khelfʷѸ˥եǡworth Ϸƻ줫ֻ줫Ȥ꤬줿ŪˤϸűѸηƻ졦̾ w(e)orþ ̤뤳ȤʬäƤ뤬Ѹ worth ŪʬϤʤСɤʬϤǽǤ롥
ޤֲͤפȤΤʸŪʰֲ̣͡פΰ̣б̾⤢뤳Ȥ顤ƻȤߤΤȤո롥˸§ȤŪˤֻ᤹Τ褦ʿȤΤºݤˡĤα¼ȤȡƻȼäƤΤ⤢СֻȤΤ⤢롥
̤˱ѸؤǤϡΤ褦ƤΤ prototype Υץ롥ŵŪʷƻ졤ŵŪֻ˴ѻŪħ餫ꥹȥåפƤθ졤ξǤ worth ˤĤơɤʻħ¿ͭ뤫ˤäơƻŪǤȤֻŪǤȤäȽǤΤǤ롥
ʬϼΤʤʤ⤷Τ̤ worth ᤹Ȥ㳰ŪħġְۼʡƻȤߤƤHuddleston and Pullum (546--47) ˤС褦ʰۼʷƻ֤Ȥ (un)like due 롥ʲʸǡѳ̤˳äʬ줾ȼäƻȤʬϤ롥
The book turned out to be [worth seventy dollars].
Jill is [very like her brother].
You are now [due $750]. / $750 is now [due you].
ˤΥꥹȤ near ä뤳ȤǤ
Ϣơ#947. Ѹֻ ([2011-11-30-1])#4436. ƻΥץȥס ([2021-06-19-1])#209. near Ρ ([2009-11-22-1]) ȡ
ʻʬѸȤƤϡƻζʬͭ̾ˤĤƤϡ#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1])#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1])#1354. ƻܿ ([2013-01-10-1])#2441. ȷƻζ (2) --- ѸǤ⺤ ([2016-01-02-1]) ʤɤȡ
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum, eds. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
68ʿˤˡYouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ 30ƤޤֱѸθΤ SOV äΤˤʤ SVO ѤäͤƤߤ!!30Ǥ٤¿˻İƤƤ褦Ǥؿä¿ȻפޤΤǡϤˤĤƾȻפޤ
ܸǹͤȡޥĸǤ SOVűѸǤ SOV + SVOѸʹߤ SVO ȤΤ绨ĤήǤܸ̻ŪѲˤĤƤϡޤǤ hellog ¾͡˰äƤޤΤǡʲ˥ʤɤĥäƤޤ嵭 YouTube ưȹ碌ƤȤ
ΡѸˤˤѲѰۤȤθ
#3127. ĸ줫鸽Ѹؤδܸοܡ ([2017-11-18-1])
#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1])
#4597. űѸ6Ĥΰۤʤ硧SVO, SOV, OSV, OVS, VSO, VOS ([2021-11-27-1])
#4385. Ѹ줬Τ SV θäȻפäƤޤ ([2021-04-29-1])
#2975. ޤοȸθ경ζϴط ([2017-06-19-1])
Ρܸ]
#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])
#3124. ܸ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])
#3125. ܸ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])
#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])
#3129. ܸ (4) ([2017-11-20-1])
#4316. ܸ췿 SOV ϷŪɸѸ췿 SVO Ϥ⤿ʤ ([2021-02-19-1])
#3734. ٥ȸ VSO ε ([2019-07-18-1])
ΡϢܵʤɤξҲ𡡡
ѸϢܴʸҡָѸѸˤλͤ1112
- #3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
- #3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
μͭӥMondǤβܸʤSOVѸʤSVOӥʤVSOʤɸˤäƸ礬ۤʤޤϤɤΤ褦ʸ㤤ʤΤǤ礦
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
#4583. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ9֤ʤѸθ SVO ʤΡס ([2021-11-13-1])
#4527. ѸθˤѤǤͤҲ ([2021-09-18-1])
ѸɤǤȡit ˡѸƸǤȤ롥㤨 there is ʸΤ褦¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ˤ there it Ѥ뤳Ȥcf. ե il y a, ɥĸ es gibtˡMustanoja (132) ʸư줬 it ǤϤʤ̣μ˰פƤ뤳Ȥա
In many instances it occurs in a pleonastic function carried out by there in Pres. E: --- of hise mouth it stod a stem, Als it were a sunnebem (Havelok 591); --- of þe erth it groues tres and gress (Cursor 545, Cotton MS); --- it es na land þat man kan neven ... þat he ne sal do þam to be soght (Cursor 22169, Cotton MS); --- bot it were a fre wymmon þat muche of love had fonde (Harley Lyr. xxxii 3); --- hit arn aboute on þis bench bot berdles chylder (Gaw. & GK 280); --- bot hit ar ladyes innoȝe (Gaw. & GK 1251).
Ϣơ#1565. existential there ε (1) ([2013-08-09-1])#1566. existential there ε (2) ([2013-08-10-1])#4473. ¸ʸˤμỌ̇̄μ ([2021-07-26-1]) ȡ
⤦1Ĥϡ¾ they 褦 it ˡ Mustanoja (132--33)
Another aspect in the ME use of the formal it is seen in the following cases where it is virtually equivalent to 'they:' --- holi men hit were beiene (Lawman B 14811; cf. hali men heo weoren bæien, A); --- it ben aires of hevene alle þat ben crounede (PPl. C vi 59); --- thoo atte last aspyed y That pursevantes and heraudes ... Hyt weren alle (Ch. HF 1323). --- to þe gentyl Lomb hit arn anioynt (Pearl 895); --- hit arn fettled in on forme, þe forme and þe laste ... And als ... hit arn of on kynde (Patience 38--40); --- þei ... cownseld hyr to folwyn hyr mevynggys and hyr steringgys and trustly belevyn it weren of þe Holy Gost and of noon evyl spyryt (MKempe 3). This use goes back to OE. Cf. also German es sind ... and French ce sont ...
եɥĸʸʤɶ̣Ѹιʸϡե줫θܿȤǽϤ뤬षŪ˴ŤΤǤϤʤˤǤ롥ɤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
عʸˡǡֶĴʸפȸƤФ칽¤ϡѸؤǤϡʬʸ (cleft_sentence) ȾΤ뤳Ȥ¿ʬʸεȯãˤĤƤϡ#2442. Ĵʸȯã --- ŪݤŪǽء ([2016-01-03-1])#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1])#4595. Ĵʸ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2021-11-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
Ū¤ȤƤϡϸűѸ줫ߤ롥űѸǤϡit ϤۤȤѤ줺ά뤫뤤 þæt Ѥ줿Visser (63) ꡤĤ
63---g. The type 'It is father who did it.'
This periphrastic construction is used to bring a part of a syntactical unit into prominence; it is especially employed when contrast has to be expressed: 'It is father (not mother) who did it'. In Old English hit is omitted (e.g. O. E. Gosp., John VI, 63, 'Gast is se þe geliffæst'; O. E. Homl. ii, 234, 'min fæder is þe me wuldrað') or its place is taken by þæt (e.g. Ælfred, Boeth. 34, II, 'is þæt for mycel gcynd þæt urum lichoman cymð eall his mægen of þam mete þe we þicgaþ'; Wulfstan, Polity (Jost) p. 127 §183, þæt is laðlic lif, þæt hi swa maciað; O. E. Chron. an. 1052, 'þæt wæs on þone monandæg ... þæt Godwine mid his scipum to suðgeweorce becom'). This pronoun þæt is still so used in: Orm 8465, 'þætt wass þe lond off Galileo þætt himm wass bedenn sekenn'.
Ѹʹߤ it 褯Ѥ褦ˤʤä褦
̾ʶˤǤϤʤ֤ɽ魯ʶˤĴ⡤嵭ˤ̤ꤹǤ˸űѸ줫ߤ뤬Ф Visser (63) βܤͤ롥Τ褦ʾ is ϰ̣Ū happens ˶ᤤȤ
When it was, it is has an adverbial adjunct of time or place as a complement, (as e.g. in 'It was on the first of May that I saw him first'), to be is not a copula, but the notional to be with the sense 'to happen', 'to take place' that also occurs in constructions of a different pattern, such as are found in e.g. C1350 Will. Palerne 1930, 'Manly on þe morwe þat mariage schuld bene; 1947 H. Eustis, The Horizontal Man (Penguin) 41, 'Keep your trap shut when you don't know what you're talking about, which is usually'; Pres. D. Eng.: 'The flower-show was last week' (OED).
ʬʸεȯãϡѸ˾νפʲǤ롥
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
#4754. ʬ ([2022-05-03-1])#4764. Ūʷʬεȼ ([2022-05-13-1])#4765. ֻ˶Ťʬ ([2022-05-14-1]) εˤơjudging from/by ... λǰƬ˷ʬ (dangling_participle) 夲μζͭȤʬ칽ʸΩֻ˶ŤΤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
褦ˤߤ롥ΩȸƤФˡ귿ȤƤ褯ߤ뤬ξΰ̣ơַפʤɤȸƤФ뤳ȤϤʤ褦ʤʤˡ
to be frank
to be honest with you
to be sure
to begin with
to do someone justice
to make a long story short
to make matters worse
to say the least of it
to tell the truth
so to speak
2Ĥε ([2022-05-13-1]) ǡʬŪɽϸűѸǧȤȤäˤĤƤϤɤVisser (987) ˤȡѸȶѸǤ "extremely frequent" űѸ줫 Wulfstan's Homilies hrædest to secganne ("for that matter" ۤɤΰդˤȤ㤷ǧǤʤȤʸƤ
Wulfstan, Hom. (Napier) 27, 1, ðyder sculon wiccan and wigleras, hrædest to secganne ealle ða manfullan, ðe ær yfel worhton and noldan geswican ne wið god ðingian. | Idem 36, 7, ðonne wyrð ðæt wæter mid ðam halgan gaste ðurhgoten, and, hrædest to secganne eal, ðæt se sacerd deð ðurh ða halgan ðenunge gesawenlice, eal hit fulfremeð se halga gast gerynelice. | Idem 115, 3, ðider sculan ðeofas ... and, hrædest to secganne ealle ða manfullan.
θˤߤƤߤȡʬδ֤ɤ줬ߤ줿褦Ǥ롥㤨СǤʬѤ speaking of ... ̤ѸѸǤ to speak of ... Τ褦Ѥäޤjudging from/by ... ˤĤƤ⡤ѸʤɤѤ to judge from/by ... äƤ롥դϥѥ̻ŪĴ٤ƤߤȤ⤷
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
ε#4764. Ūʷʬεȼ ([2022-05-13-1]) ³ʬεˤĤơ
ιʸ Jespersen (407) "dangling participle" "loose participle" ȸƤӡڡˤ錄äƵƤ롥Ȥ櫓 pp. 409--10 Ǥϡ"perfectly established" ΤȤ allowing for, talking of, speaking of, judging by, judging from, saving, begging your pardon, strictly speaking, generally speaking, counting, taking, considering 㤬Ƥ롥
pp. 410--11 Ǥϡ˴ֻ˶ʤäΤȤơѸʹߤ˭٤ʸȤȤ˵Ƥ롥ιͻΤˤ⡤˰ѤƤ
22.29. A loose participle sometimes approaches the value of a preposition. This use is with possibly doubtful justice ascribed to French influence by Ross, The Absolute Participle, 30. Examples: Ch B 4161 as touching daun Catoun | More U 64 Now as touchyng this question . . . But as concernyng this matter . . . | Caxton R 11 touchyng this complaint | Hawthorne S 247 I am utterly bewildered as touching the purport of your words | Caxton R 54 alle were there sauyng reynard | Gay BP 40 . . . a Jew; and bating their religion, to women they are a good sort of people | Hawthorne Sn 51 barring the casualties to which such a complicated piece of mechanism is liable | Quincey 116 one may bevouack decently, barring rain and wind, up to the end of October | Scott I 31 incapable of being removed, excepting by the use of the file | Di Do 239 Edith, saving for a curl of her lip, was motionless | Dreiser F 292 what chance would he have, presuming her faithfulness itself | Defoe R 2.190 his discourse was prettily deliver'd, considering his youth | Hope D 77 Considering his age, your conduct is scandalous | Thack N 5 there may be nothing new under and including the sun.
Cf. also regarding, respecting (e.g. Ruskin S 1.291) | according to (Caxton R 57, etc.) | owing to | granting (Stevenson JHF 103 even granting some impediments, why was this gentleman to be received by me in secret?).
Cf. pending, during, notwithstanding 6.34.
On the transition of seeing, granting, supposing, notwithstanding with or without that to use as conjunctions, see ch. XXI; on being see above 6.35.
ˤȡʬϥեбʸαƶη̤Ȥߤʤ⤢褦εǤߤȤűѸ˥롼Ĥõ뤳ȤǤʾ塤ʤȤե줫αƶΤߤ˰͵ǤϤʤ
ѤκǸʬˤ褦ˡޤǤ˴ֻ첽뤤³첽Τ㤢Τǡjudging from ͻäơΤ褦ʻˤܤۤäƤɬפ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
#4754. ʬ ([2022-05-03-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡjudging from Τ褦˴ɽȤ夷Ƥʬ (dangling participle) 㤬롥speaking of, strictly speaking, considering, including ʤɤ֤ȤȸʬȤƻϤޤäɽʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ФơǽŪֻ˶ᤤΤȯŸƤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
칽¤ˤĤơVisser (1075) 1䤤Ƥ롥ŪɽϤǤ˸űѸˤäȤΤȤ
>>
1075 --- Types 'Speaking of daughters, I have seen Miss Dombey' 'This is, strictly speaking, no quibble'
Here follow a number of instances of the use of non-related free -ing adjuncts which have nowadays begun to be generally considered established usage. In this case the adjunct never takes the having + past participle or the being + past participle form. Some of the adjuncts are more or less halfway in their development to prepositions, e.g. 'talking of' = 'apropos of'.
It seems worth while to cite the following Old English passage as being a kind of forerunner of the idiom under discussion: Ælfric, Gen. 13, 10, 'eall se eard . . . wæs mirige mid wætere gemenged swa swa godes neorxna wang and swa swa Egipta land becumendum on Segor' (Auth. V.: as thou comest unto Zoar). A Middle English instance is: c1450 Cov. Myst. p. 387, 'My name is great and marveylous, treuly you telland.'
Visser ƱǡѸ¿Ĥġ16δϢɽƤ롥allowing, begging, considering, counting, excluding, excusing, granting, including, judging, letting alone, reckoning, speaking, supposing, taking, talking, waiving
Ʊˤϡ겼ƤäơɬŪ˸ŤΤǤϤ뤬ͭѤʻʸ¿Ҳ𤵤ƤΤǡդ꤫饹ȤΤ褵
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
Ѹ˥ե (khelf) ǡGW夬äƤ꤬1Ĥ롥ʸˡǡַʬ (dangling participle) ȸƤФƤ븽ݤ塤ޤäƤʤΤǡѸ켭ŵŪʲƤޤؿѸؼŵ (283) ꡥ
dangling participle ʸ͡ʷʬ
Curme (1931, pp. 159--60) Ѹ졥ʬ칽ʸ (participial construction) ˤựμ줬ʸμȰۤʤΤ˼ɽƤʤʬʶˤHaving walked two miles, I was tired. 2ޥ⤤Τǻ줿ˤϤդĤʬ칽ʸǤ뤬Having walked two miles, the cabin was a welcome sight. 2ޥ⤤ǾΤǡäˤϷʬ칽ʸǤ롥ʬϳؼԤˤäơhanging participle, loose participle, unrelated participle Ϣʬˡunattached participle, unrelated adjunct ϢղûˤʤɤޤޤʸƤƤ롥
ʬʤˡǤȸʤͤ¿ʬΰ̣μȤο;Τ one 䤤 generally speaking, judging from [by] 䴷Ū I ɽ蘆ʤ talking [speaking] of Τ褦ʤΤϡλѤŪ˳ΩƤ롥ޤŪˤäƤʤ̣ΤǤʤ¤ɸˡȤǧ褦ȤΩ䡤Ƥʳ˺ĤƹͤΩ⤢롥Quirk & Greenbaum (UGE, 11.35) ˤС?Since leaving her, life has seemed empty. Ǥϼʸ seemed empty to me 䤤Τʬΰ̣μȤ I ǤΤФ*Reading the evening paper, a dog started barking. ϼʸʬΰ̣μꤵΤʤΤǵƤʤ
⤦1ġCrystal Ѹ켭ŵꡥ
dangling participle In traditional grammar, a term describing the use of a participle, or a phrase introduced by a participle, which has an unclear or ambiguous relationship to the rest of the sentence; also called a misrelated participle. If taken literally, the sentence often appears nonsensical or laughable: Driving along the street, a runaway dog gave John a fright. To avoid such inadvertent effects, manuals of style recommend that such sentence be rephrased, with the participial construction moved or replaced, as in When John was driving along the street, a runaway dog gave him a fright.
ܲ khelf ǵˤʤäƤΤϡʤ judging from Τ褦ʷʬϴѤȤǧƤΤȤŪʴؿϡġɤΤ褦ˡʤѲ˻äȤ䤤Ȥʤ롥
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
427ʿˤ˸줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥǤּΤߤʤط̾ʸˡְ㤨нˡǤ衼ڰʼδѸظإͥ # 18 ۡꤷƴط̾夲ޤʤʤ¿İƤ褦ǡ꤬¤Ǥºݤ2ͤǤ⤷Ȥ٤äƤޤʾСˡҤ
ɸѸǴط̾Ȥ which, who, whom, that, ƥʤط̾ξάդ꤬ޤΤ줬Ѥ뤫ȤˤϡʣΥѥʣ˴ؤäƤޤط̾Ǥ䤬ʤʤΤŪʤʤΤȤȤϤ¡ˡΰ㤤Ի줬̵ͭʤɤ̣Ūѥʣ˴ͿƤޤˡޤܤޤ¤ϻѰ (register) ȤŪѥط̾ˤȤƤפ̤ƤΤǤ
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (608--21) ˤϡѥѤط̾˴ؤĴ̤ܺ٤˼ƤޤϤȤʤ顤ΤȤƺǤ٤ι⤤Ȥ which that ˾ơξԤʬۤ٤Ƥߤޤ礦
which that ¿ξؤǽǤعʸˡǶȤꡤ§Ȥ which Ի줬̵ξ˸¤졤ޤˡΤߤʤ餺ˡȤƤȤȤħߤޤthat ԻӤޤˡ˸ꤵޤ
which that ʬۤΰ㤤ˤĤƤ⤷ΤϡΤ褦̣ŪװƱ餤ѰȤװƤȤȤǤwhich ݼŪdzؽŪʴޤߤꡤؽѻʸǤˡ˸ꤹС70%ᡤthat ݤƤޤthat ϸŪǤޤߤꡤ㤨ХեǤˡ˸ꤹȡ75%ޤ
ޤꥫѸ줫ꥹѸ줫Ȥ㤤⡤which vs that Ǥޤ˥塼ǤˡܤȡꥫѸΤۤ餫 that ߡꥹѸǤ which ߤޤä٤ȡޤޤꥫѸǤ that ޤ졤ꥹѸ2ܤ٤Ѥޤ
ΤȤơLGSWE (616) which vs that зˤĤƼΤ褦礷Ƥޤ
The AmE preference for that over which reflects a willingness to use a form with colloquial associations more widely in written contexts than BrE.
ط̾αˤϻѰȤեҤǤΤǤ
ʤߤˡ18:00˸ YouTube #19 ϴط̾³ԤȤʤޤڤߤˡ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan, eds. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
ʬ̤줿ȤŪ˥åץǡȤĤľҲ𤷤Ƥ Oxford Bibliographies ꡤ"Syntactic Change" ιܤȤƤߤʤ٤Ƥɤˤϥ֥饤֤ɬסˡAcrisio Pires David Lightfoot ˤǡǽ2013ǯǽӥ塼2017ǯȤʤäƤʤʤȴԤˡ *
ѸˤʬǤѲ椬Ǥꡤ椬ǤãΤDZѸλŪϤ褯ʤǤ롥ػˤ֤äƤߤȡѲδ20ȾʹߤθݤȤäƤ褯ϲθ椬ήä1950--60ǯʸˡоȡ˿ȯ줿ޤޤ츦Υ֡ˤꡤѸˤʬǤؤδؿޤäƤΤǤ롥21äƤϡȤ櫓ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܤ졤ѲϿ̤嵭 "Syntactic Change" ιΥȥѤ롥
Linguistics began in the 19th century as a historical science, asking how languages came to be the way they are. Almost all of the work dealt with the changing pronunciation of words and "sound change" more broadly. Much attention was paid to explaining why sounds changed the way they did, and that involved developing ideas about directionality. Work on syntax was limited to compiling how different languages expressed clause types differently, notably Vergleichende Syntax der Indogermanischen Sprachen, by Berthold Delbrück. With the greatly increased attention to syntax in the latter half of the 20th century, approaches to syntactic change were enriched significantly. Most of the work on change, both generative and nongenerative, continued the 19th-century search for an inherent directionality to language change, now in the domain of syntax, but other approaches were developed seeking to understand new syntactic systems arising through the contingent conditions of language acquisition.
Oxford Bibliographies ȤƤϡ#4631. Oxford Bibliographies ˤ̣Ѳγס ([2021-12-31-1]) ȡ#4634. Oxford Bibliographies ˤѸ˸ˡ ([2022-01-03-1]) ⻲ȡ
(inversion) ȼưֲ (passivisation) Ȥ2ĤŪˤ϶̤䤬롥ŪʼʳǤŵŪ (topic) ôƬΰ֤ưȤǤȤȤС2ĤŪϤȤ경 (topicalisation) Ȥ˱ƤʤʤΤǤ롥
֤ȼưֲˤϡ̣롥䡤ȤȤäۤŬڤξԤϥåȤǡޤ褷Ƥ褦ʤΤǤ롥Seoane (379) εѤ褦
. . . inversion and passivization operate in different syntactic environments: passivization applies to transitive verbs whereas inversion applies to intransitive and copular clauses. Empirical studies . . . have made manifest that the tendency of inversion to apply to intransitive clauses was already observed in OE, ME, and EModE, when intransitive verbs dominate in the inverted (XVS) order, while there is a predominance of transitive verbs in the non-inverted order (XSV, probably determined by the need to maintain the cohesion between V and O . . .). As argument-reversing constructions, therefore, passivization and inversion were in a nearly complementary distribution and passives were almost the only order-rearranging pattern available for transitive clauses.
ʤۤɡ֤ȼưֲϡ줾켫ưʸ¾ưʸˤȤ㤤Ϥʤ⡤ܻؤƤȤǤƱߤƤȤ롥2ĤβˤϷŪ˰ۤʤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥ϡ֤ͭɸФưֲФϤޤ̵ɸǤ뤳ȤΰѤˤ³1ʸѤ褦 (Seoane 379)
However, the most significant difference between the two argument-reversing devices is that, even if they satisfy the same discourse constraints, inversion produces marked topics, while passivization is the only strategy reversing the order of clausal constituents and creating unmarked topics/subjects.
ޤ֤ȼưֲӤĤƹͤȤʤäΤǡȤƤ⿷ʸä
Seoane, Elenna. "Information Structure and Word Order Change: The Passive as an Information-Rearranging Strategy in the History of English." Chapter 15 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 360--91.
ε#4641. ΥǥեȤν --- ֡֡տ ([2022-01-10-1]) ǡѸ¤ӽˤĤƼ夲Ȥ櫓褯Ȼפֶ֡פȡֻ֡פ¤ӽϡǥեȤǤϤνĤޤ֤ɤǤġפǤ롥ܸǤϡ֤Ĥɤǡפ̤ʤΤǡȿФνȤȤˤʤ롥
ǤϡŤѸǤϤɤäΤѸȰۤʤꡤűѸǤϡ˸¤ʤ˸礬ŪͳäȤ𤬤äΤȤΥǥեȤθˤƶƤΤ˴ؤơűѸʬۤˤĤ York-Toronto-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Old English Prose ѤĴ Chrambach ʸɤǤߤ͡ʥѥꤷ¿ҲϤߤƤ롥
ȤƤϡѸΡ֤ɤǤġפȤȿФΡʤĤޤܸΡˡ֤ĤɤǡפȤȤΤ褦ηϡűѸγƻ˴ؤƻٻ졤ƥȤǤƥȤǤƱͤ˳ǧ졤ˤطʤȤΤȤ (Chrambach 52)
ǤϡʤűѸǤϡ֤ĤɤǡפäΤʸǤϡ֤ʤפޤǤƧ߹ǤʤʬۤˤĤ餫ˤʤäȤϤ褦ʬۤˤ REALIZATION FORM OBLIGATORINESS 2ĤװѤƤȤŪˤСֻפ뤤ϡղûʸפȤĤʤ꤬뤳Ȥȡ줬֤ĤɤǡפνȤƸ뤳ȤȤŦƤ (Chrambach 52--53)
űѸΥѥΥǡ˴ŤפȤʸǡưפ˲᤹뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ⤷ηȤȡѸϸűѸŪʡ֤Ĥɤǡץפ顤ѸŪʡ֤ɤǤġץפ˥եȤƤȤˤʤ롥ϤʤʤΤѸѸǤνϤɤäΤˤĤơ̸Ūˡ뤤Ω줫鲿Τ̣䤤Ǥ롥
Chrambach, Susanne. "The Order of Adverbials of Time and Place in Old English." Contact, Variation, and Change in the History of English. Ed. Simone E. Pfenninger, Olga Timofeeva, Anne-Christine Gardner, Alpo Honkapohja, Marianne Hundt and Daniel Schreier. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2014. 39--59.
ɸϡѸǤФм夲Ǥ롥ղø (adjunct) ȸƤФ礬ϢȤɤΤ褦ʽ֤ΤQuirk et al. (8.87) "Relative positions of adjuncts" ˤƳ⤷ƤƤΤǡݡѤ
In the relevant sections, we have given indications of the norms of position in respect of each class of adjunct. We turn now to consider the positions of adjunct classes in respect of each other. Two general principles can be stated, applying to relative order whether within a class or between classes:
(i) The relative order, especially of sentence adjuncts, can be changed to suit the demands of information focus . . . .
(ii) Shorter adjuncts tend to precede longer ones, and in practice this often means that adverbs precede noun phrases, which precede prepositional phrases, which precede nonfinite clauses, which precede finite clauses.
Subject to these general principles, where adjuncts cluster in E [= end] position, the normal order is:
respect --- process --- space --- time --- contingency
It would be highly unusual to find all such five at E (or indeed all such five in the same clause), but for the purposes of exemplification we might offer the improbable and stylistically objectional (sic). . .:
John was working on his hobby [respect] with the new shears [process] in the rose garden [place] for the whole of his day off [time] to complete the season's pruning [contingency].
The same point could be made more acceptably (but at greater length) by forming a series of sentences, each with any two of these adjuncts.
Adjuncts that can occur at I (= initial) are usually those that either have relatively little information value in the context (eg in reflecting what can be taken for granted) or are relatively inclusive or 'scene-setting' in their semantic role (eg an adjunct of time). Thus:
That whole morning, he devoted himself to his roses.
Not only is the adjunct at I one of time, but the anaphoric that indicates that the period concerned has already been mentioned. It is unusual to have more than one adjunct at I except where one is realized by a pro-form (especially then), but they would tend to be in the reverse order to that observed at E. In practice, this usually means:
space --- time orprocess --- time
For example:
In America [A1], after the election [A2], trade began to improve.
Slowly [A1] during this period [A2] people were becoming more prosperous.
Ȥ櫓֤Ȼ֤ˤĤƤϸѸǤϤνǡʤ֤ɤǤġפν֤Τ̤Ǥ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ܸǤ֤̾ĤɤǡפȤʤΤǡȿФȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤĤƱѸˤδδؿϡΤ餳νäΤȤǤ롥⤷Ȥˡɤä褦ʤΤǤ롥εǡ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹ an angel of a girl ŷȤΤ褦ʾפΤ褦 of ѤʸˤĤơ#2461. an angel of a girl (1) ([2016-01-22-1]) #2462. an angel of a girl (2) ([2016-01-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥ뤬ܸˤ̣Ū㤬Ȥ˽вä (83) ˤȡܸȱѸ͡ʥ齸ȤƼΤΤƤ롥
(1) a. αžʡǤ뱿žꡨcf. ž
b. žνʡ᱿žǤcf. *ž
(2) a. a village like a jewel
b. a jewel *(of) a village
(3) a. λ⤵ʤ3000ȥǤ롥
b. λ3000ȥ*ʤΡ˹⤵Ǥ롥
(4) a. It rose with great rapidity until it reached the height of 400 feet, ...
b. Lead-glazed earthenware; height 7 feet, 10 1/2 inches over-all.
c. Asher smiled quizzically, as he spread his broad brown hands before his face and drew himself up to his full six feet *(of) height.
(83) ϡʸˡȤߤ˰͵Τ褦ʹʸ̾ŪҼʸפȸƤʬϤƤ롥̾ǰ̣Ū˼ȽҸʬ֤Ǥ礬ꡤκݤ˷Ҽof ֤Ρסˤ빽ʸΤȤǤ롥(1a), (2a), (3a), (4a, b) ǤϷҼʤʤ뤤ϵ̳ŪǤϤʤˤ(1b), (2b), (3b), (4c) ǤϷҼ̳ŪȤʤȤħ롥ޤŪ˸ԥ롼פԥ롼פƤȤ⤢Ȥϸԥ롼פŪʽи칽¤ʣ̤ȤߤƤꡤʣŪʸפȸƤǤ (92)
(3), (4) Τ褦˿̤ñ̤˴ؤ̾칽¤ʾ p. 83 ǡּ̾칽ʸפȸƤǤˤϡܸǤѸǤΤʣȻפäƤ a jewel of a village an angel of a girl ꤬ӤĤȤͽۤ⤷ʤä⤷ΤϡΤ褦ͽ۳δϢƤˤ롥
of ؤ¾ȤƤϡ#4116. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡϡ ([2020-08-03-1])#4117. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡŪˤϡֹټԡס ([2020-08-04-1]) դ⻲ȡ
˧Ѹ̾ŪҼʸ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡסإ쥭οʥץٴ ƻ Ϻԡˡǡ2019ǯ81--111ǡ
̤˸ˤơ¤ (information_structure) δ顤ȤʤʼȤϸ¤ʤˤʸƬʸ֤Τ˾ޤȤ롥ܸΤ褦ʼͳʸĸǤС¸뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݡܸƱͤ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤ⡤ξ¤˱뤳Ȥʤä
ḽѸΤ褦ʤ褽경ĸξˤϡ餫ιפ餵ʤФʤʤűѸ줫ѸˤʸʸˡȤƤV2§졤礬경ƤˤĤơȤʤʸƬˤäƤ뤿ˡˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤäơפʼʤ1Ĥܤ褦ˤʤäΤưʸǤ롥ǽưʸˤŪ줬Ȥʤ硤ǽưʸưʸ˴뤳ȤˤꡤŪ줬ȤʤꡤʤʸƬ֤褦ˤʤ뤫
θ경ȼưʸ¿ѲȤ츫Ω2ĤŪݤϡ¤ȤŪʳǰΩȤƴϢŤΤǤ롥ϡ#4561. Ⱦ¤θ ([2021-10-22-1]) ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤⲾȤƤ϶̣
β¾ڤ褦Ȥ Seoane 롥Helsinki Corpus 1518ޤǤʬʤʤV2§줿λΥ֥ѥˤѤĴˤСʲ̤ꡤɤäƼưʸΨƤ뤳Ȥʬ (Seoane 371)
| Words | Actives | Percent active | Passives | Percent passive | |
| M4 (1420--1500) | 44,000 | 2,928 | 81.9 | 647 | 18.0 |
| E1 (1500--1570) | 50,000 | 2,236 | 78.5 | 612 | 21.4 |
| E2 (1570--1640) | 48,000 | 2,550 | 77.9 | 722 | 22.0 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 55,000 | 2,893 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
| Total | 197,000 | 10,607 | 78.5 | 2,903 | 21.3 |
ε#4635. "Great Complement Shift" ʸܡס ([2022-01-04-1]) ǰѤ Rohdenburg ϡǧξʣʸˡŪŪɽޤ褦ˤʤȤ "complexity principle" ʣθפˤĤƤͻƤ롥Rohdenburg (147) ꡤƤߤ褦
The complexity principle:
In the case of more or less explicit constructional options the more explicit one(s) will tend to be preferred in cognitively more complex environments.
θθ̤ϡ̻ŪѲȤƤⶦŪѰۤȤƤ⡤ޤ̸ŪˤǧȤ㤨мΤ褦ʤΤǤ (Rohdenburg 147--48)
طƳʤʣĸˤơŪʣʴĶǤϡŪƳʤ뷹롥
μ줬Ĺʤäˡ̾Ǽľˡ¿Υ衼åѤθ˴ѻ롥
ʸǧŪʣǤ롥ʸϤФк¤Ūʸ¤롥
ܤƤʤǤɤŪפϡФŪʷˤäɸ롥
Ѹ줫ζŪȤơεǰѤʸܤ褦"He hesitated about whether he should do it/whether to do it." Ǥʸ whether whether Τ⸽뤬礬Ƥʣˤʤäʸ "He hesitated for a very long time about whether he should do it." ˤƤϡŪ whether 䤹Ȥ (Rohdenburg 148)
ޤ"She advised to do it in advance.", "She advised doing it in advance.", "She advised that it (should) be done in advance." ѰۤˤĤơʸˤ "She advised that it (should) not be done in advance." Τ褦 that ʸФ䤹褦 (Rohdenburg 149--50)
Rohdenburg, Günter. "The Role of Functional Constraints in the Evolution of the English Complement System." Syntax, Style and Grammatical Norms: English from 1500--2000. Ed. Christiane Dalton-Puffer, Dieter Kastovsky, Nikolaus Ritt, and Herbert Schendl. Bern: Peter Lang, 2006. 143--66.
Ѹˤκǽץɤ1ĤǤ "Great Vowel Shift" ʡ첻ܡ; gvsˤˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥˤʤ̾դ줿 "Great Complement Shift" ʡʸܡ; gcsˤˤĤƤϡ#860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1]) Ǥ̾˸ڤ٤ǤۤȤɼ夲ƤƤʤäϡѸ˾塤ưʬ¤ (complementation) 礭ѲƤݤؤʬͼԤǤ Rohdenburg (143) פʸƬǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Over the past few centuries, English has experienced a massive restructuring of its system of sentential complementation, which may be referred to as the Great Complement Shift.
ʸ¤ѲȤäƤ⡤ºݤˤ͡ʼѲޤޤƤ롥餬ߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطĤΤ餫ˤƤʤRohdenburg ϤޤȤ GCS ȸƤǤ롥Rohdenburg (143--45) ϡΤ褦̻ŪѲʤ뤤Ϥ붦ŪѰۡˤƤ롥
(1) She delighted to do it. She delighted in doing it.
(2) She was used/accustomed to do it. He was used/accustomed to doing it.
(3) She avoided/dreaded to go there. She avoided/dreaded going there.
(4) He helped (to) establish this system.
(5) They gave us some advice (on/as to) how it should be done.
(6) a. He hesitated (about) whether he should do it.
b. He hesitated (about) whether to do it.
(7) a. She was at a loss (about) what she should do.
b. She was at a loss (about) what to do.
(8) a. She advised to do it in advance.
b. She advised doing it in advance.
c. She advised that it (should) be done in advance.
(9) a. He promised his friends to return immediately.
b. He promised his friends (that) he would return immediately.
夳1ĤΥפȤळȤưʸȤư̾졤졤that ᡤֻʤɤΤΤ˴ؤ̻ŪѲƤȡƸߤǤ⤷ФжŪѰۤߤȤȤGCS μݤǤ롥
Rohdenburg, Günter. "The Role of Functional Constraints in the Evolution of the English Complement System." Syntax, Style and Grammatical Norms: English from 1500--2000. Ed. Christiane Dalton-Puffer, Dieter Kastovsky, Nikolaus Ritt, and Herbert Schendl. Bern: Peter Lang, 2006. 143--66.
ñʬ (distinctiones) 뤫³ (scriptura continua) 뤫ϡʸʸȤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤷ƱʸʸǤӤˤäѤ뤳ȤäѸǤʬΤȻפƤ뤬űѸѸǤñ֤˥ڡۤȤɸʤʸϤˤäcf #3798. űѸδˤʬ ([2019-09-20-1])ˡդܸǤ³ΤȻפƤ뤬ĻؽѤ˽줿ʿ̾ΤߤʸϤǤϡɤߤ䤹뤿˰տŪʬ뤳Ȥ⤢cf. #1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])ˡ
ŪˤСΤ褦ɽʸ䲾̾Τ褦ʲʥ⡼ʸ³뤳Ȥ¿ΤФñʸʥե٥åȡˤʬ뤳Ȥ¿ϤޤηˤʤդˤʤȤϡ餫ˡǸȸζ뤳ȤǤ롥ñ֤˥ڡȤϡ¸ˡ1Ĥˤʤ
춭뤿ǤС⥹ڡˤɬפϤʤʸʸϤȡ㤨̥ʸˤƤʤɤǸڤȤˡƤץȾݷʸǿ̾ȤǰϤ५ȥ (cartouche) Τ褦ˡ⤢äˤĤƤϡ#3044. űѸˤʬ ([2017-08-27-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ޤˡʤ뤤ϤФСʸǽȤ§Сʸ춭Ȥˤʤꡤʬʤɤ¾ˡäɬפȤʤʤºݡꥷǤϸ˾ʸʤᡤʬɬܤǤϤʤäإ֥饤䥢ӥʤɤǤϡƱʸǤǤäƤѤ뤫ʳѤ뤫ˤۤʤʸηϤ⤢롥
ܸδʸʸǤϡǽ뤳Ȥ¿Ωʿ̾ǽ뤳Ȥ¿°줬ߤ˷֤ȤħġΤŵŪˤʿ̾ڤؤȤ춭Ȱפ롥ʬŪˤǤϤ졤춭θʬΤˤȤȤ
Ǹˡ#1114. ̾ϢʤϷѤ ([2012-05-15-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ꤬θñ̡㤨иˤȤǤäɮ夲ʤɤδȯã뤳Ȥ롥ȡڤפΤޤ춭Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦˸źʸʸįƤߤȡ춭ɽ魯ˡ¿¿ͤǤ롥ѸǸƤʬͣФˡǤϤʤȤõƤ⤽ѸθνˤʬνΤŪˤϸȯŸʤΤcf . #1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1])ˡ
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
(S)ư (V)Ū (O) 3ĤǤȤ߹碌ͤȤѸˤƤ SVO §ѸˤˤƤ¾θ⸫줿ȤˤĤƤϡ#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1])#4385. Ѹ줬Τ SV θäȻפäƤޤ ([2021-04-29-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤʴϢ뵭ؤΥȤƤϡ#4527. ѸθˤѤǤͤҲ ([2021-09-18-1]) ⤴ˡ
ơűѸˤƤ S, V, O 3ǤˤĤŪ˹ͤ뤹٤Ƥθ礬ºݤ˳ǧ롥SVO, SOV, OSV, OVS, VSO, VOS 6ĤMolencki (295--96) ꡤơʸ1Ĥĵ褦
SVO: Mathathias ofsloh hine sona 'Mathathias killed him soon' (ÆLS [Maccabees] 224)
SOV: Gregorius hine afligde 'Gregory him expelled' (ÆCHom i.22.624)
OSV: Fela Godes wundra we habbað gehyred 'many God's wonders we have heard' (ÆCHom i.578.28)
OVS: hiene ofslog an efor 'him killed a wild boar' (ChronA 885)
VSO: Ða fregn he mec hwæðer ic wiste hwa ðæt wære 'then asked he me whether I knew who that were-SUBJ' (Bede 402.13)
VOS: ða andswarudon him sume þara bocera 'then answered him some of the scribes' (Lk [WSCp] 20.30)
S, V, O 3ǤθܤƤ뤬ˤϥޥˤ "verb second" θ絬§̩ܤǤꡤ뵬§μ֤ϤäʣǤ롥űѸ줬ѸΤ褦ʥθää櫓ǤϤʤȤϡʸ餫
Molencki, Rafał. "Old English: Syntax." Chapter 19 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 294--313.
#2442. Ĵʸȯã --- ŪݤŪǽء ([2016-01-03-1])#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡֶĴʸפȤΤƤ빽ʸεȯãˤĤƤ͡ʸʤʤߤ˱ѸؤǤϡʬʸ (cleft_sentence) ȸƤ֤Ȥ¿ˡ
ŪǶοˤȡѸˤ붯ĴʸĹϡʤȤʬŪˤϥȸȤθܿ˵ΤǤϤʤȤ֥ȸ첾 (celtic_hypothesis) Ƥ롥ŪˤϡȸȤܿˤѸθѲϰ̤ΤǤꡤäȤƤü٤ˤȤɤޤȤƤǯֶƤȸ첾ˤСѸ䲻ʤɤؤαƶβǽŦ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ѸζĴʸȯã⡤Τ褦ʻ1ȤƵƤ롥
ԸˤСűѸǤζĴʸλϾʤʤ⸫ĤäƤ롥㤨аʲΤ褦ʸǤ (Filppula and Klemola 1695 ѡˡ
þa cwædon þa geleafullan, 'Nis hit na Petrus þæt þær cnucað, ac is his ængel.' (Then the faithful said: It isn't Peter who is knocking there, but his angel.)
Filppula and Klemola (1695--96) ĴˤСιʸ٤Ѹˤƾ夬äƤȤơȯãطʤˤϡȸˤбɽ¸ߤäΤǤϤʤȤβƤ롥1ĤϡɸޤॱȽˡѸŤбɽ¸ߤƤȤ¤ϥեˤƱͤζĴʸ¸ߤषե줫αƶȹͤۤǤϤʤȤ⤢뤬ȽǤλѤΤۤŤȤȤȸ첾ˤȤäƤɤȤʤäƤ롥
⤦1Ĥϡ奢ɱѸ (irish_english) ǡѸζĴʸŪͳ٤ι⤤ĴʸȤƤȤ¤㤨СΤ褦ʼͳѤ (Filppula and Klemola 1698 ѡˡ
It is looking for more land they are.
Tis joking you are, I suppose.
Tis well you looked.
Τ褦ʥɱѸˤ롤Ū¤ξʤĴʸλѤϡΤ褦ħĥȸδؤξ˱Ѹ줬ääƤ뤿Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ִظ첾 (substratum_theory) ʤ
ζĴʸλǤϤʤ̤˥ȸ첾ФƤϰ¿űѸʰˤ鸽Ѹ˵ڤĹʻ֤ȤѸȥȸθܿϡΤ˥ƥǤϤ롥
Filppula, Markku and Juhani Klemola. "English in Contact: Celtic and Celtic Englishes." Chapter 107 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1687--1703.
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