(pragmatics) ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) θǤϡѲ (subjectification) ȤȤФˤ롥ǤСֻؼŪ̿Ụ̄ƥŪɽŪ뤤ϡпŪ (interpersonal) ؤΰ̣Ѳסʽp. 11ˤǤ롥̿ΰ̣üԤμŪ٤˽Ṭ̌ؤѲǤꡤʸˡˤŵŪˤߤǤȤ롥ŪˤС"propositional > textual > expressive/interpersonal" Ȥ
(11--13) ˽äƱѸˤȡư̤ΰջ֡ɽ魯 be going to ȯãˡư must, may ʤɤε̳Ūˡ (deontic) ǧŪˡ (epistemic) ؤȯãɸȯãĴȯãʤɤ롥Ūˡư promise ηФѲߤƤߤ褦Ѹ˥ե줫Ѥ줿 ư promise ϡͭμȤꡤ«Ȥȯ٤ԤȤ̣16ˤ̾Ūơͽ𤹤롤ͽפΰ̵̣μƤ褦ˤʤ롥18ˤϡʸȤäŪ夲ˡȯãջŪǧŪʰ̣˻롥̡The conflict may promise to escalate into war. Τ褦ʸǽˤʤäư promise ФƤѲΥץϡ"full thematic predicates > raising predicates > quasi-modals > modal operator" ȿǤ
⤦1ġƻ lovely μѲˤĤƤƤ褳ηƻϿʹ֤°̣18Τɽ魯褦ˤʤꡤDzͤɽ魯褦ˤʤä19溢϶ո (intensifier) ȤƤѤ褦ˤʤꡤĤˤϤˡ餷פۤɤ̣ȿ (response particle) ȤƤˡȯã "descriptive adjective > affective adjective > intensifier/pragmatic particle" ȤäȤϢơƻ줬ɾŪʰ̣ˤĤƤϡ#1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]) Ǽ夲ΤǡȤ줿ոȯãˤĤƤϡ#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1])#1220. Ѹˤ붯γ ([2012-08-29-1]) ȡ
ۤˤ⡤Traugott (126--27) ˤСafter all, in fact, however ʤɤɸȤƤȯãeven μٻȤƤȯãonly ξȤƤȯãʤɤ뤷ܸ줫ȤơʸƬΡ֤ǤפɸȤƤȯã䡤ʸΡ֤櫓פμŪ٤ޤͳˡȯãʤɤŦ롥
μΰ̣ѲȤˤʤȡɬȿ餷ΤŦ롥ºݤˡȿѲ (de-subjectification) ܤ⤢롥㤨Сcriminal law criminal ϵҴŪǵŪʰ̣äƤ뤬ŪˤϤηƻǤ a criminal tyrant ˤ褦ʼŪɾŪʰ̣ԤƤȤޤѸǤŪ˼ư֤ȯãƤư֤ŵŪưʤȿŪɽȤ롥
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "From Subjectification to Intersubjectification." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 124--39.
ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥
(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.
ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼
1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)
ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) κǸDzʤĤäˡʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤפȤΤäĴ٤ƤߤȡʸˡӸݤʤΤ뤤Ϥ켫ȤưϸʤΤȤϡºݡʸˡθԤδ֤Ǥ褯ƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äϴϢʸˡθưäˤΰΰȯŸȳˤĤơTraugott εҤ˰͵Ƴ⤷
ʸˡϡ30;ǯۤɤƸؤ礭ʥɤȤĹƤ礭ͤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥߤ븫Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤष "the expansion of various kinds" Ȥߤ븫Ǥ롥ξԤȤˡ̣ȲѲʸˡѲΩĤĤⲿ餫ηǴؤäƤȤߤƤ롤ä˷ŪѲȤδطɤȤ館뤫ˤäΩ줬ʬƤ롥
Ūˤϡʸˡ "reduction and increased dependency" ȤߤƤ̣ɺ (semantic bleaching) Ȳθ (reduction) åȤˤʤäȤǡ"unidirectionality from more to less complex structure, from more to less lexical, contentful status" (Traugott 273) Ȥθĥ롥θ Givón "Today's morphology is yesterday's syntax." ΰ⤤ŵŪ˽Ƥ뤬˰̲ǡΤ褦ʰΥǥƤƤ롥ǤϡΧ (autonomy) ¾Ǥؤν° (dependency) ٹ礤ʤ顤ĤˤϾäƤޤȤʸˡΥ饤ե뤬ɽƤ롥
discourse > syntax > morphology > morphphonemics > zero
θϡ1990ǯȾаʹߡ¿Ƚˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäǤϤʤޤӸݤȤߤ븫ΨŪʷˤʤȤ븫Ф졤ȤȤˡæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ָò (lexicalisation) ʤɤΩǰŦ褦ˤʤäȿΰĤȤæʸˡȤϲòȤϲȤɵ椵褦ˤʤꡤʸˡȤޤΥեɤϳ礷Ƥä
ʸˡΤ⤦1Ĥθϡreduction ǤϤʤष expansion ǤȤΤʸˡܤ줿ϡƤޤˤäɽ줿ꡤˡʡʤɤ˴ؤΤäܤܤ³ɸʤɤܤȡʸˡȤϤष¤ŪʳĥǤŬϰϤγǤϤʤȤפƤ롥㤨Сؼ줬괧ؤʸˡ뤳Ȥˤꡤͭ̾ˤ³褦ˤʤꡤŬϰϤ̤Ȥʤäʸˡ̣ΰ̲ݲǤ뤳ȤͤСŬϰϤȤϼǤ롥 (productivity) γȸƤ褤ܸΡ֤Ȥǡפξɽɸؤȯãʤɤ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥª줺ष autonomy ͭƤȤͤ롥ˤơʸˡϸѲ (pragmaticalisation) βȤӤĤ褦ˤʤä
ʸˡ2ĤθҲ𤷤ǯǤʸˡϿäơʤȯŸȳ뤲Ƥ롥㤨С1990ǯιʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) оˤꡤʸˡθǤ̣ȷ֤ΥڥռʬϤܤ褦ˤʤä㤨Сñפ A lot of fans is for sale. ʣפ A lot of fans are for sale. ؤѲ A lot of our problems are psychological. Τ褦ɽƤΤߤȡʸˡȤȤΰʬϤȤ狼롥ۤˡgive an answer make a promise ʤɤΡַڤư괧ܹ̾פʣ⡤ʸʸˡʸˡδ뤳ȤǤ
ʸˡΰˤĤƤˤʤäƤ̤ϡȤͶƳ (invited inference) ŦƤ롥ޤ (analogy) ʬ (reanalysis) Τ褦ʸŤǰФƤ⡤ʸˡΰ⡤ưŤᥫ˥Ȥ顤ƲλߤʤƤƤ롥ȤΤϡʸˡȤϰʬϤǤȤͤ졤ʬϤȤϴ¸ι¤ȤȤ٤ʤƤʤΤȹͤ뤫ǡΥǥȤʸˡꤹȡŬ (Optimality Theory) ˤʬϤȤƤ롥ܿʬϡʸˡμѤȤⰷ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʸˡΰϸ¤ʤȤäƤƤ롥
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Grammaticalization." Chapter 15 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 271--85.
ε#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) ڤ grammaticalisation γƵǰäƤʸˡϡ1980ǯʹߡˤưܤӤ褦ˤʤäơޤǤ롥ʸˡιͤΤ19뤤Ϥ긫뤬#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡǽʸˡȤѸѤƸ椷Τ Antoine Meillet (1866--1936) Ȥ롥ʲMeillet ʸˡΰˤĤ3Ƥ
ޤMeillet ˤСʸˡȤ "le passage d'un mot autonome au rôle d'élément grammatical" (131) Ǥ롥ƤϺȤʤäƤŵŪʤΤФǡե pas 꼭ȤƤȯãѸǤ have be Ѥλʤʣȯãջ֤̳ɽ魯ư줫̤ɽ魯ưȯãʤɤǤ롥
ʤMeillet ϡƥǤŪͳä礬ե SVO ʤɤθؤȸ경ʸˡȤȤ館Ƥ롥ѸˤǤСűѸ줫ѸʹߤˤƤθθ경⡤ƱͤʸˡȤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θǤϡŤʳǤϴ˼ͳä櫓ǤϤʤŪʸŪװˤѰۤ˶ޤοĴ碌ơ礬ŪʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤäȤMeillet ϤʸˡäƤȤߤΤǤ롥ʣȯãʤ˵ȸθ경Ȥ㤬ƱʸˡפȤѸΤȤǰΤϤ´뤫⤷ʤʣθȤ߹碌ʬŪʰ̣ȤδطæʸˡŪʵǽؤȺƲᤵƤäǡ̤Ȥ롥
ˡMeillet ʸˡˤĤƵƤΤϡʸˡȯŸȤʸ̮ˤƤǤ롥Meillet ϡʸˡȯãˤ2ढꡤ1Ĥ (analogy) 1ĤʸˡǤȤƤ롥ԤˤĤƤϡvous dites ǤϤʤ *vous disez ȸѤƤޤ褦ʲˤäư̲Ƥޤ褦ʥǰƬˤƤ롥Τ褦ϸηΤˤ礭ʱƶͿʤȯã¾ʸˡϿƥ¤ηΤ˱ƶͿΤȤƶ̤Ƥ롥
Tandis que l'analogie peut renouveler le détail des formes, mais laisse le plus souvent intact le plan d'ensemble du système existant, la «grammaticalisation» de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du système. (133)
ǸˡʸˡˤĤƤФиڤˤĤơŪˤʬϤؤˤĤơMeillet ϼΤ褦ȯĤƤ롥
Analyse et synthèse sont des termes logiques qui trompent entièrement sur les procès réels. La «synthèse» est une conséquence nécessaire et naturelle de l'usage qui est fait de groupes de mots. (147)
Meillet Ϥͣ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƸڤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤդpas 꼭ȤƤȯãʤɤϡषne Ǥϼ夯줿Ĵ뤿̾ pas äȤȯȤʤäƤΤǤꡤդäΤʬϲλǤ롥Meillet ⤷äȻŦƤ뤳ȤõƤ
Meillet, Antoine. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales." Scientia 12 (1912). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 130--48.
Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥
Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)
So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)
Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ
Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.
ΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥϡ¾θѲƱͤǤ롥Ǥ˵ạ̈Ѳ椹뤳ȤϽפ狼뤳Ȥϰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤꡤΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ۤɤηϤϤʤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǡˡ§פ̾ͤ뤫⤷ʤ̣Ѳ⤷줬¤ȤƤ㳰㳰ȤۤȤɤϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Ǽ褦ʰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤ롥
Brinton and Arnovick (87) ϡΤ褦ʷŦƤ롥
롥Τ˼ؤϿɤĤʤȤ⤢롥ex. desultory (slow, aimlessly, despondently), peruse (to skim or read casually)
Ūʰ̣Ūʰ̣ءex. understand
ΩŪʰ̣ΩŪʰ̣ءex. esteem (cf. #1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]))
Ūʰ̣ޤ뷹ex. awful
Ūʸưʪ䲼ο͡ɽ魯ɽ顥ex. rat, villain
ŪɽŪʷи˴Ťex. mouth of a river
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΰ
Ե§Ѳϡ쳰Ūװˤ餵䤹̾ˤȤ櫓Ǥ
⤦1ġ̣ѲΰŪʷȤϡ켫ΤüȸƤ֤٤ˤựѲ餫ηǤȤˤȤȤƤ褤¤ǻȤ Brinton and Arnovick ⡤"Of all the components of language, lexical meaning is most susceptible to change. Semantics is not rule-governed in the same way that grammar is because the connection between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional." (76) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ޤ̣ѲˤĤơ (106) ϰʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Ȥ졦¯Ǥϰ̣ѲȯǤ롥٤ȡʸˡѲϤʤޤǡ餯ΤǤȵŤΤϤ鷺ѲϡܸΡ֤ȴȤСפΤ褦ˡ⤦Ť䤹Ǥ̣Ѳ˭٤٤ΩʤǤϡʤ̣Ѳ (semantic change) Ϥۤˤ˵Τϡ餯̣Ѳǥ (discourse) ˤŪĤߤľΤǤ롥
Ǹʸơ (130) ϡְ̣ãθưǤǥˤ륳ߥ˥ưŪľܷӤĤƤ뤫ǤפȷƤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
Ѹǡbe + ưβʬפŵŪ˼ư֤빽¤Ѱư (mutative verb) Ǥϴλɽ魯
The cookies are all gone.
All my lectures are finished.
The sun is set.
How he is grown up!
Babylon is fallen.
Everything is changed.
ŪˤϤʸ gone finished ʤɤϷƻȹͤƤꡤλɽ魯칽¤ΰȤϤȤ館Ƥʤbe have Ѥ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤbe λǤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤˼Ūʹ¤Ȥ虜ʤbe have Ωˤϡbe λϾ֤ɽ路have λϹ٤ɽ魯Ȥ롥be λϤΤ褦λξ֤ǤϤ뤬#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1])#1347. a lawyer turned teacher ([2013-01-03-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬƻˡΤʤˤ̮̿ݤäƤ롥ʲbe λˤرѸIIIA (432--33) ˵äƳ⤷褦
Ѹˤ be λϸűѸ鹭롥űѸǤϡư졤Ȥ櫓ѰưˤĤ wē sindon ȝecumene Τ褦ʹ¤ϰŪäűѸˤʤȡ褯褦ˡhave + Ū + ʬעhave + ʬ + ŪפθѲФ have λʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ¾ư̤˹äǤᤤλ have λϤޤ˼ưˤĥƤΤǡbe λƤ椯ˤϤǤ˻ϤޤäƤȤ⤤롥Ѱư be λϡθ18Ⱦ˻ޤͥݤäƤ18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯be have ̤ͥϤȤȤʤäˤ be λ֤ɽ路Ƥ褦ˡŪˤ֤ɽ魯ˡäǹ٤ɽ魯ˡ⾯ʤʤäŪʾ֤ˡϡѸˤƳΩΤǤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤλΥʥåץåȤƤߤ褦ʲϡFridén ˤ롤Spenser ʡMarlowe 5ʡShakespeare ʤоݤˤ7Ĥμư (come, go, arrive, fall, flee; become, grow) ˤĤơbe λ have λʬۤĴΤǤ롥ʤɽʤ 's ϡhas 뤤 is Τ줫ܷ (enclitic) ؤɽϡG. Fridén. Studies on the tenses of the English Verb from Chaucer to Shakespeare: With Special Reference to the Late Sixteenth Century. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri Ab., 1948. Rpr. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1973. ˴ŤرѸIIIA١p. 432 ꡥ
| ư | come | go | arrive | fall | flee | become | grow | ||||||||||||||
| Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | Sp | Mar | Shak | |
| be | 92 | 88 | 78 | 91 | 95 | 79 | 92 | 89 | 83 | 67 | 67 | 65 | 65 | 67 | 82 | 86 | 50 | 90 | 100 | 89 | 90 |
| have | 8 | 6 | 13 | 9 | 0 | 9 | 8 | 11 | 11 | 33 | 33 | 27 | 35 | 0 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 11 | 3 |
| 's | 0 | 6 | 9 | 0 | 5 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 33 | 11 | 7 | 50 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
ε[2013-08-09-1]˰³¸ߤ there εˤĤơ֤ɽ魯ؼŪˡ there locative there ȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡlocative there λؼŪʰ̣ޤꡤʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤäΤ existential there ǤȤΤŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤȤǤ롥
Bolinger ϡʸˡȤѸ줳ѤƤʤexistential there εȯã嵭ήǤȤ館Ƥ롥ʲϡBreivik ʸΰѤǤBreivik ¸ߤˡ there2 Ȥơؼˡ there1 ȤƸڤƤˡ
Bolinger argues that there2 'is an extension of locative there' . . . and as such does refer to a location, but he characterizes this as a generalized location to which there2 refers 'in the same abstract way the the anaphoric it refers to a generalized "identity" in It was John who said that' . . . . According to Bolinger . . ., '[there2] "brings something into awareness", where "bring into" is the contribution of the position of there and other locational adverbs, and "awareness" is the contribution of there itself, specifically, awareness is the abstract location. . .' (337)
Bolinger ϡŪʰ֤ɽ魯 there1 Ūʵդɽ魯 there2 ذܹԤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Breivik Bolinger Τθ "impressionistic account" (337) ȤŪɾƤꡤεǽΰܹԤʸڤʤȼĥ롥षthere1 there2 ˡϡѸˤ̤ȤϰۤʤΤΡǤ˽űѸǤΤ˶̤ĤƤϤƤ롥
There is no evidence in the material utilized for the present investigation that there2 originated as there1, meaning 'at that particular place'. We have presented conclusive evidence that there2 sentences occurred already in early OE. The factors governing the use or non-use of there2 in older English were, however, different from those operative today. If there2 did indeed derive from there1, the separation must have occurred before the OE period. Whether or not there2 carried any semantic weight in OE and ME is a question we know nothing about. However, to judge from my material, it does not seem likely that OE and ME there2 was used to refer to what Bolinger, in his discussion of present-day English there2, calls an 'abstract location'. (346)
there1 there2 ϸߤ˵Ū̵طǤȤޤǤϸʤΤΡBreivik ϡ˻ޤǤξˡϤäʬƤȤĴƤ롥
ǽɤ߹˰¸ڵιۤȤäˤĤƹͤǤ⤢롥
Breivik, L. E. "A Note on the Genesis of Existential there." English Studies 58 (1977): 334--48.
Ѹθˤơwant to ξάȤƤ wanna ϤƤƤ롥#914. BNC ˤä庹Ĵ ([2011-10-28-1]) Ǥ⡤wanna gonna (< going to) ȤȤ˼㤤ħŤɽǤ뤳ȤƤޤξάʤѲϡ#624. ѸʸˡѲΰ ([2011-01-11-1]) Ǵñ˿줿褦ˡˡư첽ʤŪˤʸˡˤβȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥wanna ˤ want to ϲŪŪƱƤꡤüԤϻѤˤäʬϤƤʤꤵ롥⤷ȤСwanna ϡ#64. ˡưʤ³ȡ ([2009-07-01-1]) ΥꥹȤ˲ä٤ȤȤˤʤ
̣ȤˡܸθŸǴ˾ɽ魯ư֤ޤۤפϡη wanna ξȤäǤ롥㤨СֹԤޤۤפϡֹԤޤۤפνǤꡤԤŪŪʬϤȡֹԤפ̤̤ܿνư֤פ̤̾Ĥ֤סʥˡˡܷƻ֤ۤפȤʤ롥Ū˼С/ma ku FoSi/ ĤŤޤä /maFoSi/ ȤʤꡤηֲϢΩ˾νưȤǧ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤ롥ºݤˡǤϤޤ֤ޤۤפη롥֤ޤۤפޤǼȤƲ̾ʸغʤλʸѤ줿ʹߤϸߤΡ֤פϢʤ֤פͥȤʤꡤ֤ޤۤפ֤
wanna go ȡֹԤޤۤפηϤˤȤɤޤʤѸ to ϡ³ưָ̤̾ؤȺؤƯƤȿФư̾ϲָ̾ȤˡƱͤˡ֤ޤۤפȡ֤ޤۤפ˴ޤޤ֤ޤפϡҤ̤ꡤ̤νư֤פ̤̾Ĥ֤סʥˡˤǤ롥̤νư֤פ̤ɽ魯Ǥ¤ӤѸܸȤǵոǤϤ뤬б̣ôäǤ¤ӡ졤̤ȤʬϤʤ1ĤνưȤƲ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
ʤѲ뤫Ѹˡ˸ؤ椷ƤƤˤ䤤1ĤǤ롥ޤǤ⡤ȤŪʴ顤causation γƵǼ夲ƤǤ롥Coseriu, E. (Sincronía, Diacronía e Historia. Investigaciones y estudios. Seri Filología y lingüística 2. Montevideo: Revista de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias, 1958. p. 37.) ˤСѲθ䤦ݤˤϡۤʤ3θ̤٤ǤȤCoseriu θ⤿ʤΤǡWeinreich et al. (99--100fn) ݤ롥
1ܤ "the rational problem of why languages changes of necessity" Ǥ롥ϤʤѤʤФʤʤΤѤɬפΤȤůŪ䤤δθѲԤȤƤϡKeller פ⤫֡Ѳˤϡָ (invisible_hand) ͿƤȤǤ롥ѲϤäƿʹԤȹֶͤή (drift ⡤˴ޤޤ
2ܤ "the general problem of conditions under which particular changes usually appear in languages" Ǥ롥Ѳˤϡۤʤ졤ۤʤˤƶ̤ƸΤ롥϶ȤϹͤˤطʤ˰Ūʸ뤤Ϥ깵ɽǤ conditioning factors ѤƤȹͤΤǤ롥ŪŪҲŪװޤ̣ǤθŪʽ郎ѲȤȤϼƤ롥εuniformitarian_principle ưθ§ˡgrammaticalisation ʤɤ°
3ܤ "the historical problem of accounting for concrete changes that have taken place" Ǥ롥ϡŪ˸ѲΤȤ̤ˡºݤƤ˸Ѳθġλ褦ȤߤΤȤǤ롥ѸˤθǤϡ̾ŪʸѲλűѸǤ̾ʣΤ˿ˡäʤѸʹߤˤϻ¾ -s ΤߤȤʤäΤʤ̾ưȤѥ16Ⱦ˸ϤΤʤ첻ܤΤŪʸѲñȯĴȤäƤ褤
Coseriu ϡؤϡ3ƱƤϤʤʤդƤ롥
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ѸˡեαƶǡѸŪʸǤ줿ꡤ֤줿ꡤѲ;ʤ줿ˤȤޤʤΥ٥ǤϤäȤ⸲ǤꡤեѸή椨˸űѸä¿Ѥؤɤޤ줿̾ˤĤƤƱȤ뤷ֻ¿ʬˤĤƤꡤΰ̣ˤƤ⤽ ([2009-09-01-1]ε#127. deer, beast, and animalפʤɤȡˡ
ޤΩʤȤǤϡˤĤƤƱȤȤŦ롥ʸ (238) ˤСѸǤϡǤǤ̾ -ness "action of A", "quality of A", "thing that is A", "place of being A" ʤɤι̣äƤꡤбեǤǤ -ity "quality of being A" ΤߤäȤѸˤʤȡ-ness "quality of being A" ΤߤؤỌ̇̄ꤷդ -ity "quality of being A" "aggregate of being A" ΰ̣碌Ĥ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤ̣ιȤ餹ȡ-ness -ity Ω줬žȤˤʤ롥оݸΰ̣ܤƤϡɬ⤳γäƤ餺ѸξȤ¿ǤäΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϤ-ness Ѹʹߤ˰̣ñ㲽ͭΰ̣ʤ顤Ĥˤ̾ȤŪĤΤߤȤʤä¡ʡʸˡ "grammaticalisation"ˤߤСʤȤ̣ϰϤȤǤϡˤ錄äơ˥ե -ity ˶ƤΤ褦
ˤѸȥեз褪ӵžݤȤɤߤʤͤƤΤϡ[2012-05-01-1]ε#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤פǽҤ٤ƻΰ̣ϰϤθˤ뺹ˤĤƤβǤ롥β֤
űѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
-ness -ity ΰ̣ϰϤΩ deer, beast, animal ΰ̣ξ붥ϡθΰ̣˴ؤñȯŪ礭ʸäȤ٥Ǥ⡤ʩϤ絬ϤʵžݤäƤΤǤϤʤ
忡ָѸˤ-ity-nessξ硽סؤȤФΡʸؤȸؤλߡ ԡҡ2012ǯ213--48ǡ
ܥ֥Ǥ١夲Ƥ André Martinet (1908--99) ϡθؤ˱Ѥȼʿ¤ؼԤǤ롥[2012-04-20-1], [2012-04-21-1]εǡ; (redundancy) ˿ƤMartinet ;ȴϢƳΨ (probability) (information) (frequency) (cost) ȤäǰƳδطΤʤ˸ѲθõȤʲϡѸƳΰǤĤǡˡ
Ce qu'il convient de retenir de tout ceci pour comprendre la dynamique linguistique se ramène aux constatations suivantes : il existe un rapport constant et inverse entre la fréquence d'une unité et l'information qu'elle apporte, c'est-à-dire, en un certain sens, son efficacité ; il tend à s'établir un rapport constant et inverse entre la fréquence d'une unité et son coût, c'est-à-dire que représente d'énergie consommée chaque utilisation de cette unité. Un corollaire de ces deux constatations est que toute modification de la fréquence d'une unité entraîne une variation de son efficacité et laisse prévoir une modification de sa forme. Cette dernière pourra ne se produire qu'à longe échéance, car les condition réelles du fonctionnement des langues tendent à freiner les évolutions. (189--90)
ϳؤ뤿ˡΤΤˤĤ٤ȤϡγǧǤ롥ñ̤٤Ȥ줬ľʤʤ̣ǤϤθ̡ˤΤˤϰˤȿδط롨ϡñ̤٤Ȥѡʤʤñ̤Ѥ뤳ȤǾ륨ͥ륮ˤΤΰˤȿδطȤʤ뷹롥2ĤγǧεȤơñ̤٤ѤФθ̤Ѳ뤷η֤Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θԤѲϤޤĹ֤ΤǤ롥ȤΤϡѤθ¤ξȯã뷹뤫
Martinet ϡѤβսǡ;⤤ȤȤͽ¬ǽ⤤ȤȤǤꡤϸǤνиΨ뤤٤Ȥ̩ܤ˴ϢȤȤƤ롥̤ˡǤ٤⤱;⤯ͤ㤤 "plus une unité (mot, monème, phonème) est fréquente, moins elle est informative" (188) ơѤȤǤळȤˤäơƶ줿üԤˤȤäơ٤⤱й⤤ۤɡ1ȯɬפȤ륨ͥ륮̤ϾʤۤԹ礬褤¿Υͥ륮פȯ٤֤ⷫΤԷкѤդˡ٤㤤ɽϡȤȯ礭ʥͥ륮ɬפȤƤ⤢ޤ꺤ʤˤ衤ȯ뵡
Τ褦ˡѡפȯˤ륨ͥ륮̤Ȳ᤹硤̩ˤϸġβȯɤΤ餤Ѥפ뤫Τɬפ뤬η¬ˤ٤ƤñȯƱ٤ѤפȲꤹСɽפѤϤβĹ˰¸ϤǤ롥Ѥñ˲ĹƱͤȤСδطǤ롧ָǤϡ٤⤱вûסѲƤϤСָǤϡ٤⤯ʤвûʤפȤʤ
٤ѤȿδطϡиŪˤ褯Ǥ롥褯ȤȯˤƤɽˤƤû̡ά뷹롥ˤäƤϡû̡άεˤηȤơ̵˵Ȥ餢롥ʸˡŪʴɽṳ̂Ǹ경褯졤ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥưˤۤʤʤޤ[2012-01-14-1]εǼ夲#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ספ⡤٤ѤδطȤȤ館ʤȤǤ
ΰѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ٤ѤδطѲ褦Ȥݤˤϡֺθɬפ롥٤ƤƤ餽θṳ̂ޤǤˤϡ٤λ֤ɬפޤ٤ѤشطϡޤǴˤ䤫ʤΤǤ뤳ȤˤդƤɬפ롥ΰԤɸ꤬ "Laxité du rapport entre fréquence et coût" ٤Ѥδطδˤ䤫ˤǤ뤳ȤդäƤ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ε#971. help + פε ([2011-12-24-1]) Ƭǿ줿Ʊʸΰ̣ӤӤƤƤȤȤˤĤƹͤ
Leech et al. (190) ϡʸ help λŦƤ롥
(19) He made important contributions to a number of periodicals such as Il Leonardo, Regno, La Voce, Lacerba and L'Anima which helped establish the respectability of anti-socialist, anti-liberal and ultra-nationalist ideas in pre-war Italy. [F-LOB J40]
(20) The right person may just happen to come along, or it may be necessary to take certain steps to help this happen. [BNC B3G]
ˤƤ⡤ֽפȤ prototypical ʰ̣Ȥϡֹ롤ǽȤפȤ˶ᤤ̣ ("weak causation") ǧ롥λζϡ2ܤʸǤ "enable such a thing to happen" "make such a thing happen" ŪʶǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ (190)
Mair (121--26) ϡhelp λỤ̄ȯʸˡ (grammaticalisation) βȤƤ롥help ֽפȤŪʰ̣ʸˡŪʵǽȸƤǤ٤ֻפΰ̣ĤĤ뤳ȡưǤ뤫Τ褦ľ˸빽ʸƤƤ뤳ȡϡư줬ư첽Ƥ椯ʸˡβˤۤʤʤ[2009-07-01-1]ε#64. ˡưʤ³ȡפȹ碌ƹͤǤ롥
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Mair, Christian. Three Changing Patterns of Verb Complementation in Late Modern English: A Real-Time Study Based on Matching Text Corpora." English Language and Linguistics'' 6 (2002): 105--31.
ϴܵɽ魯̾ƳȤǤ뤬how Ƴ줿̾¾ that Ʊεǽ̤㤬롥say tell ʤɤãư˸³㤬¿ۤit is strange [funny, odd] ʤɤνˡηƻθѤ㤬롥
- He told us how she had arrived at the end of the party.
- She told me how she had read it in the magazine.
- It is strange how he could persuade her.
how ϡμʤ֤ΰ̣ɽ路ƤȤǤ뤬ñ that ѤȤɤ롥ʤȤʹˤȤäƤۣǤꡤhow ΰ̣ƤȸʤΤˤ how ΤˡϡֱάפȤʸŪޤɸŪפȤ⤵뤬õȤʤŤȤ狼롥㤨СOED ǤϤˡ "how, adv.", 10 ˵äƤꡤϸűѸ Ælfric ȤʤäƤ롥
10. With weakened meaning, introducing an indirect statement, after verbs of saying, perceiving, and the like: = That. Formerly freq. how that, and in mod. dialect speech as how . . . see how still more or less calls attention to the manner.
ѸǤ how that Τ褦ʣ³ηǤ褯Ѥ졤 MED entry for "hou" (conjunctive adv.), 4. ˭٤˸Ĥ롥
how ΰ̣³ؤȶŤƤǡʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) Ȥª뤫⤷ʤȤƤ when where ʤ¾εǤ褦ʤȤꤦ뤬how ϼʤ֤˸¤餺طʤɽ魯ΤˤѤ졤Ǥ٤Ǥ롥How are you? How do you do? ʤɤɽˤ how ΰ̣μ夵ȡ
ưΤʤǤŪƤΤ used to 롥[2011-04-22-1]εuse --- Ǥ٤ι⤤եѸפ[2009-07-01-1]εˡưʤ³ȡפ used to ˴Ϣ夲Ϥʤ߷ʤȤͤ
νưϡνɽ路ơ֡ʰϡˤ褯ĤΤפ䡤ξ֤ɽ路ơ֡ʤĤƤϡˡĤäפỌ̇̄롥ʸʸκ䡤ˤƤ̯ʿưä˴̯ʤΤϸߤ礤Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ֲפŪɽ魯ưǤꡤ߷礤ƤΤϤषȤͤ⤢ߤνɽ路ơ֤褯Ĥפ䡤ߤξ֤ɽ路ơ֡ʸߤϡˡĤפȸĴ *use to ʤˡäƤ褤ȵ뤳ȤǤ롥¤ΤȤ߷ˡ14Ѹˤޤڤ ( OED, use, v., 21 뤤 MED, ūsen (v.), 14a ȡˡ
Ѹʹߡɽϲˡ˸ꤵƤ椭ʤİư줫ưؤŪѲƤäĤƤϸʬǤѤ줿ˡʤʤäʬ礱ƤȤħ must need ǤƱͤǤꡤƽưŪħǤ뤳Ȥդ줿use(d) to ˵äȤϡư첽깭ʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) θݤǤȤ롥
ǤϡѸʹߡߤˡѤ줿ΤϤʤ̲ʸˡϤäƯƤȹͤ뤳ȤϲǽľŪˤȯ꤬ؤäƤȹͤ롥 used to [juːstə] ȯ졤¾塤߷ *use to ƱȯȤʤ롥ֻθȤƤ⡤He use(d)n't to . . . Did he use(d) to . . .? ʤɤΤ褦˲ <d> 뤳ȤϡԱάơդǤϤ褯롥ˤȸ߷δ֤˰Ʊ۵ ( homonymic clash ) 뤳ȤˤʤꡤˡवȤʤäΤǤϤʤ
ˤĤơ[2011-04-22-1]εuse --- Ǥ٤ι⤤եѸפǤ줿 Menner (241fn) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
B. Trnka explained the modern limitation of the idiom use to to the present tense by the development of homophony with the preterite, On the Syntax of the English Verb from Caxton to Dryden, Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 3.36 (Prague, 1930). For the Middle English and Early Modern English I use to go we are now obliged to substitute such periphrases as 'I usually go', 'I am in the habit of going', 'I am accustomed to go'.
Menner, Robert J. "The Conflict of Homonyms in English." Language 12 (1936): 229--44.
Ѳ drift ֥ɥեȡήήѲפˤĤơܥ֥οǼ夲Ƥ (see drift) Ѹ drift ϥޥɤ drift ѾƤꡤԤϰ² drift ѾƤ롥ѸˤȴϢƻŦǤ⸲ drift ϡanalysis synthesis ؤθѲˤĤƤϡMeillet Ȥ[2011-02-12-1], [2011-02-13-1]ʤɤǼ夲
ʤ drift ȤΤΤĹ餯ƤƤ뤬ޤ̤Ǥ롥Ѳˤ drift ϥήǤϤʤήؤ⡤û֤ήǤϤʤˤ錄äƻ³ήǤ롥ԻĤʤΤϡѲμΤǤüԤϡѤݤ˲θѲήʤɰռ⤷ƤʤϤˤ⤫餺θѲήطѤǤ椯ȤǤ롥Ѳ drift ȤϡüԤΰռĶȤǺѤƤߤϤʤΤ⤷ȤȡüԤΩͭΤȤȤˤʤ롥褬Τɬ
drift ȤѸϡꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) ǽ˻ȤäΤǤ롥"Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift." (150) ȸäƤꡤ줽켫ΤưϤȤʤäή߽ФƤ뤫Τ褦ʵҤǤ롥θͭФ Sapir Ȥ褷Ƥս꤬롥
Are we not giving language a power to change of its own accord over and above the involuntary tendency of individuals to vary the norm? And if this drift of language is not merely the familiar set of individual variations seen in vertical perspective, that is historically, instead of horizontally, that is in daily experience, what is it? (154)
Sapir ϡѲ켫ȤϤˤäƤǤϤʤüԤˤŪѰ̵ۤռŪˤäȤȤǧƤϤ롥
The drift of a language is constituted by the unconscious selection on the part of its speakers of those individual variations that are cumulative in some special direction. (155)
üԤʤ drift ʬ褦ʶˡޤǤظѲ䤷ʤƤ椯ΤϡѤ餺̤ΤΤޤޤǤ롥ɤΤȤSapir drift Ȥ mystical impressive ʸݤǤȤΤ褦Ǥ롥
Our very uncertainty as to the impending details of change makes the eventual consistency of their direction all the more impressive. (155)
դäСSapir ϱѸ줬ä¾줫Ѥ뷹 drift ǤȹͤƤ롥
I do not think it likely, however, that the borrowings in English have been as mechanical and external a process as they are generally represented to have been. There was something about the English drift as early as the period following the Norman Conquest that welcomed the new words. They were a compensation for something that was weakening within. (170)
Ǹ "something" ȤϲʤΤ
ѲΰȤϡ30ǯδ֤ grammaticalisation θ椬ʤȤˤäƿ̿ޤ줿grammaticalisation ϸѲ unidirectionality ˾ƤƤ뤫Ǥ롥Lightfoot ϡ˷㤷ۤƤ롥⤷˰ drift Ȳꤹȡ̤˸ˤ˥ǤʤϤüԤˤθưϤȤϤǤʤȤȡϤʤΤmystery ʳΤʤˤΤǤʤǤϤʤ (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, p. 399)
Sapir 衤drift Ϥޤ˲Ƥʤ
Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. 2nd Vol. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
Svartvik and Leech ˤȡѸνʸˡѲϰʲ3ĤηƤȤ (206)
Grammaticalization --- Items of vocabulary are gradually getting subsumed into grammatical forms, a well-known process of language change.
Colloquialization --- The use of written grammar is tending to become more colloquial or informal, more like speech.
Americanization --- The use of grammar in other countries (such as the UK) is tending to follow US usage.
1ܤ grammaticalization ( see [2010-06-18-1] ) ϸѸͭѲʤΥᥫ˥ˤȤ櫓ǤϤʤSvartvik and Leech ϸѸ˸ȹͤƤΤԤǰƬˤϡ㤨[2010-05-31-1]ε[2011-01-11-1]ǿ줿 semi-auxiliaries extension of the progressive Τ
2ܤ colloquialization ϸä̱粽 ( democratization ) ȤϢ뤬ñ˽դäդƱĤĤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤƱͤˡ3ܤ Americanization ñ BrE AmE ĤĤȤȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤ2ĤηϳΤʬŪ˽ŤʤäƤꡤ줾켫Ȥñ˵ҤǤʤʣʲǤ롥
ҤԤ1ͤǤ Leech ̤ζԤ路 Leech et al. ΤʤǤϡ⤦1ĤηȤ "densification" (50) 뤤 "the effects of 'information explosion'" (22) ŦƤ롥ˤȡ礷³ǤѥȤ˸Ψ褯첽褦ȤߵޤäƤȤζŪ줬brunch, smog ʤɤ Ф ( blend ) AIDS, NATO ʤɤ Ƭ ( acronym ) New York City Ballet School instructor ʤɤ̾Ϣ
˸ѸνʸˡѲ˴ؤ colloquialization, Americanization, densification ʤɤȤäȤȡʸˡѲȼҲѲشط虜ʤ⤷ҲѲʸˡѲƤȤСϼ¤˶̣衤Τ˼ҲѲѲͶȯȤȤϸξǤäܿܿν¦̤Ѳη⤿餹ȤǤäʼºݤ Americanization ϸԤˡʳμҲѲŪ˸ "the broader changes in the communicative climate of the age" Ūʤ⡤ΤʤǤȤ櫓ŪǤʸˡ˱ƶڤܤȤΤϡ褷ƼΤȤǤϤʤä
Leech et al. ϡҲѲʸˡѲ˵ڤܤƶˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
More often than not there are links between grammatical changes, on the one hand, and social and cultural changes, on the other. Such links may not be as obvious as the links between social change and lexical change, and they are certainly more indirect. Again and again, however, the authors have discovered that, especially when it comes to explaining the spread of innovations through different styles and genres, apparently disparate grammatical 'symptoms' can be traced back to common 'causes' at the discourse level. Exploring the connections between the observed shifts in grammatical usage (the nuts and bolts of the system, as it were) and the broader changes in the communicative climate of the age, which are reflected in the performance data that the corpora are made up of, is a fascinating challenge not only for the linguist. (Leech et al. 22)
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
ѲŵŪʥѥΰĤˡʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) 롥رѸ켭ŵ٤ˤʸˡȤϡָѲΰǡ켫ΤθỤ̄ĸޤ϶礬ʸˡطɽܼ ( AFFIX ) ʤɤѤ븽ݤפȤ롥
ܸ줫ФС֤ΡפϷΤʪŪ¸ߤȤƤΡʪΡפֿȤϤʤΤפΡ֤ΡפϤʪΤؤ櫓ǤϤʤ Such will be life. 뤤 Life tends to be like that. ۤɤΰ̣Ǥꡤ֤ΡפθϵǤ롥Ʊͤˡ֥Ȥ͡פˤơ֤ȤפϡָפȤ¼Ūʰ̣ưѤɽˡָפ櫓ǤϤʤñˡ֥פȡֿ͡פƱʤȤʸˡطǷ֤ۤɤǤ롥Ūʡָפΰ̣ϤǤϵǤ롥
ѸɽȤƤ while 롥űѸǤϤñϡֻ֡פɽ̾äΰյϸѸ for a while It is worth while to see that movie. ˸ߤĤäƤ롥ֻ֡פɽ̾ȤƤˡ顤䤬³ˡȯã롥While I was watching TV, my wife was cooking. ˤ while ϡֻ֡פȤ̾줫?δ֤ˡפȤ³ʤʸˡŪȤʻΰġˤƤƤ롥?δ֤ˡפۤɤΰ̣ǤФޤ֤δǰ뤬While I am stupid, my brother is clever. Ȥ while ˤϻ֤δǰϳ̵Ǥ롥ǤĴ롤ʸˡŪʵǽ̤³ȤƵǽƤˤʤȤȤΡֻ֡פϱɽʸˡǽˤޤȯŸƤޤä櫓Ǥ롥
ΰ̣εȤ19Ƥ grammaticalisation Ȥ٥ŽäΤ Meillet (1912 [=1921, Vol. 1, p. 131]) Ǥ롥Meillet l'attribution du caractére grammatical à un mot jadis autonome ְΩŪǤäʸˡŪʤͿ뤳ȡפɽ
ʸˡϰ̤˰ʲλĤħĤȤ
(1) ʸˡǤϸ¤Ƥ롥㤨̤ɽϡäѤջ̳֡ŪϤؤαưɽư칽¤롥will, shall,be going to Ǥ롥
(2) ʸˡϰѲ롥while ˸褦ˡ̿Ụ̄ʡֻ֡סˢỤ̄ʡ?δ֤ˡסˢɽỤ̄ʡ?椷ơסˤؤȯãΤ̤Ǥ롥
(3) Ȥΰ̣ݻޤޤ˿̣ʬ롥㤨 while ϰ̣ѲФΤˤ⡤Ρֻ֡פ for a while ʤɤ˻¸Ƥ롥
ʸˡε϶ǯǡ嵭ħȿ㤬Ŧ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ѲŵŪʥѥΰĤǤ뤳Ȥ̸ŪˤΤƤ롥
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ298--99ǡ
Meillet, Antoine. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales." Scientia 12 (1912). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Tome 1. Paris: Champion, 1921--36. Tome 2, Paris: Klincksieck.
Ѹˡưϰ̣ˡ⤭¿ˤ錄ꡤηϤñˡǵҤ뤳ȤϤǤʤˡưˤߤƤ⡤줾¤ʣʷаޤɤäƤꡤǤϤʤ
Hofmann ϸѸˡưηϤˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Perhaps the English modal system has become too complex and our speech is leading the way to a new system. If so, you can expect some new periphrastic forms in your lifetime. (113)
Hofmann ǰƬˤΤϡˡưѤȤƤαɽ˸ǹѤƤ¤Ǥ롥ơɽ˶̤ƤΤϡȤʣθ줫ʤäƤΤΡǤ뤫Τ褦ȯ뤳ȤǤ롥ȯϱäˤ⤫餺Ĥδ֤ˤȤɤʤۤɤѲƤƤȤ⤷Ť¸ߤˡưüȤɽŪǤ롥
used to [ju:stə] for would
have to [hæftə] for must
have got to [hævgɑtə] for must
(be) supposed to [spoʊstə] for ought to, should
(be) going to [gɑnə] for shall, will
塤ä˸ˤƤΤ褦ˡưʤƤ⤷ʤ
Hofmann,Th. R. Realms of Meaning. Harlow: Longman, 1993.
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