ̩ܤ˴ϢƤǽȤȤϡ¤˶̣Ȥ櫓פϡV-to-T movement äȤȡɽ魯ȴλζʤʤϤ16礹뤳ȤǤ롥
Yanagi η (96) Ѥ褦

Here it has been argued that the obsolescence of the present perfect puzzle in the history of English can be attributed to the loss of overt verb movement by using the following assumptions: (a) In a language with independent V-to-T movement, perfect participles can move overtly; (b) In a language without independent V-to-T movement, perfect participles cannot move overtly. In addition, the viability of the present analysis was further supported by applying it to modern Germanic and Romance languages. As a theoretical contribution, it is semantically motivated.


Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Yanagi, Tomohiro. "A Syntactic Approach to the Present Perfect Puzzle in the History of English." ضѸ츦١20桤2004ǯ73--103.

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2016-02-20 Sat

#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã [auxiliary_verb][syntax][reanalysis][word_order][tense][aspect][perfect][grammaticalisation][agreement][participle][generative_grammar]

ɸϡѸǤϤ褯Τ줿ʬ (reanalysis) Ȥơޤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤƼ夲Ƥʲ (110--17) ˽äơʽŪʵҤܤ
űѸǤϡѸ They had their enclosure closed. have + Ū + ʬפιʸ¸ߤ (þā hīe tō Ðǣm ġemǣre cōmon . . ., þā hæfdon hīe hiera clūsan belocene [Or, ed. Sweet 112/34]) ιʸΰ̣ϸȰۤʤ餺֡Ūˤʲʬˤɽ魯֤ȤƤġפۤɤǤꡤŪȲʬŪỤ̄Ū̩ܤʴطˤäξڵˡʬŪʤ˰פƶ޸ȼäƤʾǤϡñгʡˡʳǤϡä˿δްդϤäƤʤä
8ޤǤˡŪѰۤƤŪȲʬΰ֤žhave + ʬ + Ū׹ʸоǤ롥θϤФ餯¸ƤΤΡϸѸΤ褦 They had closed their enclosure. They had their enclosure closed. ΰ̣Ωɽ魯ΤǤɬʤä˿have + ʬ + Ūפ¿Ѥ褦ˤʤꡤޤ¾ưβʬ˸¤ƤΤưʤѰưʳˤβʬˤޤdzȤʤɤơֲʬŪפΤĤʤhave + ʬפΤĤʤ꤬ռ褦ˤʤä
ѸȡʬŪδطŪʰפɸʤʤꡤhave + ʬפβʣŪʽҸưȤª˻äʳǡhave + ʬפϸѸˤĤʤ칽ʸȤƳΩȤäƤ褤̣ŪˤСޤ߻Τ˶̤뿷꤬줿櫓ǤϤʤäºݡwhilom long ago ʤɲɽ魯ȸߴλʸ뤳Ȥϡʹ Shakespeare դޤ³ƤꡤѸθߴλˤߤָߤȤδͿפȤħΩƤȤΤ16ʹߤǤ롥
ιʸεȯãʸˡȤ޼Ū˵ҤȼΤ褦ˤʤݺ, p. 14 οޤ򻲹ͤˤˡ

         OE                        ME                    ModE

  have   + NP + pp ----->  have  +   pp   + NP -----> have + pp + NP ===> λ
ͭư                  ư   ư

ĥ꡼ƱȯãɽСʲ̤ݺ䡤p. 149 ι¤򻲹ͤˤSC "Small Clause" ɽ魯ˡ

Grammaticalisation of Have Perfect

λ¤ˤ have λǤʤ be λ⤢롥ԤˤĤƤϡ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1])#1814. 18--19 be λο CLMET dzǧ ([2014-04-15-1]) 򻲾ȡChaucer ѤλˤĤơ#534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ ([2010-10-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ

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2015-08-31 Mon

#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã [tense][future][auxiliary_verb][category][grammaticalisation][bleaching]

Ѹˤ̤ȯãˤĤơ#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) εڤӴŪˡ#2209. ĸˤư̤ޡ ([2015-05-15-1]) εǼ夲will, shall ѤṲ̄ɽޤ졤ijΩȤϡѸˤνװƷ1ĤǤ뤬Ȥδ֤͡ʵ롥ϢơѸ̤¸ߤΤȤʸˡ (category) ˴ؤ礭⤢ꡤɴĤǤ롥
̻ŪķŪʴϡ̤ȤưζޤΤ⺣¸ߤ丽߷ΤˤȤ٤ˤȤ٤٤ʤȤ롥ȤʸˡƤߤ˷ŪӤ뿶񤤤򼨤ʤФʤʤȤޤ꤬櫓ǤʤŪĵǽŪʴ餹СѸ will, shall Ǽ̤ϡʤƤ߻Ӥ1ĤǤȤǧƤ褤褦˹ͤƤ롥°桦 (171) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤꡤѸˤ̤ꤷƤ롥

Ѹˤϸ̤λɽϤʤOE ˤƤϸ߻äɽƤPE Ǥϡshall (should) or will (would) + פη̤ɽȤѤ졤 future tense ȸƤǤ롥shall, will ϸߤǤϤθ򼺤ޤäñ̤ɽΤѤ⤢ΤǡñʤǧᡤȤη future tense ȸƤ֤ȤϺ٤ʤ褬üԤοŪ٤򼨤ΤѤ줿ưǤꡤߤǤ⤷Ф̤ʳΰ̣Ѥ롥


Ǥϡ will, shall ѤṲ̄ȳΩλϤĤʤΤ̤ˤϤ˨ϸűѸˤߤȸ롥will, shall ʸ̮ˤơˡŪʰ̣ᡤñ̤ɽ魯˻äȽǤǤűѸ㤬ʤʤŦƤ (Mustanoja 489) ̣ɺ (bleaching) ιǤꡤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ŵǤ⤢롥κǽϡθԤˤʸ̮̯ȽǤ˰ѤͤƤꡤλҴŪ˷ꤹ뤳ȤưפǤϤʤѸ줫Ǥ顤¿ξ硤ˡŪʰ̣ɤ߼Ȥɤ߼뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥
ѸȡʤȤñ̤θȤ will, shall 㤬Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤褽̻ŪŸϿ䤷̤뤳ȤǤ롥Mustanoja (490) ˤСѸǤ shall Τ̤ۤνưǤꡤwill ϤޤˡŪʰ̣魯¿äʤ will, shall ο;ΤˤȤʬϤȤƸФΤϡ#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rules ([2010-07-22-1]) ǿ줿褦17ΤȤºݤˤλȤʬٳΩȤ19ʹߤΤȤǤʰ°桦ġp. 171ˡ

° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2015-05-15 Fri

#2209. ĸˤư̤ [indo-european][tense][reconstruction][comparative_linguistics][future]

ε#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) ȴϢơĸˤư̤ޤˤĤƤ夲롥
Fortson (81) ˤСĸ˳μ¤ˤäǧϡpresent, imperfect, aorist 3Ǥ롥ŪˤϤΤۤ perfect ǧƤ뤬ŪȤŪʻȤߤʤ롥 pluperfect future ¸ߤĥԤ⤤롥ƱͤˡSzemerényi (231) ϡ"three to six tenses" ⤿ǡ"present, aorist, perfect; perhaps also future, imperfect, pluperfect" ǧƤ롥ˤ衤̤¸ߤϡ֤餯٤ǧƤˤʤ
ĸ̤äȼĥԤϡ̤ܼȤ *-s- *-sy- ƷƤ롥*-s- Greek, Latin, Celtic ȿǤߤ졤 "aorist subjunctive" ɽ路ΤȤƱܼ Old Irish ˤߤ졤Ūˤ "desiderative" εǽͭΤȤ롥*-sy- Old Indic, Lithuanian, Slavic ʤɤ satem Ͻˤߤ졤*-s- ȤΩε "desiderative" ɸüȯΤȹͤ롥
*-s- *-sy- Ϥ餯ߤΩƤ뤬ˤܼŪʵǽ̤ɽ魯Ȥ⡤subjunctive desiderative ɽ魯Ȥˤꡤ줬̤ŪžѤ줿Τȹͤ (Fortson 91; Szemerényi 287) Ū˰ջ֡˾̳ʤɤɽ魯ˡư줬̤ɽ魯ưؤžѤϡεǽҤ٤褦ˡޤ˱ѸǤߤ줿ȤǤꡤƱȤĸʤ¿ΰˤˤĤƤǽȤȤϼŪǤ롥ĸˤܼŪ켡Ūʰ̣Ǥ̤뤳Ȥ񤷤Τ⤷ʤ

Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
Szemerényi, Oswald J. L. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Trans. from Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft. 4th ed. 1990. Oxford: OUP, 1996.

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2015-05-14 Thu

#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ [verb][conjugation][tense][auxiliary_verb][indo-european][grammaticalisation][category][language_change][causation][future][sobokunagimon]

ɸμݤμ䤬󤻤줿ΤǡˤĤŪʴͤƤߤѸưˤϡνɽ魯ΤŵŪѤ롥Ʊͤˡߡʤ뤤סˤνŪɽ魯ˤϡưŵŪ˸߷dzѤ롥̤ν˴ؤƤϡư̤Ȥƶޤ褦ˡ¸ߤʤ will, shall, be going to ʤɤΡʽ˽ưѤȤŪˡȤƤ롥ĤޤꡤѸˤṲ̄Ϥˤ衤Ṳ̄ϤʤȤäƤ褤ñˡ̤פȤѸǤϡ졤֤ΤΥ٥ˤַפˤĤƸ򾷤ǽ뤳Ȥ顤ѸʸˡǤϤѸ줬򤱤뷹ΤǤϤʤ
ʽ˽ưѤŪ뤤ϱṲ̄ɽϡ餯űѸʹߤ will shall ʤɤŪˡŪʵǽĽư줬ջ֤̳ΰ̣ᡤñ˻֤ȤƤ̤ɽ魯ˡؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥˤλˤϡñ̤ɽ魯ΤòɽϡŪˤŪˤʤˡŪʰ̣ȼ鷺̤ɽʤϷ礱ƤȤäƤ褤űѸǤϡŪˤϸ߷ʤ뤤ΤˤˤѤ뤳ȤǸߤΤߤʤ餺̤ΤȤɽ魯ȤǤΤǤꡤƥ꡼ˤơ丽ߤȶ̤٤ʬȤƤ̤Ȥȯۤϴäθ will ʤɤѤ̤ɽиǤ⡤夫λƥ꡼ΤȤ館礭Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѸǤ̤Ȥʬ⤤Ƥ봶롥Ѹ̤Ȥǰ¸ߤʤȸڤΤϡŪˤϸ᤮Τ餤褦˻פ
嵭Τ褦ˡűѸλƥ꡼ϡŪˤСʤФСָߡפȸƾΤˤ2ʬʤäƤǸѸδ뵿ʤƼºݤ˴󤻤줿ˤϡʤűѸǤ̤ʤäΤʤư̤ζޤȯãʤäΤȤ䤤Ǥ롥μľΤϤ䤹ʤŪʳ٤4ŦƤ
ޤμˡߡ̤3ʬˡȤḽŪʻ֤δǰȻפ뤬֤ΤȤ館뤤ϤθؤȿǤǤƥ꡼ǡɬ⤳ȤƤ褤Ϥʤܿͤޤ᤿¿θͤˤȤäơ3ʬˡλִФ϶ˤƼ˻פ뤬줬ˤȤäƤ̵ͣλִѤǤȤߤʤȤϤǤʤޤ˷3ʬˡλִѤѤ줿ȤƤ⡤3ʬˡ줤ˤΤޤ޸ξˡƥ꡼ȤȿǤΤʤΤɤǤ롥ϥԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ؤǤꡤ̤ǤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤ
2ܤˡ¾ΰˤ⡤ܸˤߤ褦ˡ̤ɽϡƤջ֤̳ʤɤˡŪʵǽķʸˡ뤳Ȥˤȯ뤳Ȥ¿Ҥ̤ꡤϱѸˤˤƤѻ줿Ǥꡤɤ̸ŪˤߤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ߡ̤3ʬˡǤϡ̤Ťߤäξˤ֤Ƥ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ뤬⤷ȸ첽ǤξԤνŤߤϡФаۤʤΤ⤷ʤʤȤ⤤Ĥμ׸ˤ򻲾Ȥ¤ꡤ̤ϲ椷ƸȯŪǤꡤŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿
3ܤˡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤ2ʬˡϡʸš˱Ѹ˸¤餺ޥ˶̤פħ1ĤǤ롥ޤƱ²ϸŤҥåȸƱ2ʬˡäƤꡤĸˤƥ꡼Ʒä褷Ƥ롥̤ưĸ̤ȸƤӤΤäΤʤäΤ뤤ϡäȤơŪʤΤʤΤŪΤʤΤĤޤꡤ嵭μϡűѸФ٤ˤȤɤޤ餺ĸФƤ٤Ǥ⤢롥ĸ餫餭줤ʲߡ̤3ʬˡλäƤΤɤȤδ֤褬롥
Ǹˡ׿ʤȤ뤳Ȥ餬󥸥󥰤ʲǤȤǡ׿ʤȤʤä뤳Ȥ϶ˤ񤷤ΰ̣ǡűѸˤƤʤ̤ȯãʤäΤ򼨤Ȥϡ˾ŪʺȼѲŪΩ줫ϡϤפǤϤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ񹳡 ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲ˸ڤʤ󵯤褦ˡʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤ⡤ä٤

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2015-04-25 Sat

#2189. ˤ will Ի [auxiliary_verb][subjunctive][tense][future][sobokunagimon]

εʸˡˤϡǤ̤ΤȤǤäƤ will ѤʤȤब롥㤨СIf it rains tomorrow, we will stay home. Τ褦ʸ˸褦ˡif ξǤϡפΤȤˤ⤫餺ư˸߷ rains ѤƤ롥̤ɽ魯 will ٸΤ顤°Ǥ will ޤΤ;Ǥ롤ʤɤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Τ褦Ūˤʤ
ѸˤϡǤϡޤ¾Ǥ⹭ưľˡ (indicative) ǤϤʤ³ˡsubjunctive; ߤβˡˤη֤äʸǤСѸޤǤ if Ǥľˡ߷3ñ -s դ rains ǤϤʤ³ˡ߷ʸѸѸǤϲˡ߷ˤ rain Τ̤ä֤⤷ʤСפǤСif it be fine tomorrow Τ褦ľˡ is ǤϤʤ³ˡ be ѤΤǤ롥
Ť̤ΤȤؼΤ̤ will Ѥ٤ȤȯۤϤʤषɽ魯Τ³ˡưѤ٤Ȥռä衤Ѹλ (tense) Υƥ꡼ˤ̤ȤΤʹϤʤʸߤ̤ޤˤ2ζ̤ʤäȤط롥̤ϸ߷ѤƤΤǤꡤ³ˡָߡ׷ȤСϼưṲ̄ؼ뤳ȤǤˤƶռ줿Τϡ̤Ȥ֤Ȥ⡤ƬΤʤǤΡߤײǽˤĤƤäζŪʴϡ̤νȤ will Ѥ٤Ǥˤ⤫餺 will ʤΤϤʤפȤռ̻Ūʴϡ will ȤηӤĤϺǽ餫ԺߤäΤǤ롥
ɸפϡѸޤǤ if it rain tomorrow if it be fine tomorrow Τ褦³ˡ߷ѤΤ̤äˤ⤫餺ѸǤϤʤľˡ߷Ѥ if it rains tomorrow if it is fine tomorrow Ȥ褦ˤʤäǤ롥ϱѸˤˤ³ˡ뤤ϲˡοࡤľˡˤִȤ礭ʥơޤΤʤ٤ǤꡤǷڡ˰ȤϤǤʤĴȤϡɸѤʵظˤ䤦٤Ѹ˾礭꤬ǤȤȤǤ롥³ˡߤʤɤΤ褦˶Ѹʹߤ˿षľˡߤ˵ۼƤäȤ礭ʲ꤬Ƥ롥

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2015-03-20 Fri

#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ [exaptation][tense][aspect][category][language_change][verb][conjugation][inflection]

ε#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ĸ줫饲ޥĸˤȤؤˤĤơܤ롥ĸΥƥ꡼Ƥ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޥĸˤƻȿΥƥ꡼ιװȤƤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ζ̤ؤȰܹԤŪʶ̤ݻޤޤˡŬäȤˤʤ롥ޤбγά޼Ū˼ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

(Indo-European)            (Germanic)

   PRESENT  PRESENT

   PERFECT  PRETERITE 1

   AORIST   PRETERITE 2

ޥμѲưˤĤƤϡĸ PERFECT AORIST ϷŪ˴ͻ礷Τǡޤμ褦 PRETERITE 1 2 ζ̤ϤĤƤʤѲưϤäݼŪǤꡤĤƤ PERFECT AORIST ηŪפĤʤ顤2 PRETERITE ؤȵǽ򥷥եȤʤĤޤ곰Ŭˡ2 PRETERITE ˤĤƤϡ#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ȤǡĸǤưΥƥ꡼첻 (ablaut) ˤäɸ줿e-grade PRESENT o-grade PERFECT zero-grade 뤤 ē-grade AORIST ɽűѸΤĤζѲư PRESENT, PRETERITE 1, PRETERITE 2 η֤ߤȡbīt-an -- bāt -- bit-on, bēod-an -- bēad -- budon, help-an -- healp -- hulpon ʤɤȤʤäƤ롥ĸʹߤ첻ѲˤľܤϸˤʤäƤ뤬űѸ3ζѲ˸뤽줾첻ΰ㤤ϡĸ e-grade, o-grade, zero-grade κб롥Ĥޤꡤ3ζѲϲŪˤ³Ǥ롥äơޥĸˤܼŪѲƤäΤϷ֤ǤϤʤǽȤȤˤʤ롥餯ϰĸζ̤Ƥˤʤ˵ڤӡݻ줿ŪΩ̤Υƥ꡼ʤȿζ̤˿˱Ѥ줿ȤȤ
Lass (87) ˤȡγŬϰʲΰϢβФꤵƤ롥

(i) loss of the (semantic) opposition perfect/aorist; (ii) retention of the diluted semantic content 'past' shared by both (in other words, loss of aspect but retention of distal time-deixis); (iii) retention of the morpho(phono)logical exponents of the old categories perfect and aorist, but divested of their oppositional meaning; (iv) redeployment of the now semantically evacuated exponents as markers of a secondary (concordial) category; in effect re-use of the now 'meaningless' old material to bolster an already existing concordial system, but in quite a new way.


ĸˤ¸ߤʤäƥ꡼ޥĸˤƿȯ줿Ȥ̣ǡγŬϤޤ "conceptual novelty" λȤ롥

Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.

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2015-03-19 Thu

#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ [exaptation][tense][aspect][language_change][grammaticalisation]

#2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1]) ǸѲˤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) γǰƳˤĤܳŪʸΤ Lass Ǥ롥ʪʲʬ Gould and Vrba ѤǰLass ϤѲ˱Ѥ
ʪʲˤ볰ŬϡGould (171 qtd. in Lass 80) ΤȤФڤȰʲ̤Ǥ롥

We wish to restrict the term adaptation only to those structures that evolved for their current utility; those useful structures that arose for other reasons, or for no conventional reasons at all, and were then fortuitously available for other changes, we call exaptations. New and important genes that evolved from a repeated copy of an ancestral gene are partial exaptations, for their new usage cannot be the reason for the original duplication.


Ŭ (adaptation) ϤǤȯãƤ뵡ǽΤʤȯãؤФƳŬ (exaptation) ̤ͳˤ뿷ȯãؤLass (80) ΤȤФ󤹤ȡ"Exaptation then is the opportunistic co-optation of a feature whose origin is unrelated or only marginally related to its later use. In other words (loosely) a 'conceptual novelty' or 'invention'" ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŬѲƤϤƹͤƤߤ褦εǽ졤ƥߤȤʤäƻĤä֤éƻ3Ĥ롥Ѵ뤫ߤΤޤް̣ʤĤ³뤫̤Ӥդƿ̿뤫Ǥ롥κǸƻŬȤȤˤʤ롥Lass (81--82) Ѥ롥

Say a language has a grammatical distinction of some sort, coded by means of morphology. Then say this distinction is jettisoned, PRIOR TO the loss of the morphological material that codes it. This morphology is now, functionally speaking, junk; and there are three things that can in principle be done with it: (i) it can be dumped entirely; (ii) it can be kept as marginal garbage or nonfunctional/nonexpressive residue (suppletion, 'irregularity'); (iii) it can be kept, but instead of being relegated as in (ii), it can be used for something else, perhaps just as systematic. . . . . Option (iii) is linguistic exaptation.


Lass ϡŬζ1ĤȤơĸΥƥ꡼ޥĸˤƻȿΥƥ꡼Ȥؤ줿Ȥ夲Ƥ롥ĸϡΥƥ꡼ˤ Present, Perfect, Aorist 3첻ˤäƶ̤ƤȤޥȯãǡ첻ˤֲŪʶ̤ݻʤ顤ζ̤Ȥ̤ӤդȤ׿ŪˤϡΩϾü˻ˤΩȲˤΩΩƤĤޤꡤĤƤ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ؤȡֳŬפΤǤ롥
Lass (99) ʸκǸdzŬγǰҲŪ˱ѤǽˤޤǸڤƤꡤμι򼨺Ƥ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.
Gould, Stephen Jay. Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History. New York: Norton, 1983.
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.

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2013-11-05 Tue

#1653. be λ [syntax][be][auxiliary_verb][grammaticalisation][tense][aspect][passive][perfect][participle]

Ѹǡbe + ưβʬפŵŪ˼ư֤빽¤Ѱư (mutative verb) Ǥϴλɽ魯

The cookies are all gone.
All my lectures are finished.
The sun is set.
How he is grown up!
Babylon is fallen.
Everything is changed.


ŪˤϤʸ gone finished ʤɤϷƻȹͤƤꡤλɽ魯칽¤ΰȤϤȤ館Ƥʤbe have Ѥ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤbe λǤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤˼Ūʹ¤Ȥ虜ʤbe have Ωˤϡbe λϾ֤ɽ路have λϹ԰٤ɽ魯Ȥ롥be λϤΤ褦λξ֤ǤϤ뤬#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1])#1347. a lawyer turned teacher ([2013-01-03-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬƻˡΤʤˤ̮̿ݤäƤ롥ʲbe λˤ򡤡رѸIIIA (432--33) ˵äƳ⤷褦
Ѹˤ be λϸűѸ鹭롥űѸǤϡư졤Ȥ櫓ѰưˤĤ wē sindon ȝecumene Τ褦ʹ¤ϰŪäűѸˤʤȡ褯褦ˡhave + Ū + ʬעhave + ʬ + ŪפθѲФ have λʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ¾ư̤˹äǤᤤλ have λϤޤ˼ưˤĥƤΤǡbe λƤ椯ˤϤǤ˻ϤޤäƤȤ⤤롥Ѱư be λϡθ18Ⱦ˻ޤͥݤäƤ18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯be have ̤ͥϤȤȤʤäˤ be λ֤ɽ路Ƥ褦ˡŪˤ֤ɽ魯ˡäǹ԰٤ɽ魯ˡ⾯ʤʤäŪʾ֤ˡϡѸˤƳΩΤǤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤλΥʥåץåȤ򸫤Ƥߤ褦ʲϡFridén ˤ롤Spenser ʡMarlowe 5ʡShakespeare ʤоݤˤ7Ĥμ׼ư (come, go, arrive, fall, flee; become, grow) ˤĤơbe λ have λʬۤĴΤǤ롥ʤɽʤ 's ϡhasis Τ줫ܷ (enclitic) ؤɽϡG. Fridén. Studies on the tenses of the English Verb from Chaucer to Shakespeare: With Special Reference to the Late Sixteenth Century. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri Ab., 1948. Rpr. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1973. ˴ŤرѸIIIA١p. 432 ꡥ

ưcomegoarrivefallfleebecomegrow
SpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShak
be9288789195799289836767656567828650901008990
have86139098111133332735077030113
's0690512006008033117507007


ʳǤϡޤ be λϴ˷ߤǤꡤhave λ fall 㳰ȤС10%ۤɤΥˤʤȤ櫓פ̣ become, grow Ǥ have λγ礬ʤ
18 have λ be λο路ƤäˤˤĤƤϡVisser (2043) Rissanen (215) 򻲾ȡ

ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.

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2013-04-30 Tue

#1464. ˡλʸΰ۷ [syntax][ame][lmode][perfect][tense]

ʸˡʤɤɬФ빽ʸɽ˲ˡλιʸ롥ư줬3ĤФƤʤζʸǤ롥

If I had missed the train, I would have had no chance to see the woman of destiny.


Ǥ had + ʬ줬׵ᤵ졤Ǥ would have + ʬ줬׵ᤵΤ§Ǥ롥ξǰۤʤưʤȤ߹碌ˤ׵ᤵΤdzؽԤˤȤäƺ𤷤䤹
ؽԤʤ餺ȤѸüԤˤȤäƤʹʸ餫Leech et al. (63) ˤȡAmE ǼΤ褦ʹʸʹȸ롥

If I would have missed the train, I would have had no chance to see the woman of destiny.


ιʸǤϼȽ°ξ would have ȤƱưȤ߹碌֤ƤꡤñǤ롥ƱʸϡDenison (300) ˤɸθѸǤѻȤ

Certainly, non-standard examples like the following are not uncommon, especially where there is some trace of a volitional meaning in would, (595a), or a non-English substratum, though Fillmore regards . . . it as common in current American usage:

(595) a. I think if he would have let me just look at things quietly . . . it would have been all right (1877 Sewell, Black Beauty xxxix. 123)
        b. If I would have known that, I would have acted differently.


ޤɸŪʶäΰ۷ʤΤ켫ΤʤȤ100ǯʾˤäʸǤ뤳ȤˤդƤȵ would have done ͭ嵭Τۤhad done ͭѸˤϸ줿parallel structure ؤλָϡ夤ʤ˺ѤƤϤȹͤΤǤϤʤ

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 92--329.

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2013-04-15 Mon

#1449. ˤơ [category][number][gender][tense][aspect][person][mode][terminology][sapir-whorf_hypothesis][linguistic_relativism]

ؤǤ (category) ȤѸ줬Ѥ롥ȤȤůѸǤꡤܸΡơפϡΡؽС٤Ρֹ϶ơפȤȤФȤˡѸ category ɥĸ Kategorie ȤơůؤΰˡůϺʰˤäΤȤ롥ϥꥷ katēgoríā Ǥꡤư katēgoreîn kata- (against) + agoreúein (to speak in the assembly) 롥ָξǾǧ줦Ūʳǰβߤʤפۤɤθ˴Ťơꥹȥƥ쥹ϡʬκǤŪʵꡤʤǹ೵ǰפθȯŸʹߡŪʰŪʸƱΤΤν°ࡦפȯŸƤ
Ѹ category ⡤ޤ16ůѸȤƥƥ줫Ƴ졤17դѸȤƻȤФߤǤϡOALD8 "a group of people or things with particular features in common" ȤꡤﲽѸȹͤƤ褤
ǤϡؤѤơפȤϲѸȤäơŪñʤࡦפθǻȤ櫓ǤϤʤǤϡŪƤζ򸫤Ƥߤ褦ʸˡǤʸˡ (grammatical category) ȤȤ뤬㤨п (number) ; (person) (tense) ˡ (mode) ʤɤ󤲤롥ư濴ȤŪޤˤƤ (gender or sex) ʤɸŪʤΤ⤢뤷ꡦ (definiteness) (aspect) ʤɤŪʤΤ⤢롥Ƥϱʸˡκܤˤ븶ǤꡤʸˡҤ˷礫ʤǰȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ褦ʵϤ뤬ǤϡŪƤ򤺤ФȤ񤷤Τ褷ƤΤϡBloomfield Ǥ롥ʲ˰Ѥ褦

Large form-classes which completely subdivide either the whole lexicon or some important form-class into form-classes of approximately equal size, are called categories. (270)


ʸˡ (gender) ǹͤƤߤȤ狼䤹̾ȤýȤȡ㤨Хե󥹸ˤϷŪŪʿ񤤤˱ơϤ礭ۤʤʤ2ʬ礬̤롥̾̾դ¾̾̾դζ̤δΤȤƤƤ֡Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥
category θŪˡŪˡǤϤʤůŪˡܶᤷƤ뤳ȤϡŪƤΤθ׹ͼľ뤷䤹Ǥ롥ˤĤƤ⡤Bloomfield Ф餷

The categories of a language, especially those which affect morphology (book : books, he : she), are so pervasive that anyone who reflects upon his language at all, is sure to notice them. In the ordinary case, this person, knowing only his native language, or perhaps some others closely akin to it, may mistake his categories for universal forms of speech, or of "human thought," or of the universe itself. This is why a good deal of what passes for "logic" or "metaphysics" is merely an incompetent restating of the chief categories of the philosopher's language. A task for linguists of the future will be to compare the categories of different languages and see what features are universal or at least widespread. (270)


Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

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2010-10-13 Wed

#534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ [chaucer][tense][aspect][popular_passage][perfect][voicy]

Chaucer The Canterbury Tales "The General Prologue" 顤ޤˤͭ̾Ƭ1ʸ ll. 1--18 from The Riverside Chaucer )

   Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his half cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
That slepen al the nyght with open ye
(So priketh hem nature in hir corages),
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;
And specially from every shires ende
Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,
The hooly blisful martir for to seke,
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seeke.


ɤѸʸϤʸäȤͤ¿ΤǤϤʤĴι⤤Ĺ񤭽ФŪʸι¤ȤƤ Whan . . . Thanne عʸǤʸ̣襤ɼԤοΤ⤷ʤ Burnley (46--47) ˽äƻ ( tense ) ( aspect ) ܤɤҲ𤷤
ޤѤƤưλϤܸۤߤ줵Ƥͣ㳰ϺǸιԤ were ΤߡˡΤʤ񤭽ФǤθ߷Ѥϡ򴶤롥4ˬ졤ܳФФƱˡͤˤޤ줺󥿥٥꡼ؤνפΩġȤȤǯΤ褦˷֤Ƥ뤳Ȥż롥ν۴ġβ󵢤۵롤餫𤤤Ǥ롥
( aspect ) ܤܤȡWhan ǤϼȤƴλѤƤ롥 Whan Ȥ³ Thanne ƤŪ˴֤򤪤˷ѵƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ȤȤˡñ˻ŪѵΤߤʤ餺̴ط⼨Ƥ롥͡פΩĤΤϡ¾ʤ4μΰˤΤʤΤĹʸǤʤ顤Whan That Ƥ̩˷ӤĤƤΤϡλϤ椨Ǥ롥
ޤȤСƬʸǤϡּܳФᢪܳ͡ФפȤ̴طǯΤ褦˷֤ȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʸθˤ "Bifil that in that seson on a day," ȲǤθ꤬ϤޤΤǡоŪƬθ߻Ȥ줬ްդΩĤȤˤʤ롥ʾ塤ͭ̾ƬˤäɤǤߤ

ʸ嵭2022/05/03(Tue)Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤơ1Ѹȯɤ߾夲ƤޤΤǤȤѸäȤɡ硼Ρإ󥿥٥ʪ٤ƬǤ
ʸ嵭2023/10/10(Tue)Ellesmere MS ƬʬβǤ

Burnley, David. The Language of Chaucer. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1983. 13--15.

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2010-07-22 Thu

#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rules [prescriptive_grammar][auxiliary_verb][wallis][tense][future]

ѸνưˡΤʤǤȤ櫓ݤʤΤ shall will Ǥ롥ʸˡǤϤνưλȤʬƤꡤʸˡŵŪʹܤȤ롥Υ롼ꤷΤ17εʸˡ John Wallis Ǥ롥Wallis ( 1616--1703 ) ϡ1653ǯ˽Ǥƥˤʸˡ Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae ΤʤǡΤ褦ʻȤʬ꼰˻ޤDZƶϤݤ³Ƥ뤳Υ롼 The Wallis Rules ȸƤФƤ ( Brinton and Arnovick, p. 370--71 )

to promise:to question determination/obligation:
I will (go)We will (go)Shall I (go)?Shall we (go)?
You shall (go)You shall (go)Will you (go)?Will you (go)?
He/she/it shall (go)They shall (go)Shall he/she/it (go)?Shall they (go)?
to predict:to question prediction:
I shall (go)We shall (go)Will I (go)?Will we (go)?
You will (go)You will (go)Shall you (go)?Shall you (go)?
He/she/it will (go)They will (go)Will he/she/it (go)?Will they (go)?


shall will ;Ρˡʿ˱ƤߤȤʬ ( complementary distribution ) ʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥츫Ⱥ𤷤ʬۤ줿ηϤʤΤįƤǤ롥ηŪǤȤϤʤ⡤ޤǹ碌Τ褦ˤޤǤƤΤϤˤ͹ŪȤ롥ηϤι ( reason ) Ʃ ( transparency ) 򿮤뤿 ( analogy ) ŬѤ Wallis Υ롼ϡ1718εʸˡȤŵŪʻ׹ͲϩɽƤ롥
The Wallis Rule ϸѸǤޤƶϤȤϤäƤ⡤ϵʸˡäǡºݾ shall λѤϿषƤƤ롥ä˥ѸǤϾäƤȤäƤ褤shall will ˴Ϣϡ[2010-03-21-1], [2010-02-22-1]ˤ⤢ꡥ
ʤߤˡWallis ̵µͰƤʬδäۤNewton αѹοؼԤǤ롥

Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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