椬γعʸˡˤ Jespersen ʸˡαƶϤϡߤ˻ޤ³Ƥ롥20--21οؤζδˤꡤJespersen αƤʤäƤ褦ˤⴶ뤬ºݤλٻϤޤΤǤϤʤ
Jespersen ιϿ¿뤬˴ؤƤɸ "nexus" "junction" ζ̤ϤȤ櫓פǤ롥ѸΤ餺Ȥ⡤¿οͤѸιʸβˤƤζ̤Ż뤷ƤϤǤ롥ޤ Jespersen ȤѤ褦
1.41. C. Nexus, i. e. a combination implying predication and as a rule containing a subject and either a verb or a predicative or both. Besides these a nexus may contain one or more objects, often a direct and an indirect object.
1.31. B. Junction, i. e. a combination of words which does not denote predication, but which serves to make what we are speaking about more precise. Here we meet with the distinction of ranks. A very poor widow contains a tertiary (very), a secondary (poor) and a primary (widow); corresponding examples are extremely cold weather, a furiously barking dog. In other combinations we may have quaternaries or quinaries, e. g. a not (5) particularly (4) well (3) constructed (2) plot (1).
Ū˼СI found a dog barking. ˤ a dog barking "nexus" θƤ롥褽 I found that a dog was barking. ȥѥե졼Ǥ褦ˡȽҸǤä¤Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥I found a barking dog. Ǥ a barking dog "junction" θƤ롥I found it. ȤޤȤ夲뤳Ȥʬ褦ˡ˼ҤδطϴްդƤȤϤ that a dog was barking ȤŸطǤϤʤ
ŪˤŪˤ⡤2Ĥδط̤ƤȤΰյ礭ʲʸˤƼʬϡ츫 "junction" ˤߤ뤫⤷ʤºݤˤ "nexus" ٤ΤǤ롥
The difficulties overcome makes the rest easy. ʤ줿ΤǸưפǤ롥
That's a great load off my mind. ʤǤۤäȤ
I sat with all the windows and the door wide open. ͤⳫƺäƤ
He being rich and I poor, everybody took his side against me. बǻ䤬ϤᡤߤθäƻȿФ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
#4205. ԢʬϺˡư֤ջ֤Ǥιųء١ ([2020-10-31-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ˡĸʳǤϡޤ̾Ūʸꡤ夫ưŪʸȤҲ𤷤Ƥʬ (165--66)
ư֤ǽư֤Ȥä֤γǰϡޤǤʤư˷ӤĤƤ롥ưϺΤ륤ɡ衼åѽˤơʸôΤ˸롥Ĥޤꡤư줬ʤ뤳Ȥ
¤ưϸΤʤˤ֤٤ƤǤǤ뤳ȤʬäƤ롥եθŵؼԥ顼ϡإƥʸˡ٤ΤʤǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ưϤˤʸŪǤǤ褦ˤߤ뤬줬ΤäƤ褦ʷǤΤϡ¤ʸˡƤΤʤ٤ƤΤʤΤǤ롥ưŪӹʸˤƤϡ̾ŪӹʸäΤǤꡤΤʤưǤϤʤư̾Ǥäס
Ǥϡư줬٤ǤǤäȤ顤ϤĺΤʤΤ
Τǯꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤƱԡͭĽŦ褦ˡɡ衼åѽζ̤εȤꤵƤ̴ֶפϤǤưäƤȹͤΤǡǥ顼뤬ڤƤΤϤλθȤȤˤʤ롥
Τ褦ʴΩĤȡ̾ŪʸȤܤưŪʸˤλϡΤʤ˻Ȥ˸ĤʢǽưŪˡָĤפȤ褦ȻפäưŪˡָĤפȤƤˡ;ư (impersonal_verb) Ѥ;ιʸɽʤȤиѸ It seems to me . . . It rains. ȤȤˤưŪʰ̣礤¿ʬ˴ޤߤĤĤ⤢ޤ̾ŪʸǤäĤäƤȸ뤳ȤǤ롥ȸƤФߡ It ϡκۤ뤿ź줿ʸ̤ΤǤꡤιʸ seems rains ̾Ūʡֳѡפֹ߱פˤۤʤʤ
ζ繽¤ʬϤˤƤϡư¸ߤȤƤ롥ơư괬褦¾ǡʹˤ֤ȤƶŪǤ롥嵭˾Ȥ餻СϸŪȤŪ˼ΤǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ
Ԣʬ Ϻư֤ջ֤Ǥιųء١ؽ2017ǯ
2֤ۤ̾ hellog #4186. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ ([2020-10-12-1]) Ǽ夲ФѤʵǤȯ˴ؤǤ⤢ޤΤǥ饸ʤ٤άƤߤޤμǤİǤǤ礦
ݥȤϡñΤʤˤϼȶȤۤʤȯĤΤȤȤǤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤʸˡṲ̄¿ߤޤñϥǥեȤǤϼȯޤ Yes, I am. 褦ˡ˲άƤơʸĤ̤ʾˤ϶ޤʤȤ⡤ʤФʤޤˡѽФʸˡŪʸ餳ΡäݤʸݤǤϤޤȶ2ĤȤҳФƤƤ
ϢˤĤƤ##4186,3713,3776εå
ǶᡤرλŦ˥ϥäȤ뤳Ȥ¿ؤդƤ롥ɸ귿ʸȤߤʤƤꡤȤꤿƤʬŪ˹ͤȤʤäŦơֳΤˡפȴdear ϡֿưʤפ̣̤ηƻǤ뤫顤my dear friend ʤ褯ʬ롥Ƭΰ (salutation) ʤɤǤϡŪ˳ʤȤ⤤ Dear my friend 롥Dear Mr. Smith ʤɤȤƤɤʤΤ
ŪʴФȤƤϡƬΰ Dear ϽƻȤϡΤδ (interjection) ˶ᤤΤǤꡤɸ (pragmatic_marker) ȤäƤ褤Τ⤷ʤĤޤꡤ my dear friend ȡ˳ʤ Dear my friend ٤ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤȤ⤷ʤCGEL (775) Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦˰ƳޡȤߤʤƺѤޤƤ롥
It is conventional to place a salutation above the body of the letter. The salutation, which is on a line of its own, is generally introduced by Dear;
Dear RuthDear Dr BrownDear MadamDear Sir
̻Ūˤߤе䤬ͯƤ롥Dear my friend Τ褦ʸ礬Ƹ줿ΤϤĤʤΤθɸβϤʤΤäΤѸǤ Dear my lord Dear my lady 㤬¿褦 milord, milady θòȤؤ꤬˰㤤ʤ
ѸξˤĤưҤ٤ƤСCOCA ǸƤߤ¤ꡤ¤ϡdear my ̾פϷ褷¿ʤŪˤ⤤ʴ롤⤷ơޤǤʢK꤬Ȥˡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
줿ѤʵǤɸΤ褦 yes/no ʸؤβǡNo, I'm not. ϵƤޤ*Yes, I'm. ϵƤ줺Yes, I am. ȴʤФʤޤѸؽκǽ I am ξά I'm ǤȽ櫓ǤάȤʤ礬ΤǤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
ϡʸ˾ά֤ȤϤǤʤפȤʸˡ§뤫Ǥ⤦ΤˤСĸ˴ؤƤϡǤ϶Ǽ¸ʤФʤʤȤȤǤĸȤΤϡȤʤäƤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤɤޤޤޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])ˡȤʸˡŪʵǽ̤ΤȤǤ
θϡ̾ʸ̮Ǥϼ夯ȯ졤ά뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤñȤȯˤϡֶפȤʤޤam ǤСɸβΤ褦ʸˤˤϡ̾μ /əm, m/ ǤϤʤ̤ʶ /æm/ ȤƼ¸ʤФʤޤ
ǤϡʤǶȤʤʤФʤʤΤǤ礦̾be ưˤưˤֻˤ衤졤ư졤Ūʤ̤Ǥ³뤿ᡤ켫Τ뤳ȤϤޤŪʾά (ellipsis) ư (movement) ؤˤϡ˵뤳Ȥ⤢ޤ
Are you a student? --- Yes, I am (a student).
I am taller than you are (tall).
She doesn't know who the man is.
Sam kicked the ball harder than Dennis did (kick the ball hard).
They ran home as fast as they could (run fast).
What are you looking at?
This is the very book I was looking for.
Τ褦üΤȤǤϡˤäεǽ϶Ǽ¸ޤϡ̾ξ¤δפ̤Ƥ뤿ᡤȤƤۤ¸뤫ȹͤޤYes, I am (a student). ΥǤСbe ưˤϡ a student άƤȤȤɸ䤬դƤꡤ̾ I'm a student. be ưֽաפôäƤȤΤǤ
ʤNo, I'm not. ƤΤϡbe ư줬櫓ǤϤʤȹͤƤޤ뤤ϡbe ư + notפ蘆äƸ³Ǥξάɸ뵡ǽôäƤΤǤϤʤȤͤޤ (cf. No, it isn't.)
#4147. ̾ ([2020-09-03-1])#4148. ʤ each other ֤ߤפΰ̣ˤʤΤǤ ([2020-09-04-1]) εǡ̾ (reciprocal_pronoun) 夲Ѹˤ̾Ūˤϡ̣Τ롥Quirk et al. (6.31) Ȥơ2ۤƤߤ褦
Each other and one another are both written as word sequences, but it is better to treat them as compound pronouns rather than as combinations of two pronouns. At the same time, they correspond the correlative use of each . . . other and one . . . another (cf 6.58) in sentences such as:
They each blamed the other.
The passengers disembarked one after another
ε ([2020-09-04-1]) Dz⤷褦ˡŪˤϾʸˤ褦ʹǤΥФʤعʸˤꡤˤʤäƤüʷȤƹǤܤ each other, one another ȤȤä
ˡ̣Ūˡ̾줬֤ˤΩˤˤĤơ
Each other and one another resemble reflexive pronouns in that they cannot be used naturally in subject position. Instead of [1], [1a] is preferred.
?The twins wanted to know what each other were/was doing. [1]
Each of the twins wanted to know what the other was doing. [1a]
There appears to be no such constraint on reciprocals as subject in nonfinite verb clauses:
The twins wanted each other to be present at all times.
However, the rule which excludes occurrence in subject position holds not only for independent pronominal use but also for genitival reciprocals in subject noun phrases. The reciprocals must have coreference with antecedent phrases which have some other genitive or possessive modification. Compare:
*Each other's letters ----------
?The letters to each other ---------- were delivered by a servant.
Their letters to each other ----------
ʸˡǤϡդξȱϽפȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ̣̾ˤϼ¤˹äƤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
OGαѸ춵̤Ƹ줿ѤʵǤeach ϡֳơʿ͡ˡסotherϡ¾ʿ͡ˡפʬäƤƤ⡤ʤ줬Ȥ߹蘆ȡ֤ߤפΰ̣ˤʤΤȤäȤʵǤʤʤ궯Ǥĩ路ƤߤޤʲβϸʳǤλβǤ
ܸΡ֤ߤפˤѸ each other ˤ衤褯ͤƤߤȤȤƤɽǤ֥ȥᥢϤߤƤפ John and Mary love each other. Ϥ줾θʸΤ褦˻פޤ֤ߤפ each other ʤɤѤˡƱɽ綠ȤȡǤܸǤС֥ȥᥢϰäƤդ⤢ꤽǤѸǤϤɤǤ礦
1ĤˤϡJohn loves Mary and Mary (also) loves John. Τ褦ɽˡޤΤǤ¤ˤɤǤۤ͡ˤϡJohn loves Mary, and vice versa. ȤޡȤˡ⤢ޤʥޡȤƼȴɺäƤ褦ʡˡ
̤ΤХμ줿䵤ϡΤΡʬ̾̾Ȥ߹碌ͭˡǤĤޤꡤEach of John and Mary loves the other. Τ褦ˤˡǤȥᥢγơΩƤ2ĤʸꤷŪϼǤʤۤοͤؤȤΤȤǡeach the other ϢưտޤƤɽ魯ȤؤμΤ褦ˡǤݤǤŪãǤƤޤˤʸ⤦ѷeach ͷΥפ뤳ȤǽǤ John and Mary each love the other. ȤʤǤ礦˶ŤƤޤ
ơŪˤߤȡǼतɽϸűѸ줫¸ߤƤޤ괧 the ۤȯãƤ餺嵭Τ褦ɽˤ the other Τˤޤthe ȼʤ other ǽǤĤޤꡤJohn and Mary each love other. ʸƤޤ
John and Mary each love other. ʸűѸ졦Ѹʸˡ§ƵʸˤƤߤޤ礦αѸϸѸȰۤʤꡤư love Ѥʸʸˤݤ do ѤޤǤˡư love John and Mary ˡĤޤꤳξʸƬˤäƤ뤳Ȥǵʸޤbe ưưεʸκƱǤ͡ˡĤޤꡤLove John and Mary each other? Ȥʤޤ
äȡˤơϤ餺 each other ٤äƤޤޤ each John and Mary ȤΤۤˤǡ2ͤγơפ̣θǤother Ϥޤư love ŪǤeach other ʸˡŪȤƤʬǤƤϤʤΤǤϤ餺٤ä each other ȤǤˤʤäƤޤäˡä꤬äƤʸˡʹ꤬ƤޤΤǤ㤤ʹϡJohn and Mary each other ֤ߤפ̣ŪʤΤȻ¿ʸˡƤޤäΤǤ̣Ǥϡδ㤤νִ֤ˡѸˡ֤ߤפ̣ۤɤʸʡ̾ˤޤ줿Ȥޤcf. ε#4147. ̾ ([2020-09-03-1]) ȡˡ
äΰտޤʸˡʹˤäʬϤ졤Ϥ餺¿ʸˡ줬븽ݤϡŪʬ (syntactic reanalysis) ȸƤФƤޤѸˤˤƤˤ˵äƤȤϸޤ褷ƵʸݤǤϤޤܤĴƤޤOED ˤŪʸ㤫鼨ȤˤСeach other ˴ؤƤϡθݤ٤Ȥ15ȾФޤǤƤȤߤޤ
ʾ塤each other ϡʬϤη̡֤ߤפ̣ȤǡȲ⤷ƤޤƬˤҤ٤褦ˡϺΤȤβˤȤɤޤäƤޤʸʳˤƱͤΰʬϤϤޤ¾ʤ٤ͻ両ڤ⤤ȻĤäƤޤǤΤǡ1ĤβǽȤƤȤ館Ƥ
Ǥ⡤ͤƤȡ֤ߤפ each other θȤƤΤ꤬ʬäƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ˤŨ£ʪʤΤǤ
ε#4116. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡϡ ([2020-08-03-1]) ³ԡŪˤϤäꤷʤ of ˡŪˤߤȤ褽褹롥ϡιʸ of ˡˤĤŪˤҤȤƹԤ
OED of, prep. ˤȡˡ of ϡ"V. Indicating the agent or doer." ȤʬβǸ16˵Ƥ롥
16. Indicating the doer of something characterized by an adjective: following an adjective alone, as foolish, good, rude, stupid, unkind, wise, wrong (or any other adjective with which conduct can be described); following an adjective qualifying a noun, as a cruel act, a cunning trick, a kind deed, an odd thing; following a past participle qualified by an adverb, as cleverly managed, ill conceived, well done.
Usually followed by to do (something), as in it was kind of you (i.e. a kind act or thing done by you) to help him etc., and less frequently by that, both constructions introducing the logical subject or object of the statement, e.g. It was kind of him to tell me = His telling me was a thing kindly done by him.
ֹټԡפ of ȤƤ⡤ˤ狼ˤǼ⤷ʤɸʸǤСΤ you come ΰ̣μǤꡤäƹټԤȤ⤤롥Ǥ for Ѥ It is important for him to get the job. ब뤳ȤϽפʤȤˤˤƤ⡤him get ΰ̣μǤټԤǤ⤢뤫顤of for ˡΰ㤤Фʤ2Ĥֻ줬ƱˡĤȼΤϤˤ衤ʤʤΤߤ
OED ΰѤ˵ҤƤŪطʤǫɤ߲СʤֹټԤ ofפʤΤʬäƤ롥ˡ of κǽϡɤƻľ³Ȥ⡤ƻޤ̾ľ³褦ʤΤǤ롥ĤޤꡤIt's a very kind thing of you to come. Τ褦ʹʸäȹͤ롥θιʸФϰճ٤Ѹ̤ˤʤʲOED ǽοƤ
1532 W. Tyndale Expos. & Notes 73 Is it not a blind thing of the world that either they will do no good works,..or will..have the glory themselves?
a1593 C. Marlowe Jew of Malta (1633) iv. v 'Tis a strange thing of that Iew, he lives upon pickled grasshoppers.
1603 W. Shakespeare Hamlet iii. ii. 101 It was a brute parte of him, To kill so capitall a calfe.
1668 H. More Divine Dialogues ii. 383 That's a very odd thing of the men of Arcladam.
1733 J. Tull Horse-hoing Husbandry 266 Is it not very unfair of Equivocus to represent [etc.]?
1766 H. Brooke Fool of Quality I. iv. 145 Indeed, it was very naughty of him.
ǽ4ϡַƻޤ̾ + ofפȤʤäƤ롥of "(done) by" ۤɤΡֹټԤ ofפȤɤؤ䤹ǻפФΤϡȤưɽ魯ֻϡǤ by ŪѸ줫ѸˤƤϡष of Ƥ¤ϸʾ of = "done by"ʤֹټԤ ofפδФǻäΤǤcf. #1350. ư֤ưѤ of ([2013-01-06-1])#1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1])#2269. ư֤ưѤ줿 by of ζ ([2015-07-14-1])ˡ
˵Ǹ2ˤĤƤϡǤŪάơַƻ + ofפιʸؤȰܹԤƤꡤΡֹټԤ ofפδФƤƤ褦˸롥ɸιʸϡιʸΤ褦˾άʤ⡤ޤǷѾƤΤˤۤʤʤΤǤ롥
ɸΤ褦ˡĤηƻϡof + ͡פȤֻȼ
It's very kind of you to come. ʤ虜虜ƤäƤߤޤ
It was foolish of you to spend so much. ʤʤˤȤäϼͤ
It was wrong of him to tell lies. ʱĤơ褯ʤä͡
It is wise of you to stay away from him. ʷȤĤʤΤϸ
It was silly of me to forget my passport. ʥѥݡȤ˺ȤϤĤä
ŵŪ It is ADJ of PERSON to do . . . . Ȥʸʤ櫓PERSON is ADJ to do . . . . ȤʸȤ뤳ȤǤǶ̣Ȥɸ You're very kind to come. Ȥ뤳ȤǤ롥ǡŪʡfor + ͡פȼ It is important for him to get the job. ब뤳ȤϽפʤȤˤιʸȤϰۤʤäƤ롥Ԥ *He is important to get the job. Ȥϥѥե졼Ǥʤ
ɸιʸƤƻ --- ʤ important פǤϤʤ kind פηƻ --- Ƥߤȡcareful, careless, crazy, greedy, kind, mad, nice, silly, unwise, wise, wrong (Quirk et al. 16.76, 16.82ˡ̣ŪˤϿͤιưɾƻǤ롥̤γ٤ߤȡɸʸǤ kind ʿڤʡˤʤΤϡƤ줿ȡפǤ⤢ꡤƱˡ֤ʤפǤ⤢ȤطΩġ
Ҥ important ʽפʡˤѤʸǤϡפʤΤϡֿ뤳ȡפǤꡤפʪǤ櫓ǤϤʤ顤Ϥξפΰ̣Ūۤʤ뤳ȤʬĤޤꡤimportant פ for ѤʸȤϰۤʤꡤkind פ of ѤʸǤϡkind of you ʬ you are kind Ȥ̣طޤƤΤǤ롥
Ȥȡֻ of ˡϲȸƤ֤٤Ʊ (apposition) ˡȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ɤǼޤ꤬cf. #2461. an angel of a girl (1) ([2016-01-22-1])#2462. an angel of a girl (2) ([2016-01-23-1])ˡֿʪưɾ ofפʤɤȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤˤ衤ŪõäƤߤɬפ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ε#4058. what with ʸ ([2020-06-06-1]) ǤϡƱʸȤδϢʬ칽ʸ (participle_construction) ˤ⾯줿ʬ칽ʸϡѸǤä˽դǤ褯졤عʸˡǤɬܤγؽܤȤʤäƤ롥ʬ˰̣μ줬ʤΤ "free adjunct", Τ "absolute" ȤƤФ롥줾ŵỤ̄ħʸ褦
free adjunct: Having got out of the carriage, Holmes shouted for Watson.
absolute: Moriarty having got out of the carriage, Holmes shouted for Watson.
free adjunct ιʸǤϡʬΰ̣μ줬μƱȤʤꡤԤʤabsolute ιʸǤϡʬΰ̣μ줬μȰۤʤꡤԤŪʬź롥2Ĥιʸ줤줿Ūʴطˤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Trousdale (596) ȤˤȡѸˤ free adjunct absolute λȤʬϸۤΤǤϤʤäʬμ줬μȰۤʤʤʤѸǤʬΰ̣μ줬٤ˤǤ⤽줬źʤȤϤ褯äabsolute ⸽⤤٤ǻȤƤ䤬Ƽμͭˤϡּʤʬ칽ʸפͭʤˤϡּ줢ʬ칽ʸפФ褦ˤʤꡤߤμϰϤƤäȤȤ餷
̤ȤƩ⤯§ŪȤʤä櫓֤äƤߤФˤŪǹŪȯãΤ褦ˤߤ롥Τ褦ŪȶȤδ֤ˤϲ餫ΰ̴طΤȴϢơ#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã ([2012-02-05-1]) ȡ
Trousdale, G. "Theory and Data in Diachronic Construction Grammar: The Case of the what with Construction." Studies in Language 36 (2012): 576--602.
ε#4058. what with ʸ ([2020-06-06-1]) ǤϡƱʸȤδϢʬ칽ʸ (participle_construction) ˤ⾯줿ʬ칽ʸϡѸǤä˽դǤ褯졤عʸˡǤɬܤγؽܤȤʤäƤ롥ʬ˰̣μ줬ʤΤ "free adjunct", Τ "absolute" ȤƤФ롥줾ŵỤ̄ħʸ褦
free adjunct: Having got out of the carriage, Holmes shouted for Watson.
absolute: Moriarty having got out of the carriage, Holmes shouted for Watson.
free adjunct ιʸǤϡʬΰ̣μ줬μƱȤʤꡤԤʤabsolute ιʸǤϡʬΰ̣μ줬μȰۤʤꡤԤŪʬź롥2Ĥιʸ줤줿Ūʴطˤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Trousdale (596) ȤˤȡѸˤ free adjunct absolute λȤʬϸۤΤǤϤʤäʬμ줬μȰۤʤʤʤѸǤʬΰ̣μ줬٤ˤǤ⤽줬źʤȤϤ褯äabsolute ⸽⤤٤ǻȤƤ䤬Ƽμͭˤϡּʤʬ칽ʸפͭʤˤϡּ줢ʬ칽ʸפФ褦ˤʤꡤߤμϰϤƤäȤȤ餷
̤ȤƩ⤯§ŪȤʤä櫓֤äƤߤФˤŪǹŪȯãΤ褦ˤߤ롥Τ褦ŪȶȤδ֤ˤϲ餫ΰ̴طΤȴϢơ#1014. ʸȯãȽ°ʸȯã ([2012-02-05-1]) ȡ
Trousdale, G. "Theory and Data in Diachronic Construction Grammar: The Case of the what with Construction." Studies in Language 36 (2012): 576--602.
what with ʸ˴ؤʸɤȥ "the what with construction" 顤Ƥä#806. what with A and what with B ([2011-07-12-1]) ιʸΤȤȻפǤΤɤǤߤ餽ǤϤʤä䡤ιʸȤ̵طǤϤʤΤäʸŪްդäȯãƤʸȤȤǤ롥ʬ칽ʸӾ with ιʸαĹˤ롤ŪޥʡʹʸʸϡˤĤƹʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) 乽ʸ (constructionalization) δͻƤ롥
ޤʸƤߤ褦Trousdale (579--80) Ƹ롥
(8)
a. What with the gown, the limos, and all the rest, you're probably looking at about a hundred grand.
(2009 Diane Mott Davidson, Fatally Flaky; COCA)
b. In retrospect I realize I should have known that was a bad sign, what with the Raven Mockers being set loose and all.
(2009 Kristin Cast, Hunted; COCA)
c. But of course, to be fair to the girl, she wasn't herself at the Deanery, what with thinking of how Lord Hawtry's good eye had darkened when she refused his hand in marriage.
(2009 Dorothy Cannell, She Shoots to Conquer; COCA)
d. The bed was big and lonesome what with Dimmert gone.
(2009 Jan Watson, Sweetwater Run; COCA)
e. The Deloche woman was going to have one heck of a time getting rid of the place, what with the economy the way it was in Florida.
(2009 Eimilie Richards, Happiness Key; COCA)
(b)--(d) ʸˤĤƤϡ what with θˡ̣μ줬äʤäꤹ뤬 ing en ³Ȥǡʬ칽ʸӾ with ιʸ롥ɽŪˤСʬ칽ʸƬ with ǤϤʤ what with ȤŪɸĤ褦ʹʸ
Trousdale (580) ˤСwhat with ʸˤϼΤ褦ʰ̣ŪŪԸǻŦƤ (Trousdale 580)
- the 'causality' function of what with is not restricted to absolutes; what with also occurs in prepositional phrases (e.g. (8a) above) and gerundive clauses (e.g. (8c) above).
- what with patterns occur in a particular pragmatic context, namely "if the matrix proposition denotes some non-event or negative state, or, more generally, some proposition which has certain negative implications (at least from the view of the speaker)".
- what with patterns typically appear with coordinated lists of 'reasons', or with general extenders such as and all in (8b) above.
ιʸϥޥʡʤ⡤ʤˤȤäϸѸ˸ȤTrousdale (587) ˤ Gower Confessio Amantis 㤬Ƥ롥˿帻ܻؤС what ˡֻ for with ǤϤʤΤΡˤȤ12 Lambeth Homilies ˸Ȥfor with Ǥʤ because of, between, by, from, in case (of), of, though ʤɤȤڥȤǤ褦ǡʤȤԻĤ what ˡǤ롥
Τ褦ˤϸŤwhat with θ̾ʳ͡ʥѥ褦ˤʤäƤΤϡѸˤʤäƤǤŪʸȸȤǤ롥
Trousdale, G. "Theory and Data in Diachronic Construction Grammar: The Case of the what with Construction." Studies in Language 36 (2012): 576--602.
ε#4022. ѸˤˤʸˡѲĬήǤС礫ʬϤءס ([2020-04-27-1]) ˤĤưƤ
١ȤŪߤȳΤˡ (synthesis) ȡʬϡ (analysis) ֤뤬ºŪˤ100%Ūʸ100%ʬŪʸȤΤ¸ߤʤɤθ⡤ʬϤξˤȤľΤɤ˥ץåȤ롥űѸϿľ¦ζ˥ץåȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤˤʤűѸ⡤λ夫ߤнʬ˿ʿʤǤ뤫ƱͤˡѸʬ¦ζǤϤʤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤȤȤǤ롥Ѹˤư̾ζޤʤɤϤĤäƤ뤫
äơűѸ줫鸽ѸؤʸˡѲĬήħŤ礫ʬϤءפϡľ0100ؤǤϤʤȤȤդʤФʤʤŪˤСľ30餤80餤ؤ٤ȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⽽ʬ˷ŪʥեȤȤϻפ
#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) #1816. drift ˬ ([2014-04-17-1]) ǵľ餷ޤϡ0100ؤɽƤ뤫Τ褦ɤ뤬ĥǤ롥οޤϤ⥲ޥɤ˸ꤷ֤Ūʰ֤ΤǤꡤ깭Ūʻ줿ޤǤϤʤνθʤСűѸ줫鸽ѸؤΥեȤϤ֤ƤȤ館Ƥɬפ
Smith (41) 礫ʬϤءפвˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Traditionally, the history of English grammar has been described in terms of the shift from synthesis to analysis, i.e. from a language which expresses the relationship between words by means of inflexional endings joined to lexical stems to one which maps such relationships by means of function-words such as prepositions. This broad characterization, of course, needs considerable nuancing, and can better be expressed as a comparatively short shift along a cline. Old English, in comparison with Present-day English, is comparatively synthetic, but nowhere near as synthetic as (say) non-Indo-European languages such as Present-day Finnish or Zulu, older Indo-European languages such as classical Latin --- or even earlier manifestations of Germanic such as 4th-century Gothic, which, unlike OE, regularly distinguished nominative and accusative plural forms of the noun; cf. OE hlāfas 'loaves' (both NOM and ACC), Go. hláibōs (NOM), hláibans (ACC). Present-day English is comparatively analytic, but not as analytic as (say) Present-day Mandarin Chinese; a 21st-century English-speaker still marks person, number and case, and sustains grammatical cohesion, with concord between verbal and pronominal inflexions, for instance, e.g. I love bananas beside she hates bananas.
礫ʬϤءפϥåե졼ȤƤϤȤƤɤ嵭դĤŪƤɬפ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
ϢŪư want 夲餫γ٤ѸˤƤ (cf. [2020-04-08-1], [2020-04-09-1], [2020-04-10-1]) want ;ưȤѤƤˤĤƿ줿;ư졦ʸΤ餤ˤϡ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ȡ
ߤǤߤͤˡߤΤŪΩI want refreshment. Τ褦Ѥ롥want Ȥơַ礤Ƥפ̣ŤѸǤϡ Want (to) me of refreshment. Τ褦ˡ˳ƤͤͿʡʤ뤤 to ˤˡ礱ƤΤ°ʡʤ뤤 of ˤŵŪˤȤ;ιʸʻѤƤ;ιʸεϡwant Ȥ켫ΤεƱͤ˸ťΥɸˤ롥OED want, v. θ츻εҤߤƤߤ褦
The early Scandinavian verb was originally impersonal (personal uses in the individual Scandinavian languages reflect later developments); in English this is reflected by sense 2. Levelling of cases in Middle English made it possible for the object of the impersonal construction (often in initial position) to take over the function of the subject of a new personal construction, allowing further sense developments. For a detailed discussion see M. Bertschinger To Want: an Essay in Semantics (1941).
εҤˤСťΥɸǤϤष;ιʸȤƤˡꥸʥǤꡤ;ιʸϸȯãȤȤˤʤ롥ѸǤư want νФ1175ǯ Ormulum ǡǤˡ;ιʸ֤ʤ1200ǯ Sawles Warde ;ιʸȤƤλѤߤ롥λ¤顤Ѹ˼Ƥ줿ꡤꥸʥ;ιʸȡ;βʹʸȤʻѤƤȹͤΤ
θ츻ΰѤ˲⤵Ƥ want ο;ββϡ¾;ưο;βˤƤϤޤꡤɸŪȤƹƤΤǤ롥ȤͿʷɽ蘆Ƥֿ͡פФư֤ΩäȡޤޤοȳʤͻФˤꡤʷ֤졤ư줬̣ŪŪ˿;βȤή֤ΡפŵŪ°ʡʤ뤤 of ˤɽ줿ޤοȳʤͻη̡̣ŪŪưľŪȤƺƲᤵ˻ä
OED ַ礤ƤפθǤ;ιʸν㷲褦
c1225 (?c1200) Sawles Warde (Bodl.) (1938) 16 (MED) Of al þet eauer wa is ne schal ham neauer wontin.
?c1225 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Cleo. C.vi) (1972) 298 Ne þunche hire neauer wunder ȝef hire wonti þe haligastes froure.
?c1225 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Cleo. C.vi) (1972) 145 Hwenne ow ne wonteð nan þing þefaȝeneð wið ow.
a1325 (c1250) Gen. & Exod. (1968) l. 2155 Ðan coren wantede in oðer lond, Ðo ynug [was] vnder his hond.
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) l. 3053 þam wanted brede, þeir water es gan, Hope o lijf ne had þai nan.
OED ˤȡwant ;ιʸκǽ "1830 T. P. Thompson in Westm. Rev. Jan. 262 There wants a collection of dying speeches of nefarious governments." ȤꡤǤѤȤʤäƤ롥
#1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1]) ǵꥹȤˡDance (1735) ȤĤܤɲäƤ¾ڤԤ벾Ȥ٥Ǥ롥
(1) the marked increase in productivity of the derivational verbal affixes -n- (as in harden, deepen) and -l- (e.g. crackle, sparkle)
(2) the rise of the "phrasal verb" (verb plus adverb/preposition) at the expense of the verbal prefix, most persuasively the development of up in an aspectual (completive) function
(3) certain aspects of v2 syntax (including the development of 'CP-v2' syntax in northern Middle English)
(4) the general shift to VO order
嵭 (1) ˤĤƤϡ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]) ǴϢ˿ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
(2) ˤĤƤϡϢơ#2396. ե줫ζμѤФ뿵 ([2015-11-18-1]) ȡ
(3), (4) 츽ݤȤ櫓 (4) 礭ʲǤ롥ˤĤƤرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡؽ2011ǯˤ54ǤƤ롥˰ʲε碌Ƥɤ
#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
Ǹ˥ꥹȤ˲äΤ˺Ƥ⤦1Ĥιܤä
(5) the spread of the s-plural
ϡ伫Ȥܺ٤ƤǤ롥ܤ Hotta
Dance, Richard. "English in Contact: Norse." Chapter 110 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1724--37.
δ졡رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Fischer et al. (4--6) ˱ѸμפŪѲΰɽ롥ѤʤΤǡ"Overview of syntactic categories and their changes" ꤵ줿ΰƸƤĤįǤ⡤ѸˤɤΤ褦꤬ΤĤ롥
| Changes in: | Old English | Middle English | Modern English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| case form and function: | genitive | various functions | genitive case for subjective/poss.; of-phrase elsewhere | same |
| dative | various functions/PP sporadic | increase in to-phrase; impersonal dative lost | same | |
| accusative | main function: direct object | accusative case lost, direct object mainly marked by position | same | |
| determiners: | system | articles present in embryo form, system developing | articles used for presentational and referential functions | also in use in predicative and generic contexts |
| double det. | present | rare | absent | |
| quantifiers: | position of | relatively free | more restricted | fairly fixed |
| adjectives: | position | both pre- and postnominal | mainly prenominal | prenominal with some lexical exceptions |
| form/function | strong/weak forms, functionally distinct | remnants of strong/weak forms; not functional | one form only | |
| as head | fully operative | reduced; introduction of one | restricted to generic reference/idiomatic | |
| 'stacking' of | not possible | possible | possible | |
| adjectival or relative clause | relative: se, se þe, þe, zero subject rel. | new: þæt, wh-relative (except who), zero obj. rel. | who relative introduced | |
| adj. + to-inf. | only active infinitives | active and passive inf. | mainly active inf. | |
| aspect-system: | use of perfect | embryonic | more frequent; in competition with 'past' | perfect and 'past' grammaticalized in different functions |
| form of perfect | BE/HAVE (past part. sometimes declined) | BE/HAVE; HAVE becomes more frequent | mainly HAVE | |
| use and form of progressive | BE + -ende; function not clear | BE + -ing, infrequent, more aspectual | frequent, grammaticalizing | |
| tense-system: | 'present' | used for present tense, progressive, future | used for present tense and progr.; (future tense develops) | becomes restricted to 'timeless' and 'reporting' uses |
| 'past' | used for past tense, (plu)perfect, past progr. | still used also for past progr. and perfect; new: modal past | restricted in function by grammaticalization of perfect and progr. | |
| mood-system: | expressed by | subjunctive, modal verbs (+ epistemic advbs) | mainly modal verbs (+ develop. quasi-modals); modal past tense verbs (with exception features) | same + development of new modal expressions |
| category of core modals | verbs (with exception features) | verbs (with exception features) | auxiliaries (with verbal features) | |
| voice-system: | passive form | beon/weorðan + (inflected) past part. | BE + uninfl. past part | same; new GET passive |
| indirect pass. | absent | developing | (fully) present | |
| prep. pass. | absent | developing | (fully) present | |
| pass. infin. | only after modal verbs | after full verbs, with some nouns and adject. | same | |
| negative system | ne + verb (+ other negator) | (ne) + verb + not; rare not + verb | Aux + not + verb; (verb + not) | |
| interrog. system | inversion: VS | inversion: VS | Aux SV | |
| DO as operator | absent | infrequent, not grammaticalized | becoming fully grammaticalized | |
| subject: | position filled | some pro-drop possible; dummy subjects not compulsory | pro-drop rare; dummy subjects become the norm | pro-drop highly marked stylistically; dummy subj. obligat. |
| clauses | absent | that-clauses and infinitival clauses | new: for NP to V clauses | |
| subjectless/impersonal constructions | common | subject position becomes obligatorily filled | extinct (some lexicalized express.) | |
| position with respect to V | both S (...) V and VS | S (...) V; VS becomes restricted to yes/no quest. | only S (adv) V; VS > Aux SV | |
| object: | clauses | mainly finite þæt-cl., also zero/to-infinitive | stark increase in infinitival cl. | introduction of a.c.i. and for NP to V cl. |
| position with respect to V | VO and OV | VO; OV becomes restricted | VO everywhere | |
| position IO-DO | both orders; pronominal IO-DO preferred | nominal IO-DO the norm, introduction of DO for/to IO | IO-DO with full NPs; pronominal DO-IO predominates | |
| clitic pronouns | syntactic clitics | clitics disappearing | clitics absent | |
| adverbs: | position | fairly free | more restricted | further restricted |
| clauses | use of correlatives + different word orders | distinct conjunctions; word order mainly SVO | all word order SVO (exc. some conditional clauses) | |
| phrasal verbs | position particle: both pre- and postverbal | great increase; position: postverbal | same | |
| preposition stranding | only with pronouns (incl. R-pronouns: þær, etc.) and relative þe | no longer with pronouns, but new with prep. passives, interrog., and other relative clauses | no longer after R-pronouns (there, etc.) except in fixed expressions | |
ϢѤƤ Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading Saenger ϡʬ (distinctiones) δȯãƤطʤˤϡƥ줫ޥϽθθ경ǤΤǤϤʤƤ롥
Ūˤ䤫äƥθ礬եʤɤȯŸSVOδܸظ경ƤäȤˤꡤɼԤθʶ˶ФռʤäƤΤǤϤʤȤޤθ경¹ԤƶޤοȤѲʹԤƤꡤԤɼԤθʶˤǧλ˱ƶͿƤȹͤ롥ơ⤦ʬȯã⡤ʤʶ˶ǧ̩ܤ˴ؤ롥θݤϤʶ˶ƱŻ뤹ȤͭƤꡤߤ䴰礦طˤäΤǤϤʤˤϡΤ褦ʣŪװؤäɤ®ɤνȯãƤˤʤȤΤ Saenger ήεŸ
̣1ĤϡʸϤɲˤäƤû˴ؤΤǤ롥礬Ūͳǡ³ŵƥˤƤϡɼԤ1ʸĹʸäɤƤФʤʤʸǸޤɤǡΤΰ̣ǧɬפ롥ɤǤɼԤûˤŤô뤳Ȥˤʤǡϯɤ߾夲뤳ȤˤäƤô餫ڸ褦ȤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ƥޥʤɤΤ褦ˡٸ礬ޤäƤꡤʬʤƤСʸǼˤɤΤ褦Ǥ뤫ͽۤ䤹ʤƱˡñ켫Ϥڤʬݤ뤿ˡûˤô˸롥虜虜ϯɤ߾夲ʤȤ⡤®䤫ɲǤΤμͳ³ʿŪǤꡤθ경ʬ⡤180ٰۤʤΤΡϤʿŪȤȤǤ롥
⤦1ĤΤ⤷ϡ礦ɶޤοʤȸθ경ˤʸˡȹͤƤΤƱͤˡ³ʬؤΥեȤȹͤƤȤȤȽˡϡΤ褦˥ڥǤȤ館Ƥ褦
Saenger (17) ΤޤȤʸϼ̤ꡥ
The evolution of rigorous conventions, both of word order and of word separation, had the similar and complementary physiological effect of enhancing the medieval reader's ability to comprehend written text rapidly and silently by facilitating lexical access.
Saenger, P. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1997.
ѸǤϡ?ʤ롿Ԥפ̣ˤϡŵŪˡcome/go + ʬ Ѥ롥ưưθ˸ʬźơư֤ˡǤ롥ʲ BNCweb 褦
Jack came rushing down from his room on the top floor and . . . .
The question came sneaking into her mind . . . .
She had contrarily thought that if he really cared he would have come running after her.
A great mammoth of an American truck went thundering past, forcing me on to the dirt shoulder.
He gulped and went rushing on.
. . . the crowd of silver helmets went flooding in pursuit, . . . .
űѸä˱ʸ䡤³ѸλˤϡΤ褦ʾ˸ʬǤϤʤ줬ѤΤŪäȤ櫓ưưȤ come Ȥ㤬¿ߤ롥Mustanoja (536--37) 褦 to ȼʤǤ뤳ȤݥȤǤ롥
þer comen seilien . . . scipes (Lawman A 25525)
þer com a wolf gon after þan (Fox & Wolf 108)
in him com ur Lord gon (Judas 25)
He comme flie too felde (Alis. Macedoine 995)
wiþ þat came renne sire Bruyllant (Ferumbras 2333)
nece, ysee who comth here ride (Ch. TC ii 1253)
on his hunting as he cam ride (Gower CA i 350)
ŻưȤ٤ lie stand ˤ㤬ߤ뤬ưˤĤƤ to ȼʤ⤢Сto ȼߤ (Mustanoja 537) ξ硤֤ǤϤʤŪɽ魯ˡȤƲǤ⤢ꡤξŪ
feowertene niht fulle þere læe þa verde þeos wederes abiden (Lawman A 28238)
ne þurve þa cnihtes . . . careles liggen slæpen (Lawman A 18653)
hu mynecene slapan liggen (Wint. Ben. Rule 63)
the fraunchise of holi churche hii laten ligge slepe ful stille (Pol. Songs 325)
þanne he lieþ to slepen, Sal he nevre luken þe lides of hise eȝen (Best. 15)
on a bed of gold she lay to reste Til that the hote sonne gan to weste (Ch. PF 265)
faire in the soond, to bathe hire myrily, Lith Pertelote (Ch. CT B NP 4457)
--- and in my barm ther lith to wepe Thi child and myn, which sobbeth faste (Gower CA iii 302)
ennȝless stanndenn aȝȝ occ aȝȝ To lofenn Godd (Orm. 3894)
--- he stood for to biholde (Ch. TC i 310)
Ѹˤʤȡcome + פ֤ɽ魯ˡϿषƤˤĤʤcome + ʬפä褦ˤʤ롥äȤ⡤ԤιʸűѸΤƤʤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤդäƤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸˤμȤˤƿҤͤ줿䡥ޤľ塥Τ
ޤѸŪˤ뤳ȤϡűѸѸǤϡŪʻȤǤΡִ (article) ̤ȯãäȤȤǤthe a(n) ȤǺऽΤΤϸűѸ줫餢äΤǤ줾츽괧괧ȤƤѤƤޤǤĤޤꡤűѸˤ the a(n) ȤñΤͤϳΤˤɤ⡤Ϥޤ̾ź٤ɬܤιܤȤơϳƤʤäȤȤǤ
ȤȤϡ䤿Ȥʬ˶ϫƤ븽ѸΡִפȤܤϡѸˤߤΤʤǡ˳ƤΤȤȤˤʤޤϱѸˤκǽ餫餢ä櫓ǤϤʤޤλ¤Ƥɬפޤ
ʤΤˤΤʤdzƤȤΤϡʤˤѸ˸¤ޤ⤽Ѹޤ衼åѤ饤ɤ˵ڤ¿θΥ롼ĤǤĸˤϴϤޤǤ²°ŵꥷ졤˥졤ɸȤ̤θϤᡤޥɡޥɡȸɤνХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ˤβǴȯãƤȤ狼ޤʡ#2855. νˤ봧ʬ (1) ([2017-02-19-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ²ΥνܤƤߤƤ⡤ȤܤϤ˳ǧޤΤȤƤϾɤǤϤޤˡŪˤϥ衼åѡեꥫʿΤʤɤˤкߤƤ褦ǡؤΩ줫϶̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ơѸäᤷޤ礦űѸˤⴧμȤʤΤϤäˤ衤ʤθ夽줬δŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ礦1ĤˤϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˸경ƤȤ¤طƤ褦˻פޤ#2856. νˤ봧ʬ (2) ([2017-02-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡָ礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤פΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ꡦȤϡɽλؤƤΤʸ̮äʹˤȤäƴΤ̤Τꤵ뤫ʤȤä̤ΤȤǤäŵŪʥѥϡǤȤǤäʤ鿷ƳƤȤΤǤΤ褦ʾή¤ (information_structure) ȸƤФޤϾ¤ɸ뤿μʤäƤȹͤޤ䴧⤽Τ褦ʼʤθȤʤޤ礬ͳǤСǤƬˤäƤꡤǤ֤ʤɤˡѤǤǤ礦cf. #3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡμͳ٤㤯ʤ̤μʤʤɬפƤޤѸѸˤƸμͳ٤äƤä̡¤ɸ뤿οƻȤơǺȤƼˤä the a(n) ʤɤѤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
1Ĥβˤޤɸμ˥ХƤ櫓ǤϤʤʤɤȤǤ
ȯ˴ؤΰϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ȤƤϢơѸˤˤθ경ˤĤơ#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
914ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ10ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ7Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤפǤ
⤽ȤϲʤΤ褦ʸƤ̾ĤƤΤϤޤꡤto ȸ2ब̤ƤŪͳ줾ˡμϰϤȤƸߤˤޤ³ξΤ礤ޤȾǤϡShe made me laugh. Τ褦ǽư֤λʸѤ븶줬ư֤ʸˤʤ I was made to laugh by her. Τ褦 to ѤΤϤʤȤѤʵˤޤ

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