ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) εǤϡζ٤ޤ̣ɺ (bleaching) ˤʤ롥켫Τ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ΰǤ⤢뤬Τ褦˰̣ޤäɺĤơηФƿʰ̣䵡ǽǤȤĤޤŪʰ̣Ѳ³Ȥ⤷Meillet ̣Ѳ̾ʸ "Comment les mots changent de sens" (p. 7) ǡ˿Ƥ롥
En ce qui concerne spécialement le changement de sens, une circinstance importante est que le mot, soit prononcé, soit entendu, n'éveille presque jamais l'image de l'objet ou de l'acte dont il est le signe; comme l'a si justement dit M. Paulhan cité par M. Leroy, Le langage, p. 97: « comprendre un mot, une phrase, ce n'est pas avoir l'image des objets réels que représente ce mot ou cette phrase, mais bien sentir en soi un faible réveil des tendances de toute nature qu'éveillerait la perception des objets représentés par le mot ». Une image aussi peu évoquée, et aussi peu précisément, est par là même sujette à se modifier sans grande résistance.
뵭 (sign) ˤĤơ˥եޤȡˤʤäζ뤫Τ褦ˡưפ̤ΰ̣䵡ǽǤΤȤ˥եΩ줫ߤȡ˳μ¤ǶǤʡ˥եˤߤȤȤˤʤ
ȴϢ۵Τϡ#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1]) κǸ˿줿ȤǤ롥ؼоݤϤäƤ뤬襷˥ե⤿ʤͭ̾ˤ顤Υ˥ե褦ȤѤǧȤȤϡֵΥ˥եŶפȤǤƤӤʤ붽̣ݤǤ롥
Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). 1921 ed. Rpt. Dodo P, 2009.
ѸˤϤߤʤ²¿θǤϷƻ (adjective) ˶ (inflection) ߤ롥˥ޥɤνˤƤϡƻޤ˴ؤợŪʴ鶯Ѳ (strong declension) ȼѲ (weak declension) 2ζ̤ߤʳơξˤĤƤϡ#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) ȡˡΤ褦ʶζ̤ϡޥɤħ1ĤȤƤꡤӸŪ˶̣cf. #182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])ˡ
ѸǤϡűѸˤϤζ̤Τˤߤ줿ѸˤƶοʿʹԤȡƱ̤ϤθˤƼƤäcf. #688. ѸηƻηϤοʿ ([2011-03-16-1])#2436. ƻʣޤ -e ѸޤǻĤäͳ ([2015-12-28-1]) ˡѸϡƻζޤζ̤ϤޤΤΤäƤꡤʬޥŪǤŪǤʤʤäƤȤ롥
űѸˤƻζѲȼѲζޤ#250. űѸζɽΥ祳 ([2010-01-02-1]) ȴФƤ

ǤϡʤűѸ䤽¾ΥޥˤϷƻζޤ˶ζ̤Τΰ㤤ܤ뤳Ȥˤꡤƶ뤳ȤǤ롥ѲޥѥįƤߤȡ̾춯ѲޤȻؼ̾ޤξѥߤƤ뤳Ȥ˵դϡƻ줬Ȥ֤̾ȤơʶѲ̾ŪʶޤƤȤˡؼ̾ζޥѥʬŪ˿ƤΤȹͤʤ⤦ܤϡ#2560. űѸηƻ춯Ѳޤ̾̾κѥ ([2016-04-30-1]) ȡˡ
ѲζޥѥϡħŪ n ޤǼѲ̾ζޥѥˤäǤ롥Ϥƻ̩̾ܤʴطˤäΤѲ̾ζޤŵŪˤߤ n εϰĸ *-en-/-on- ˤȤ졤ϥƥ䥮ꥷ̾ˤФи (ex. Cato(nis) "smart/shrewd (one)", Strabōn "squint-eyed (one)") Τ褦ʸͭ̾Ѥ뤳Ȥ顤ɤѲޤϸ̲εǽ̤褦Ǥ롥ȤȡűѸηƻѲޤȼ se blinda mann "the blind man" ȤϡȤ "the blind one, a man" ۤɤƱŪʶäȹͤ롥줬䤬ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ޤȤʸˡƤȤ߹ޤƤȤˤʤäΤ
ʾ塤Marsh (13--14) Ȥơʤޥɤηƻ˶2ζޤΤ˴ؤ1ĤҲ𤷤
Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
θ礭2ĤʬȤС챿 (linguistic performance) Ż뤹ɤȸǽ (linguistic competence) Ż뤹ɤ2ĤȤʤ챿ѤȸǽϤΩϡѥ (parole) ȥ (langue) ΩȤäƤ褤E-Language I-Language ΩȤäƤ褤ɤ˱ѸȤۤʤ뤬褽褦ʤΤǤ롥
챿ѤŻ뤹ɤϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation theory) 乽ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ɽǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Ǥ롥ǽϤ˽Ť¦ɽʸˡ (generative_grammar) Ǥ롥ξɤθѤ͡¦̤180ٰۤʤꡤԤΩƤȤäƤ褤Fischer et al. (32) ɽѤΩ⤫Ӿ夬餻Ƥߤ褦
| EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE/LANGUAGE OUTPUT | EMPHASIS ON COMPETENCE/LANGUAGE SYSTEM | |
|---|---|---|
| (a) | product-oriented | process-oriented |
| (b) | emphasis on function (in CxG also form) | emphasis on form |
| (c) | locus of change: language use | locus of change: language acquisition |
| (d) | equality of levels | centrality (autonomy) of syntax |
| (e) | gradual change | radical change |
| (f) | heuristic tendencies | fixed principles |
| (g) | fuzzy categories/schemas | discrete categories/rules |
| (h) | contiguity with cognition | innateness of grammar |
814ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ9ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ6Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤưεʸʸˤ do ΤפǤ do λѤϡѸ礤ʤȤäƤ褤ΤǤŪˤߤƤ⡤ʤΤ褦ɽdo ˡȸƤӤޤˤиΤˤĤƤ͡ʲ⤬ꡤʤǮоݤˤʤäƤޤ

ѸޡȤ to Ǥ롥̤˸ȤΤ⤢뤬ϥΥޡȤȤ館롥to ϸ¤ǸűѸ줫ѤƤϤ쵤˳礷ΤϸűѸ줫ѸˤƤλǤ (Mustanoja 514)
ѸޤǤ to ϴʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 뤲֡ǽȤ˼岽Ȥ⤢ꡤ䶯뤫Τ褦ֻ for ֤2 forto/for to ޡȤѤ褦ˤʤäMED fortō adv. & particle (with infinitive) ˤȡ Peterborough Chronicle ǤꡤѸκǽѤƤȤ狼롥
a1131 Peterb.Chron. (LdMisc 636) an.1127: Se kyng hit dide for to hauene sibbe of se earl of Angeow.
οޡ forto Ϥʤ٤Ѥ褦ˤʤäɤ to Ʊͤ˼岽α¿ȤʤäƤäλ1415Ȥߤ졤Elizabeth īޤǤˤϤۤѤȤʤäɸѼǤϸߤȤƤˡѸ̤ξԤɤϴѻ졤Caxton Morte Darthur ǤϡŪ forto Τۤͥʤ餤ä
դäСѸˤ to forto ٤ƤäȵǤϤäñΤ fortill, for till, at Ȥä̤ޡ⤢ä (Mustanoja 515) Ȱۤʤꡤη͡äΤǤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1])#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1]) Ǵñ褦ˡѸˤ̤¸ߤĹ餯ŪˤʤäƤ̤ǧ٤ʤΤǧȤФκϲ뤤ϡǧ٤ǤϤʤΤȤФκϲرѸ켭ŵ٤ future tense ι (269) ƤֱѸ̤ʤפȤκ
(1) ̤ˡwill/shall + פȤ̤פȾΤ̤פɽ魯ΤƤ뤬ϤޤŪʼʤѤƤˤʤȤդɬפǤ롥ȤƳΩƤָפȡֲפϡgo went Τ褦ưޡѲŪʼʤˤָ߷פȡֲפƤꡤwill/shall go Ȥϥ٥뤬ۤʤ褦˻פ롥will/shall go ΩΤϤष would/should go ǤꡤΩΤɤΤȤָСֲפ˴ԸȤ٤ǤϤʤ
(2) 嵭Τ褦ʼʤ̤ˤƤ⡤will/shall ɤޤʸˡŪʸǤ뤫ȤˤĤƤ⵿롥Ƹϸְջ֡סġ̳פɽ魯ưǤꡤư첽ȤǤ⤽θϤٻĤäƤ롥¾ˤտ̣Ȥơֿ̡סɬפʤɤΰ̣ĤäƤꡤˡ̤פΰ̣ôΤȤϤʤäƤʤ can, may, must, ought, be going to, be (about) to ʤ¾Ρʽ˽ư⡤¿쾯ʤ̤פΰ̣ôƤ뤿ᡤ⤷ will/shall ̤פνưǧΤǤСƱͤǧʤаݤƤʤäȤ⡤ˡŪʴްդȼʤʡ̤פɽ魯㤬will/shall ˸ȤΤ¤ǤϤ롥ʲλȡ
My babe-in-arms will be fifty-nine on my eighty-ninth birthday ... The year two thousand and fifteen when I shall be ninety. --- [F. R. Palmer]
Ѹ̤ϤΤʤΤȤϡ̤ˡͿθबʸˡƤǤȤߤʤˤϡɤΤ褦ʾ郎ƤФ褤ΤȤܼŪ䤤ؤȤĤʤäƤʸˡѤ˴ؤ뤭礭ʥȥԥåǤ롥
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ298--99ǡ
ѸǤϡwill, shall, can, may ʤɤˡưŤͤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤˡư1ĤΤߤѤ졤θưθ³ȤƤʤĤˡư2ĽŤͤ뤳ȤǤ夬ä
(350) Ȥ (89--90) ꡤѸ줫
a. Shall ̤ + Will ְջ֡
whase wilenn shall þiss boc efft oþerr sitþe written
'whoever shall wish to write this book afterwards another time' (?c1200 Orm D. 95)
b. Shall ̤ + Can ǽϡ
I shal not konne answere.
'I shall not be able to answer.' (c1386 Chaucer, C. T. B 2902)
c. Shall ̤ + May ǽϡ
Hu sal ani man ðe mugen deren?
'How shall any man be able to injure thee?' (c1250 Gen & Ex 1818)
d. May ֲǽ + Can ǽϡ
it may not kon worche þis work bot ȝif it be illuminid by grace
'it may not be able to do this work unless it be illumined by grace' (?a1400 Cloud 116, 14)
ߤˡưϤȤȤϰưˤʤäŪˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ƥаޤ롥ư줫ˡưؤƤΰܹԤϡˤڤؤ櫓ǤϤʤ饸奢ʲäˡΰܹԴˤƤϾ嵭Τ褦ξƤ碌ä褦ʡ2ĽŤ͡פƤ줿ȤȤѸʹߡι¤ѤƤ
ʸǤϡ2ˡưˤĤơġνư֤ˡư첽®٤ۤʤäƤȤطʤˤȵƤ롥ۤʤΩ줫δϢȤƤϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1])#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) ȡ
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ
͵4ϡʬˤʸˡʬ --- ˡưȯã濴 ---סʸˡ --- Ÿ ---ٽ ¼ݺ ƻͺԡˡĬҡ2005ǯ75--108ǡ
#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħKastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ
(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶
One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)
Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥȤؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ªҲ𤷤ƤʸˡȤȤϸѲΤѥؤȤ⤢СΤ褦ʸѲ椹ȤߤΤȤؤȤ⤢롥ޤϡHopper and Traugott (231) ꡤդ顥
. . . we have considered grammaticalization as (i) a research framework for studying the relationships between lexical, constructional, and grammatical material in language, whether diachronically or synchronically, whether in particular languages or cross-linguistically, and (ii) a term referring to the change whereby lexical items and constructions come in certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions.
(ii) ΰ̣ǤʸˡˤĤơHopper and Traugott (231) ϡܼäʹδ֤ˤ̣θĤǤȤߤƤ롥ʸˡϡΤ褦˥ߥ˥δŪʥݥȤΩӤƤ뤬椨ˡŪʴǧθŪʴޤ߹ळȤˤʤꡤե졼ȤȤˤʤΤ
We have argued that grammaticalization can be thought of as the result of the continual negotiation of meaning that speakers and hearers engage in in the context of discourse production and perception. The potential for grammaticalization lies in speakers attempting to be maximally informative, and in hearers attempting to be maximally cooperative, depending on the needs of the particular situation. Negotiating meaning may involve innovation, specifically, pragmatic, semantic, and ultimately grammatical enrichment. This means that grammaticalization is conceptualized as a type of change not limited to early child language acquisition or to perception (as is assumed in some models of language change), but due also to adult acquisition and to production.
μιʸˡ̥Ϥ1ĤȤäƤ褤
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
̻ŪǤ춦ŪǤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ˤ硤ꤢƤ㤬ɤ١ʸˡפ餷ΤʸˡŪפʤΤȽǤबɬפǤ롥Τ褦ʴꤹ뤳ȤϡʸˡͿ뤳Ȥˤۤʤ餺麤ʲǤ뤳ȤؤʤΤ褦ʴࡤʤѥȤƤϡLehmann ƤŵŪʤΤȤƤ롥ϤΤΡȤƽפǤ롥Hopper and Traugott (31) Lehmann ΥѥΤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǡѤ褦Ϣطμ (paradigm) 3طμ (syntagm) 3Ǥ롥
Of relevance on the paradigmatic axis are:
1. the "weight" or size of an element (Lehmann refers to "signs"); weight may be phonological (Lat. ille 'that' has more phonological weight than the French article le that derives from it) or semantic (the motion verb go is thought to be semantically weightier than the future marker go) --- "Grammaticalization rips off the lexical features until only the grammatical features are left" (1995: 129);
2. the degree to which an element enters into a cohesive set or paradigm; e.g., Latin tense is paradigmatically cohesive whereas English tense is not (contrast the Latin with its translation in amo 'I love,' amabo 'I will love,' amavi 'I have loved');
3. the freedom with which an element may be selected; in Swahili if a clause is transitive, an object marker must be obligatorily expressed in the verb (given certain semantic constraints), whereas none is required in English.
Of relevance on the syntagmatic axis are:
4. the scope or structural size of a construction; periphrasis, as in Lat. scribere habeo 'write:INF have:1stSg', is structurally longer and weightier and larger than inflection, as in Ital. scriverò, 'I shall write';
5. the degree of bonding between elements in a construction (there is a scale from clause to word to morpheme to affix boundary, 1995: 154); the degree of bonding is greater in the case of inflection than in that of periphrasis;
6. the degree to which elements of a construction may be moved around; in earlier Latin scribere habeo and habeo scribere could occur in either order, but in later Latin this order became fixed, which allowed the word boundaries to be erased.
Ѹʸˡݤ˾Ȥ餷Ƥߤ褦㤨СѸˡư will ˤ̤פȯãϤɤΤ餤ʸˡŪ#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) 褦ˡˡư will ȯãʸˡŵ1ĤȹͤƤ뤬嵭2鼨̤ꡤѸ will ˤ̤פϢطδ顤ۤ cohesive ȤϤʤ褦ˤפ졤ɤޤǻȤʸˡƥȤưΤ䤬Ĥ롥 Yes/No ǤϤʤ٤ǤꡤץȥŪɬפϤ6ĤΥѥ٤ʻʸˡפȤƤޤȡ¿ȤƤޤȤˤʤ롥
Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. Munich: Lincom Europa, 1995.
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ŵȤơ̤ɽ魯ư be going to ȯã (cf. #417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1])#2106.ֶʸˡȡֹʸˡ ([2015-02-01-1])#2575. Ѳΰ ([2016-05-15-1]) ) λѤơʸˡޤ̣ŪѲ2Ĥμ˱äơĤޤ2ĤΥᥫ˥ˤäȯʹԤ뤳ȤΤHopper and Traugott (93) Ǥ롥2ĤΥᥫ˥Ȥϡsyntagm, reanalysis, metonymy åȤǹᥫ˥ȡparadigm, analogy, metaphor ʤᥫ˥Ǥ롥ʲοޤȡ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- Syntagmatic axis
Mechanism: reanalysis
|
Stage I be going [to visit Bill] |
PROG Vdir [Purp. clause] |
|
Stage II [be going to] visit Bill |
TNS Vact |
(by syntactic reanalysis/metonymy) |
|
Stage III [be going to] like Bill |
TNS V |
(by analogy/metaphor) |
Paradigmatic axis
Mechanism: analogy
In summary, metonymic and metaphorical inferencing are comlementary, not mutually exclusive, processes at the pragmatic level that result from the dual mechanisms of reanalysis linked with the cognitive process of metonymy, and analogy linked with the cognitive process of metaphor. Being a widespread process, broad cross-domain metaphorical analogizing is one of the contexts within which grammaticalization operates, but many actual instances of grammaticalization show that conventionalizing of the conceptual metonymies that arise in the syntagmatic flow of speech is the prime motivation for reanalysis in the early stages.
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ɸ (discourse marker, DM) ˤĤơ#2041. ɸ졤 ([2014-11-28-1]) discourse_marker γƵǼ夲ƤǤϡԸ椫ޤȤ Archer ˽äơɸħȷϩˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
ޤɸħ顥Archer (660) ϼ4夲Ƥ롥
- DMs are phonologically short items that normally occur sentence-initially (but can occur in medial or final position . . .);
- DMs are syntactically independent elements (often constituting separate intonation units) which occur with high frequency (in oral discourse in particular);
- DMs lack semantic content (i.e. they are non-referential/non-propositional in meaning)
- DMs are non-truth-conditional elements, and thus optional (i.e. they may be deleted).
ƤɸϡˤɤСɸʤɤǤϤʤäˤβǡɽɸ餷ʤäƤȤȤǤ롥ǤϡɤΤ褦ɽɸؤȯŸ䤹ΤŵŪɸηϩˤĤƤϡŪʴ鵭ҤΤȡ̣ŪʴΤΤ롥ޤԤˤĤ (Archer 661)
- adverb/preposition > conjunction > DM;
- predicate adverb > sentential adverb structure > parenthetical DM . . .;
- imperative matrix clause > indeterminate structure > parenthetical DM;
- relative/adverbial clause > parenthetical DM.
̣Ūʴηϩϡ̤ (Archer 661)
- truth-conditional > non-truth conditional . . .,
- content > procedural, and nonsubjective > subjective > intersubjective meaning,
- scope within the proposition > scope over the proposition > scope over discourse.
Archer, Dawn. "Early Modern English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 41 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 652--67.
ˤˤή (drift) ȡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ĥѲΰ (unidirectionality) ϸߤ˴طοǰΤ褦˻פ롥ξԤδطˤĤơ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1])#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) ǤƤ Hopper and Traugott ε̤ƤͤƤߤ
Sapir ǽήȸƤȤǰƬˤäΤϡѸˤޤξüӱŪɽȯãΤȤä礫ʬϤءפȤήΤȤǤ (cf. synthesis_to_analysis) θԤϡŪʰ̣絬ϤʸѲȤƤȤ館ĤޤꡤʸˡΤȤƤɤƻڤȤƤǤ롥
ʸˡʸ̮ǤФѤȤϡˤŪѲˤĤƸ뤳ȤϤʤʸˡ¤ɤȤƻڤˤĤƤγǰѸǤꡤפˤäȶɽŪʰ̣礤ǻȤȤȤ
Drift has to do with regularization of construction types within a language . . ., unidirectionality with changes affecting particular types of construction. (Hopper and Traugott 100)
ήȰϡŪɽŪ絬ϤϤʸפε§˴ؤΤġιʸפѲ˴ؤΤȤ顤ߤ˰ۤʤΤȤƤȤ館Τ褵ְפȤѸ줬ѤȤˤϡѸȤƤǤϤʤƤʸˡȤѲνѸȤѤȤȤռƤʤȡ㤤ǽΤդǤ롥
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ܤϡ٤ǤФۤɷ֤긺äƽ̾ȤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ܤϹ٤ǤФۤɡʷ֤˼ä뤳ȤʤŤ֤ݻ䤹Ȥ⤷Ƥ롥⤿餹줾θ̤ϡ"Reduction Effect" ʽ̡̾ˡ"Conservation Effect" ¸̡ˤȸƤФƤ (Hopper and Traugott 127--28)
̤̾ϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȴϢɽŪϡ#64. ˡưʤ³ȡ ([2009-07-01-1]) Ǽ褦ʿˡư췲Ǥ롥used to [ju:stə], have to [hæftə], have got to [hævgɑtə], (be) supposed to [spoʊstə], (be) going to [gɑnə] ʤɤβꥸʥβ餹긺äƽ̾ƤΤǧ롥θ̤ϡ#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) #1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) Ǽ夲 Zipf's law Ȥط (cf. zipfs_law) ٤ȲĹˤشطΤʤ٤ʸˡδ֤ˤͽۤۤɤδطϤʤ롤#2176. ʸˡ̣Ѳ١ ([2015-04-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦Ω⤢뤳ȤդäƤˡ̤̾ΰȤƤϡ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
¸̤ϡŪˤϵˤԵ§θ֡Ȥ櫓佼ˡ (suppletion) η֤餳˻¸Ƥ뤳ȤǧǤ롥;̾Ѳ be ưγѤʤɡĶٸˤƤϸŤ֤褯ݻ졤Ūˤͽ¬Բǽʷ֤ˤĤƤϡ#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])#2090. 佼ˡ餱ο;̾ηϡ ([2015-01-16-1])#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])#694. ٸԵ§ʣ ([2011-03-22-1]) ȡ¸̤Ϸ֤Τߤʤ餺ʤɤ츽ݤˤ⸫ΤǡˤĤư̤ˤ뤳Ȥ
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Meillet θ경ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) λȤߤʤȤϡ#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1]) ǿ줿̾ʸˡȤϸŪʰ̣äŪʸʶˤʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤѲؤŪʸȤΤʸˡȸ硤ϤʤˤƤȸΤHopper and Traugott ϡMeillet 1912ǯεǰ٤ʸ˸ڤĤġˤĤƲ⤷Ƥ (23)
At the end of the article he opens up the possibility that the domain of grammaticalization might be extended to the word order of sentences (1912: 147--8). In Latin, he notes, the role of word order was "expressive," not grammatical. (By "expressive," Meillet means something like "semantic" or "pragmatic.") The sentence 'Peter slays Paul' could be rendered Petrus Paulum caedit, Paulum Petrus caedit, caedit Paulum Petrus, and so on. In modern French and English, which lack case morphemes, word order has primarily a grammatical value. The change has marks of grammaticalization: (i) it involves change from expressive to grammatical meaning; (ii) it creates new grammatical tools for the language, rather than merely modifying already existent ones. The grammatical fixing of word order, then, is a phenomenon "of the same order" as the grammaticalization of individual words: "The expressive value of word order which we see in Latin was replaced by a grammatical value. The phenomenon is of the same order as the 'grammaticalization' of this or that word; instead of a single word, used with others in a group and taking on the character of a 'morpheme' by the effect of usage, we have rather a way of grouping words" (1912: 148).
(i) ˼Ƥ褦ˡŪŪʰ̣ôäƤ䤬ʸˡŪˤʤäȲǤȤ館ơθ경ʸˡȸƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ޤ(ii) ˤ褦ˡ줬ʡʸˡŪƻפΤȤĥ⡤ʤۤɤǤ롥
Hopper and Traugott ϡθ경ʸˡ̴طˤ뤳ȤǧĤĤ⡤켫ΤʸˡλȤߤʤΤǤʤȹͤƤ롥ͳ1ĤϡѲɬ (unidirectionality) ǧʤȤ (60) ޤѲ¾ʸˡݤϤäƤȤѲʸˡ˲̤ŪˤĤƤ⡤Hopper and Traugott ϿŤΩäƤ (61) ơѲʸˡȤƻФΤϹƤȤǤ롥
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Meillet, Antoine. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales." Scientia 12 (1912). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 130--48.
űѸ˴ؤ˸ȤơǶ2Ĥεǿ줿cf. #3208. ݥ饤ȥͥäűѸ ([2018-02-07-1])#3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡ褽 speech_act, politeness, discourse_analysis, information_structure ˴ؤä Traugott γˤäơѸ˴ؤ˸ȤơɤΤ褦ʤΤ뤫Ƥߤ
Traugott ϡϥɥ֥åƬ3ĤŦƤ (466)
(1) "the shift from information-structure-oriented word order in Old English to 'syntacticized' order in Middle English; this in tern led, at the end of the period, to new strategies for marking topic and focus in special ways."
(2) "the development of auxiliary verbs in contexts where implied abstract temporal, modal, or aspectual meanings of certain concrete verbs became salient"
(3) "the appearance of a large set of new discourse types, from romances to drama, scientific writings, and letters"
(1) ϸΥե˴ؤ̤ȤäƤ褤űѸ줫Ѹˤƶޤष礬경ƤäȤˤꡤŪͳʸѤƾ¤ȤάäƤΤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäˡ̤μʤʤʤФʤʤʤäȤȤǤ롥㤨СѸˡټԤɸ by ȼư֤ιʸȯãƤȤϡΤ褦ʾ¤˵ʬ뤫⤷ʤ⤷β⤬ΤǤСŪװѲΰȤʤäȸ뤳Ȥˤʤ
(2) Ūʴޤߤ(1) ȴŪ˴ϢȻפ뤬ư줫ưؤȯãʤŵŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) λˤΤˡʸ̮˽줿ް (implicature) ͶƳ (invited_inference) ʤɤƻΩƤäƤ븦ؤѸˤ϶ޤοˤ³ˡˡοˤꡤŪؼʤȤˡư줬ȯã뤬ȯãˤŪʥᥫ˥बͿƤǽ롥
(3) ϿäνиǤ롥夬ˤĤ졤λˤϤʤäƥȡפƤ뤳ȤѸ˸¤äݤǤϤʤѸǤΤ˿郎߽Ф줿Traugott ϥޥࡤʳŪʸϡȤäŦƤ뤬¾ˤեʤӥƥˤαƶ뤤Ϻ礷¿Ѥλʸ䱤ʸʤɤ
ۤѸˤϱѸνդɸಽ (standardisation) ⵯϤƤꡤïĤɤɸѼѤΤѤʤäΤȤäҲŪоݤȤʤ
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Middle English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 30 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 466--80.
Ѹˤưβʬ˷ -ed "dental suffix" ȤƤФ졤ղäϥޥͭηֲǤʡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) ȡˡˤäƥޥϡ촴첻ѲƲ췿ζѲưԵ§Ѳưˤȡ dental suffix ղäѲưʵ§ѲưˤȤ2ʬ뤳ȤˤʤäԤϡֵ§Ūפʤ˸¿ưعäƤѸưˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1]) ȡˡ
Ѹ -ed Υޥˤ뵯ˤĤƤϽ⤢ꡤ夬ĤƤʤͭϤˤȡư do ƱǤϤʤȤdo ΤưṲ̄ȤȤǧˤ衤ʬˤΰ̣ɤФƤΤϼǤϤʤƱˤȡޥˤ do 촴Τʣ (reduplication) ȤŤֲäƤˡƱҲ2ٸ *dēd- ʤɤη֤Ȥʤä䤬첻üλҲ蘆äƽŻҲȤʤäæŻҲơɤΤȤ *d- ˼ޤäĤޤꡤ-ed λҲϡdo θ촴ҲбƱˡ줬Τ˽ʣƱҲˤб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥϡϲ餫ʸˤٻΤȸ˾嵭ηֲ碌㤬ĤȤLass (164)
The origin of the weak preterite is a perennial source of controversy. The main problem is that it is a uniquely Germanic invention, which is difficult to connect firmly with any single IE antecedent. Observing the old dictum ex nihilo nihil fit (nothing is made out of nothing), scholars have proposed numerous sources, none of which is without its difficulties. The main problem is that there are at least three consonantisms: /d/ (Go nasida 'I saved', inf. nasjan), /t/ (Go baúhta 'I bought', inf. bugjan), and /s/ (Go wissa 'I knew', inf *witan).
But even given this complexity, the most likely primary source seems to be compounding of an original verbal noun of some sort with the verb */dhe:-/ 'put, place, do' (OHG tuon, OE dōn, OCS dějati 'do', Skr dádhati 'he places', L fēci 'I made, did').
This leads to a useful analysis of a Gothic pret 3 ppl like nasidēdun 'they saved':
(7.18) nas - i -dē - d - un
SAVE-theme-reduplication-DO-3 pl
I.e. a verbal root followed by a thematic connective followed by the reduplicated perfect plural of 'do'. This gives a periphrastic construction with a sense like 'did V-ing'; with, significantly, Object-Verb order . . ., i.e. (7.18) has the form of an OV clause 'NP-pl sav(ing) did'. An extended form also existed, in which a nominalizing suffix */-ti/ or */-tu/ was intercalated between the root and the 'do' form, e.g. in Go faúrhtidēdun 'they feared', which can be analysed as {faúrh-ti-dē-d-un}. This suffix was in many cases later weakened; first the vowel dropped, so that */-ti-d-/ > */-td-/; this led to assimilation */-tt-/, and then eventual reinterpretation of the /t/-initial portion as a suffix itself, and loss of the 'do' part from verbs of this type . . . . The problematic /s(s)/ forms may go back to a different (earlier) development also involving */-ti/, in which the sequence */tt/ > /s(s)/ . . . but this is not clear.
פˡ-ed ղäθϼ̤ޤư촴̾첽ܤư̾Τ褦ʤΤ롥ľˡdo β did Τ褦ʤΤ֤ơΤȤơ֡ưˤưԤʤäפȤ롥Τ褦ˤȤȤOVαŪ칽¤ȤƻϤޤä䤬ΤĤŤޤäʣΤ褦ʤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤꡤŪʲؤȰܹԤʳ˻äơ-ed ʬϡŪǤȤʤ«ǤȲᤵ줿ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤߤƤ褤
ΰѤ Lass Go wissa ˸ڤȤȤˡǸ /s(s)/ ˸ڤǤ뤬бűѸˤư wāt βȤ wiste/wisse ꡤŪꤲƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2231. ưβ˸ -st- ([2015-06-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ɽϡ#2723. ֻ on ˤ n æ ([2016-10-10-1]) ȡ#2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ءס ([2017-05-23-1])Ϣܵalive ˸ءǼ夲Ƥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤҲ𤷤
Los (43) ˤСon foot afoot ؤѲϡΧ֡졤äΤ٤Ƥ¦̤ˤơʸˡŵŪˤߤħ
| on foot > afoot | |
| Prosody | stress is reduced |
| Phonology | [on] > [ə]: final -n is lost, vowel is reduced |
| Morphology | on is a free word, a- a bound morpheme |
| Syntax | on foot is a phrase (a PP), afoot is a head (an adverb) |
| Lexicon | on has a concrete spatial meaning, a- has a very abstract, almost aspectual meaning ('in progress'); afoot no longer refers to people being on their feet, i.e. active, but to things being in operation: the game is afoot |
I believe that she has done it. Ȥʸ that Ѥ I believe her to have done it. ȥѥե졼뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥʸǡ֤ʤΤ she ǤꡤʤʤηäƤ뤬ԤʸǤưμΤƱʪؤʤ her ŪʤηäƤ롥ϡΰ̣μǤϤ³ΤΡ1ʾˤ believe λ۲뤬椨ˡʤǤϤʤŪʤͿΤ롥ǤϡԤΤ褦ʳͿΤȤ Exceptional Case-Marking (= ECM) ȸƤǤ롥ޤbelieve μ뤳Τ褦ʹʸϡгդιʸȤΤ롥
believe ˤߤ褦ʥѥե졼ϡthink declare ɽֻ͡פפɽ魯ư¿ǽ̣ΤϡECM ʸϼư֤ѤΤ̤ȤȤǤ롥嵭Ϥǽư֤ʸ夲She is believed to have done it. Τ褦˼ư֤Ǹ뤳ȤΤۤŪ¿º say ʤɤǤϡǽư֤Ǥ ECM ʸϵƤ줺The disease is said to be spreading. Τ褦ˤäѤư֤Ǹ롥
μư֤ؤФϡʤʤΤ
1Ĥˤϡֻ͡פפˤƽפʤΤϡƤμǤ롥ʸǤСshe the disease Ǥꡤ줬ʸƬǼȤƸȤΤϡ¤⼫ľǤ롥
⤦1Ĥζ̣ѻϡis believed to ʤ is said to ʬΤȤ evidentiality ɽ魯⡼ʵǽӤӤƤȤΤĤޤꡤreportedly ۤɤ֤뤳ȤǤʵǽǤꡤŤѸǤ sceolde "should" Ȥˡưɽ蘆ƤǽǤ롥Los (151) ˤС
Another interesting aspect of passive ECMs is that they renew a modal meaning of sceolde 'should' that had been lost. Old English sceolde could be used to indicate 'that the reporter does not believe the statement or does not vouch for its truth' . . . :
Þa wæs ðær eac swiðe egeslic geatweard, ðæs nama sceolde bion Caron <Bo 35.102.16>
'Then there was also a very terrible doorkeeper whose name is said to be Caron'
The most felicitous PDE translation has a passive ECM.
̣Ǥϡbe believed to be said to be going to ʤɤƱ褦ˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ
Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
ǯǤϡּ (periphery) դθ椬ܤƤƤ롥ĻرؤθץȤ١Ȥ˴ؤ뾮ԡˤͽȯäΤϤȽ٤Ǥ줿ʤܤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ŪƳȤʤ1Ϥˡּפ並ˤˤĤƤβ⤬롥ȾǧƤ (9)
Ȥå˥åȤκǽ餢뤤ϺǸΰ֤ǤꡤǤϥƥŪʤӤˡʤϥŪʸޤ졤˥åΤѰȤ
ˤϺǽΰ֡ʤʤˤȺǸΰ֡ʱˤ2Ĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬ξԤδ֤ˤƯΰ㤤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ԸˤСֺȱμθλѡפȤơΤ褦ʬô⤵Ȥ (25)
| μ (LP) | μ (RP) |
|---|---|
| Ū (dialogual) | ԤλŪ (dialogic) |
| ý롿դ (turn-taking/attention-getting) | ýʾꡤý߽Фɸ (turn-yielding/end-marking) |
| äˤĤʤ (link to previous discourse) | ³äͽ¬ (anticipation of forthcoming discourse) |
| ɸ (response-marking) | ¥ (response-inviting) |
| 경ե졼ಽ (focalizing/topicalizing/framing) | ⡼벽 (modalizing) |
| Ū (subjective) | ּŪ (intersubjective) |
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