hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ڡ / page 11 (17)

syntax - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2017-11-16 Thu

#3125. ܸ෿ (2) [word_order][syntax][typology][adjective][demonstrative][numeral][world_languages]

ε ([2017-11-15-1]) ǡܸ෿ˤĤ Greenberg θŵŪ˿줿Greenberg 30θоݤˡθӤη̡ܸ֡Τ褦ˡSOVθǤиֻIJǽ⤤פʤɤ෿δް (typological implication) ¿ǧ뤳Ȥ餫ˤGreenberg (107--08) ΤޤȤ᤿ɽʲ˵󤲤롥

LanguageVSOPrNANDN Num
BasqueIII-xx-
BerberIxxx-
BurmeseIII-x1--2
BurushaskiIII----
ChibchaIII-x-x
FinnishII----
FulaniIIxxxx
GreekIIx---
GuaraniI-x-0
HebrewIxxx-
HindiIII----
ItalianIIxx3--
KannadaIII----
JapaneseIII----2
LoritjaIII-xxx
MalayIIxxx-2
MaoriIxx--
MasaiIxx-x
MayaIIx---2
NorwegianIIx---
NubianIII-x-x
QuechuaIII----
SerbianIIx---
SonghaiII-xxx
SwahiliIIxxxx
ThaiIIxxx-2
TurkishIII----
WelshIxx3x-
YorubaIIxxxx
ZapotecIxxx-


1ܤ S, V, O 3Ǥ˴ؤǤꡤI VSO, II SVO, III SOV ɽ魯
2ܤֻ (Pr) Ĥ뤤ϸֻ (-) Ĥɽ魯
3ܤϡܷ̾ƻפθ (NA) ַƻ̾פθ (-) ɽ魯
4ܤϡܻ̾ؼפθ (ND) ֻؼ̾פθ (-) ɽ魯
5ܤϡ̾ܿפθ (N Num) ֿ̾פθ (-) ɽ魯

ֹդ줿ˤĤƤϡΤΤ˸ʸѤ褦 (108)

1. Participle of adjective-verb, however, precedes and is probably as common as adjective following.
2. Numeral classifiers following numerals in each case. The construction numeral + classifier precedes in Burmese and Maya, follows in Japanese and Thai, and either precedes or follows in Malay.
3. In Welsh and Italian a small number of adjectives usually precede.


ΤȤơ5θΤ˼夫شط뤳Ȥ򸫤Ƽ뤳ȤǤ롥оݤȤʤä30ĤˤʤȤϤۤʤϰ褫θ줬򤵤Ƥꡤʤ˿ꤹ뤳ȤΤǤĴ̤ȤƼƤ롥
Ϣơ#2786. 칽¤Ͽ --- WALS Online ([2016-12-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS Online) ⻲ȡ

Greenberg, Joseph P. "Some Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements." Chapter 5 of Universals of Language. Ed. Joseph P. Greenberg. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. P, 1966. 73--113.

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2017-11-15 Wed

#3124. ܸ෿ (1) [word_order][syntax][typology][indo-european][world_languages]

ɸϡ#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1]) ǿ줿ƹͤƤߤβ̤礭ϸˤäưۤʤȤϤȤʤޤäѤʤ¸ߤʤȤϡãηкѤȤߤɬŪʸ֤Ǥ롥
Greenberg ϸȴϢƸ෿ (word order typology) 󵯤ˤȡθʿʸˤ졤Ū졤ưθϡŪ (1) SVO, (2) SOV, (3) VSO, (4) VOS, (5) OSV, (6) OVS 6बǽǤ롥ʣθ⾯ʤʤ¿θˤŪͥʸϷޤäƤ롥ĤޤܸȤΤ¸ߤ롥ܸĸΤۤȤɤ줬ŪԤѥ󡤤ʤ (1), (2), (3) Τ줫롥ۤ (4) θϤٳǧ뤬(5), (6) ˾ʤȤʬäƤ롥
꡼¾ (19) ꡤ줾δܸ򼨤󤲤褦

ܸ
(1) SVOѸ졤եɸ졤졤ҥ
(2) SOVҥǥ졿ɥ졤ȥ륳졤ܸ졤ī
(3) VSOŵָ졤륺졤⥢
(4) VOSޥ졤ĥĥꥫΥޥ
(5) OSVХɸ̥θˡ
(6) OVSҥ奫ʸʥ֥饸Υָ


줬ŪԤ3Ĥ (1), (2), (3) ˴ؤƤСư V ΰ֤˴ؤ (2) SOV (3) VSO жˤˤꡤ(1) SVO ϤŪʰ֤Ťˤ롥ºݡ¾μθˤĤƤ⡤(2) (3) θȿиħ򼨤(1) ŪǤȤ顤෿δް (typological implication) ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹ衼åѤμפʸϤŵꥷŵƥǤ VO ܤȤ뤿ᡤĸǤ VO 򼨤Ƥ줽ҥåȸξڵˤСȤȤ OV äǽ⤤ȤСѸ SVO ĹˤβѲƤȤȤˤʤ
Ϣơ#2786. 칽¤Ͽ --- WALS Online ([2016-12-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS Online) ⻲ȡ

꡼Сʡɡƥ󡦥ޥ塼ޥꥢݥ󥹥 ԡ ˼ ؿʸ޴ա١νӡ2005ǯ
Greenberg, Joseph P. "Some Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements." Chapter 5 of Universals of Language. Ed. Joseph P. Greenberg. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. P, 1966. 73--113.

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2017-08-12 Sat

#3029. 3Ĥμ [syntax][semantics][word_order][generative_grammar][semantic_role]

ؤˤ (syntax) Ȥϲ򰷤ʬʤΤȤ䤤ФϡɤΤ褦ʸǰƬˤƤ뤫ˤäưۤʤäƤ롥ŪѤ§ä绨Ĥ˸äƤޤСȤʸˤȸδط򰷤ʬǤꡤŵŪˤϸε§򵭽Ҥꡤ繽¤餫ˤꤹ뤳ȤɸȤ롥
⤦Ūβ󼨤ΤǤСLos "Three dimensions of syntax" ꤯󤷤Ƥ롥1ĤѤˤʤȤФʤΤɤǤʤۤɤȻפäΤǵƤ (Los 8)

1. How the information about the relationships between the verb and its semantic roles (AGENT, PATIENT, etc.) is expressed. This is essentially a choice between expressing relational information by endings (inflection), i.e. in the morphology, or by free words, like pronouns and auxiliaries, in the syntax.
2. The expression of the semantic roles themselves (NPs, clauses?), and the syntactic operations languages have at their disposal for giving some roles higher profiles than others (e.g. passivisation).
3. Word order.


Dimension 1 ϡư濴ȤƳ꿶̣䤬ޤʤɤηŪʤɽ蘆Τ֤ˤŪʤɽ蘆ΤȤ˴ط롥ԤμʤѤƤСʤȤʤ롥
Dimension 2 ϡ꿶줿̣䤬ʤɽˤäƼ¸Τ˴ͿʤѷˤȤä˾Ƥ롥
Dimension 3 ϡ̤ȤƼ¸ȸ֤˴ؤǤ롥

3ĤμϡǤŪǿŪ Dimension 1 顤ǤŪɽŪ Dimension 3 Ȥ¤٤Ƥ롥ʸˡѤ˴ŤΤǤ뤬褯󤵤줿ѤǤ롥

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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2017-08-11 Fri

#3028. She is believed to have done it. ιʸȸűѸ⡼ sceolde δط [syntax][auxiliary_verb][passive][ecm][passive][information_structure][grammaticalisation]

I believe that she has done it. Ȥʸ that Ѥ I believe her to have done it. ȥѥե졼뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥʸǡ֤ʤ׼Τ she ǤꡤʤʤηäƤ뤬ԤʸǤưμΤƱʪؤʤ her ŪʤηäƤ롥ϡΰ̣μǤϤ³ΤΡ1ʾˤ believe λ۲뤬椨ˡʤǤϤʤŪʤͿΤ롥ǤϡԤΤ褦ʳͿΤȤ Exceptional Case-Marking (= ECM) ȸƤǤ롥ޤbelieve μ뤳Τ褦ʹʸϡгդιʸȤΤ롥
believe ˤߤ褦ʥѥե졼ϡthink declare ɽֻ׹͡פפɽ魯ư¿ǽ̣ΤϡECM ʸϼư֤ѤΤ̤ȤȤǤ롥嵭Ϥǽư֤ʸ夲She is believed to have done it. Τ褦˼ư֤Ǹ뤳ȤΤۤŪ¿º say ʤɤǤϡǽư֤Ǥ ECM ʸϵƤ줺The disease is said to be spreading. Τ褦ˤäѤư֤Ǹ롥
μư֤ؤФϡʤʤΤ
1Ĥˤϡֻ׹͡פפˤƽפʤΤϡƤμǤ롥ʸǤСshe the disease Ǥꡤ줬ʸƬǼȤƸȤΤϡ¤⼫ľǤ롥
⤦1Ĥζ̣ѻϡis believed to ʤ is said to ʬΤȤ evidentiality ɽ魯⡼ʵǽӤӤƤȤΤĤޤꡤreportedly ۤɤ֤뤳ȤǤʵǽǤꡤŤѸǤ sceolde "should" Ȥˡưɽ蘆ƤǽǤ롥Los (151) ˤС

Another interesting aspect of passive ECMs is that they renew a modal meaning of sceolde 'should' that had been lost. Old English sceolde could be used to indicate 'that the reporter does not believe the statement or does not vouch for its truth' . . . :

Þa wæs ðær eac swiðe egeslic geatweard, ðæs nama sceolde bion Caron <Bo 35.102.16>
'Then there was also a very terrible doorkeeper whose name is said to be Caron'


The most felicitous PDE translation has a passive ECM.


̣Ǥϡbe believed to be said to be going to ʤɤƱ褦ˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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2017-07-13 Thu

#2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ [prescriptive_grammar][negative][double_comparative][syntax][emode][double_negative]

ɸѸεʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) Ǥϡ (double negative) 򤵤롥#301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1]) Υ󥭥󥰤ˤǤܤǤꡤѤΰ̤Τ褦ˤߤʤƤ롥ŤѸǤФ꤫¿꤬̤ѤƤ¤ꡤϤθˡ˸ŪʸѤΤˤ뤳ȤʪäƤ褦˻פ뤬ϼΩ줫ϥΰĥǤʡ#549. ¿θѡ ([2010-10-28-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ɸѸˤϡΤ褦18εʸˡζϤʱƶǴ򤵤˻ꡤߤޤŨ뤵ƤȤΤ̾θθɬΤǤϤʤ褦Ը򻲾ȤĤ Tieken-Boon van Ostade (81) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥

Many scholars believe that the disappearance of double negation from standard English was due to the influence of the normative grammarians, but Nevalainen and Raumolin-Brunberg . . . have shown that double negation was already on the way out during the EModE period. The same is true for another 'double' construction, the use of double comparatives and superlatives, no longer in general use either when first condemned by the grammarians (González-Díaz 2008)


ڤƤԸäƳΤƤʤ⤷θΤʤΤȤС˼θѤˤʤӵ顦ǾˤѤФλ¤18ʸˡȤǤäι¤ܤФȤäȤˤʤ롥
ˤĤƤϡdouble negative γ򡤤ޤӵˤĤƤϡ#195. Shakespeare ˴ؤ Web resources ([2009-11-08-1]) hellog 򻲾ȡ

Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.

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2017-07-06 Thu

#2992. Ѹˤʸȯã [me][infinitive][syntax][tense][passive][split_infinitive]

ѸǤϡʸȯãLos (Los, Bettelou. The Rise of the to-Infinitive. Oxford: OUP, 2005.) 򻲾Ȥ Sawada (28) ˴ʷˤޤȤƤ褦ˡȯãˤϡ(1) Ķޤ to ٤Ȥ¦̤ȡ(2) űѸǤϸʤäο칽¤줿Ȥ¦̤롥(2) ˤĤƤϡ5ο¤Ŧ롥ʲˡѸ줫ʸȤȤ˼

(a) ư֤ to : The clothes need to be washed.
(b) λ have ȼ to : He expected to have finished last Wednesday.
(c) Ωꤵ to : They motioned to her not to come any further.
(d) դгʹʸˤ to : They believed John to be a liar.
(e) ʬΥ (split infinitive): to boldly go where no one has gone before.

Τ褦ʶḽŪ to 칽¤ޤ줿طʤˤϡб that ˤοͿƤ롥ȤϡŪˤ that β̤ȤƼεǽʣʹ¤ to ˼ä줿򤹤٤ִϰ쵤櫓ǤϤʤư֤ʤɤʣʰ̣¤ؤˤ that ʸФ餯ݤ줿Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥

Sawada, Mayumi. "The Development of a New Infinitival Construction in Late Middle English: The Passive Infinitive after Suffer." Studies in Middle and Modern English: Historical Variation. Ed. Akinobu Tani and Jennifer Smith. Tokyo: Kaitakusha, 2017. 27--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-30-1] [2022-12-11-1]

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2017-06-22 Thu

#2978. wh- to ???? [infinitive][interrogative_pronoun][syntax][contamination]

֥֥꡼Сɤμϡ򱿱ĤƤк۰顤ֵ to ׹ʸŪȯãˤĤƼѤʤⶽ̣򤢤꤬ȤޤˡŪˤ what to do, how to do तηȤǡϴܵ to νв񤤤ˤäʸȹͤΤǡͻ硤ˤäƤ contamination Ȥ⤤٤Τ⤷ʤʡ#737. ʸ contamination ([2011-05-04-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
Ūˤ⤪⤷Ĵ٤ȤʤäΤǡޤ MED (verbal particle) Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡ 5b (e) ˼Τ褦ˤäФϽѸǤꡤθ㤬Ĥ󤬤롥

(e) with inf. preceded by the interrogatives hou, what, whider, or whiderward, the entire construction functioning as the direct obj. of verbs of knowing, studying, teaching, etc.

c1300(?c1225) Horn (Cmb Gg.4.27) 17/276: For he nuste what to do.


OED to Ĵ٤Ƥߤ 16a ˡβˤʤäƤꡤΤ褦ˤ롥

a. With inf. after a dependent interrogative or relative; equivalent to a clause with may, should, etc. (Sometimes with ellipsis of whether before or in an indirect alternative question.)

c1386 Chaucer Man of Law's Tale 558 She hath no wight to whom to make hir mone.


OED Ǥν Chaucer ȤʤäƤ뤬MED νΤۤᤤȤʬ롥碌ơιʸϸűѸˤϸʤ餷
⤷ΤϡѸˤʸϽ°Τ򤵤Ƥ뤬ñȤǼ18Ƭ鸽Ƥ뤳ȤOED θ 16b ˡΤ褦˵󤲤Ƥ롥

b. In absolute or independent construction after an interrogative, forming an elliptical question.
   This may be explained as an ellipsis of the principal clause . . . , or of 'is one', 'am I', etc. before the inf.

1713 J. Addison Cato iii. vii, But how to gain admission? for Access Is giv'n to none but Juba, and her Brothers.


ϤʸäȤä𤬤ꤽȤݤ⤷ɤޤǿǤ

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2017-06-20 Tue

#2976. űѸ졦Ѹδò which a . . . [ancrene_wisse][syntax][exclamation][article]

Bennett and Smithers Ǥ Ancrene Wisse ΰɤǤȤˡɽ˽вäA. 147--48 ˡΤ褦ˤ롥

Lokið nu ȝeorne, for his deorewurðe luue, hwuch a mearke he leide upon his icorene þa he steah to heouene


hwuch a mearke ʲʬϤܵƳ which ľ괧줬ȤȤϡòδްդ⤤餫ޤǤȤȤ⤷ȤȡѸǤϴò what a ? ȤʤΤ̤ʤΤǡĤƤ which a ? ʤ⤢äȤȤˤʤ롥
Ĵ٤ƤߤȡűѸѸˤ "exclamatory which" ʤˡäȤΤȤMustanoja (186) β

EXCLAMATORY 'WHICH.' --- The original meaning of the pronoun, 'of what kind,' is also reflected in its dependent exclamatory use found in OE and ME (it is often separated from the governing noun by a)] --- ah loke wulche wæstres . . . Whulche wurþliche wude, Whulche wilde deores (Lawman A 11770--73); --- whiche lordes beth þis shrewes! (PPl. B x 27); --- lo which a wyf was Alceste (Ch. CT F Fkl. 1442); --- and whiche eyen my lady hadde! (Ch. BD 859); --- he seide, 'O whiche sorwes glade, O which wofull prosperite Belongeth to the proprete Of love!' (Gower CA iv 1212--13). In late ME which is superseded in this function by what.


MED which (adj.) θ7ˤ⡤ˡˤĤƼΤ褦˵Ҥ롥

7. In exclamations, with emphatic force, indicating the striking or extraordinary character of the noun modified: what a remarkable, an excellent, or an impressive; what remarkable or fine:


OED which, pron. and adj. Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡˡ5ˡǤѤȤƵ󤲤Ƥ롥ʸϡűѸ Ælfred Boethius De Consol. Philos. ˻ϤޤꡤѸ˽äƤ롥

c888 Ælfred tr. Boethius De Consol. Philos. xvi. 2 Gif ge nu gesawan hwelce mus þæt wære hlaford ofer oðre mys,..mid hwelce hleahtre ge woldon bion astered.
. . . .
c1450 Jacob's Well (1900) 102 Lo, whiche a worschip sche hadde, & whiche a ioye.


ò which a ? ϡŤѸ̤˸줿Ȥʬ롥

Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2017-06-19 Mon

#2975. ޤοȸθ경ζϴط [synthesis_to_analysis][eme][french][contact][syntax][inflection][case][dative][genitive][syncretism][word_order]

ε#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸء ([2017-06-18-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡޤοȸθ경ϡʸˡˤɽ᥸㡼Ǥ롥˶ޤοबˤäƼ줿ʸˡǽŶ뤿˸夫礬경뤳ȤˤʤäΤ뤤˸礬경η̡פȤʤäޤ夫षϤ᤿Τ⤷ϡ3θˤȡξݤΰ̴طϰŪʤΤǤϤʤ줾줬ƶ礤ʤ饹ѥ˿ʹԤƤäΤȤ⤤롥ޤ˥˥ȥǤ롥
ϲ3θ򤬿¤ȻפäƤ뤬ϢȤƤ Allen ⤳ιͤǤ롥Allen ϡ2Ū칽ʸˤ2ĤŪθǤʤ°̾Ȥ˽Ȥΰִط˴ؤѸѲˤĤƤĴƤꡤޤοबθ경򾷤ͣװǤϤʤȤƳǧƤ롥Allen (220) ۩

The two case studies [= the fixing of the order of two nominal NP/DP objects and the genitives] examined here do not support the view that the fixing of word order in English was driven solely by the loss of case inflections or the assumption that at every stage of English, there was a simple correlation between less inflection and more fixed word order. This is not to say that deflexion did not play an important role in the disappearance of some previously possible word orders. It is reasonable to suggest that although it may have been pragmatic considerations which gave the initial impetus to making certain word orders more dominant than others, deflexion played a role in making these orders increasingly dominant. It seems likely that the two developments worked hand in hand; more fixed word order allowed for less overt case marking, which in turn increased the reliance on word order.


ΰ̴طֶޤοࢪθ경פäȤǽꤳƤʤդΡָθ경ޤοפΰ̴ط椫ƤɤΤȤξݤ˼äƿʹԤȹͤΤǤȷƤ롥ޤξԤδطפƤۤñʴطǤϤʤȤϡѸˤƤʤ˶ޤλĤäƤʤɤǤ⡤űѸθ礬Τޤ¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդ˶ޤषƤƤűѸŪʸ礬¸Ƥ㤬뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ

Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.

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2017-06-18 Sun

#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸ [synthesis_to_analysis][eme][french][contact][syntax][inflection][case][dative][syncretism][word_order][terminology][ditransitive_verb]

ε#2973. ʤ٤κ ([2017-06-17-1]) ˰³Allen ͤ󶡤
2Ū칽ʸֻ to Ѥ빽ʸ֤äƤΤϡѸǤ롥űѸԤ⸫줿ǽưμब¤ʤɤħäѸˤʤȡ٤ƤФ꤫ư¤ʧ褦ˤʤ롥ߥ󥰤ȤƤϳʶޤολȽŤʤꡤ̴ط򵿤ʤ뤬Allen ϡطȤϤʤ⿵ŤʵŸƤ롥ΥƥȤˤƤϡǤʬŪʹʸ夷Ƥե󥹸αƶ餢뤳Ȥ⼨ƤꡤñʡʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤФԤä򤫤Ƥ롥Allen (214) Ѥ롥

It can be noted . . . that we do not require deflexion as an explanation for the rapid increase in to-datives in ME. The influence of French, in which the marking of the IO by a preposition was already well advanced, appears to be the best way to explain such text-specific facts as the surprisingly high incidence of to-datives in the Aȝenbite of Inwit. . . . [T]he dative/accusative distinction was well preserved in the Aȝenbite, which might lead us to expect that the to-dative would be infrequent because it was not needed to mark Case, but in fact we find that this work has a significantly higher frequency of this construction than do many texts in which the dative/accusative distinction has disappeared in overt morphology. The puzzle is explained, however, when we realize that the Aȝenbite was a rather slavish translation from French and shows some unmistakable signs of the influence of its French exemplar in its syntax. It is, of course, uncertain how important French influence was in the spoken language, but contact with French would surely have encouraged the use of the to-dative. It should also be remembered that an innovation such as the to-dative typically follows an S-curve, starting slowly and then rapidly increasing, so that no sudden change in another part of the grammar is required to explain the sudden increase of the to-dative.


Allen ϶ޤοȤݤ deflexion ɽƤ뤬ϤդȤƤʤ⡤νѸȤäȤʤäѸ1ĵȤͯΤϡѤκǸΤȤǡto-dative ؤΰܹԤˤĤƸóȻSȤȤڤƤ뤬δŪ˵Ҥ줿ϤΤȤȤޤοȸθ경ȤѸʸˡ˾礭⡤ޤޤ겼褦ꤽ

Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-06-19-1]

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2017-05-23 Tue

#2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ء [notice][link][syntax][adjective][rensai][fricative_voicing]

դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤalive ˸ءޤ
μĥϡְưפȤѲΥʥߥǤűѸ줫Ѹˤʲμ岽ü֡졤ֻäʤɡѸ˾ʤ̱ƶڤܤ礲ˤȡֱѸηϤɤ뤬פۤɤŪʥѥȤäݤǤ롤ȤȤ⤭ޤѸˤΥʥߥḁ̊ϤСȻפޤ
ʲˡ5εǿ줿̩ܤ˴ؤ hellog ؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤޤ碌ɤȡϢܵΤۤɤȻפޤ

#2723. ֻ on ˤ n æ ([2016-10-10-1])
#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵໤ͭ ([2013-01-21-1])
#1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1])
#702. -ths ȯ ([2011-03-30-1])
#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1])
#712. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2) ([2011-04-09-1])
#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1])
#2435. eurhythmy 뤤 "buffer hypothesis" ŬѲǽ ([2015-12-27-1])
#2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1])
#2422. Ѹˤư̾졤ʬ졤θβŪƱ ([2015-12-14-1])
#2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ ([2015-06-20-1])

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2017-05-22 Mon

#2947. A's X is better than B Ȥ¤ [genitive][syntax][shakespeare][variation]

A's X ȤɽθǡB's X ̣ΤȤơX ά줿 B's ȤɽѤ륱϶ḽˤ⸫롥㤨СA's X and B's A's X is better than B's Τ褦ʹ¤Τ褦ʾˡ2ܤ B ˽ͭʤ 's Ĥñ B ȤҤ٤ɽ⡤ޤǤ̤˸줿㤨СA's X and B A's X is better than B Τ褦ʹ¤ǤŪ X B ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤʹ¤ȤФʤΤ¤ˤѸ줫ѸޤǹԤʤƤ
Jespersen (302) Ѹ줫Ȥưʲ󤲤Ƥ롥

His top was dokked lyk a preest biforn (like that of a p.) [Ch., A., 589]
Hys necke he made lyke no man. [Guy of Warw., 8054]

ι¤϶ˤ³ä Shakespeare ¿ѤƤȤ𤬤롥Jespersen (302--03) ¿ȤȤˤθҲ𤷤ƤΤǡѤ褦

   Al. Schmidt has collected a good many examples of this phenomenon from Shakespeare. He considers it, however, as a rhetorical figure rather than a point of grammar; thus he writes (Sh. Lex., p. 1423): "Shakespeare very frequently uses the name of a person or thing itself for a single particular quality or point of view to be considered, in a manner which has seduced great part of his editors into needless conjectures and emendations". I pick out some of his quotations, and add a few more from my own collections:---

Her lays were tuned like the lark (like the lays of the lark) [Pilgr., 198]
He makes a July's day short as December (as a December's day) [W. T., i., 2, 169]
Iniquity's throat cut like a calf [2 H. VI., iv., 2, 29]
Mine hair be fixed on end as one distract [2 H. VI., iii., 2, 318]
I know the sound of Marcius' tongue from every meaner man [Cor., i., 6, 27]
My throat of war be turned into a pipe small as an eunuch [ibid., iii., 2, 114]


Ūˤϡ嵭 A's X is better than B 餤ǡ A's X is better than B's ⤢ꤨΤǡξ¤ŪѰ۷äȤˤʤ롥ϡΰѤǤ⿨Ƥ̤ꡤѰۤ Shakespeare ʤɤˤƼͳѰۤäΤ뤤ϽŪʺۤȼäƤΤǤ롥⤷ 's ȤʷǤ̵ͭʸˡʸΤܿȤʤꤦΤǤСʸؾΥƥ󥰤Ȥʤ

Jespersen, Otto. Progress in Language with Special Reference to English. 1894. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.

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2017-05-11 Thu

#2936. ݼܼ [sociolinguistics][syntax][generative_grammar]

ͤɤߡּҲ (sociosyntax) ȤοΤäΰȤϡθȤ٤Τǡ (146) ֥᥿פȰ֤ŤƤ롥ޤʸˡȤΤּҲΡפȤİȤħ롥 (159) ˤС

¤ʸˡȤϡ쥳ߥ˥ƥƱΤߺѤ˽ɤ롤ʬ줿μȤƤΡּҲΡפǤꡤۤʸˡȤϡġ¾ȤΡֶͭϰϡפ䤷Ʒפä̤Ȥ롤֤Ϥ褯狼ʤ٤ֵϡפȤƤΡּҲΡפǤ롤ȤħŤǤ롥


쥳ߥ˥ƥϡߤƱ褦ä٤ȤҲŪʥץå㡼ʤ顤ƱܻؤƸѤƤΤȤȤȡɬŪˡ͡귿ɽѤʤɤݼŪʸư뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤȤñ㲽ƤСݼܼǤȾƤ롥ϡ¤ۤĥʸˡʤɽȤϿøΩͤǤ롥
θѤС㤨ʸˡ§æ㳰פˤϡĤƤλʸˡ§ĤȤǤΤʤʤΤ褦ʤΤ㳰פȤߤʤ٤ǤϤʤݼζȤߤʤФ褤ȤȤˤʤ롥 (152) ۩

Τ褦ʡ㳰פȰ̤ˡʸˡפȤƵҤ뵬§ȤκϲŪʤΤǤϤʤŬѤϰϤεϤ礭κۤǤʤǽ롥ܼ¤ǤϤʤ귿ݼ˵Сϡݼٹ礤פȤƼٲ̲ǽǤꡤֵ§㳰פΤ褦켰ǹͤɬפϤʤʤ롥


Ҳϡʸˡ§μҲŪͭݼ˾Ƥ variationist ŪΩȤ

͡8ϡҲסؼҲءٰ ʼԡˡīҽŹ2017ǯ146--67ǡ

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2017-04-28 Fri

#2923. ȱμ [pragmatics][grammaticalisation][syntax][subjectification][intersubjectification][implicature]

ǯǤϡּ (periphery) դθ椬ܤƤƤ롥ĻرؤθץȤ١Ȥ˴ؤ뾮ԡˤͽȯäΤϤȽ٤Ǥ줿ʤܤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ŪƳȤʤ1Ϥˡּפ並ˤˤĤƤβ⤬롥ȾǧƤ (9)

Ȥå˥åȤκǽ餢뤤ϺǸΰ֤ǤꡤǤϥ᥿ƥŪʤӤˡʤϥ᥿Ūʸޤ졤˥åΤѰȤ


ˤϺǽΰ֡ʤʤˤȺǸΰ֡ʱˤ2Ĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬ξԤδ֤ˤƯΰ㤤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ԸˤСֺȱμθλѡפȤơΤ褦ʬô⤵Ȥ (25)

μ (LP)μ (RP)
Ū (dialogual)ԤλŪ (dialogic)
ý롿դ (turn-taking/attention-getting)ýʾꡤý߽Фɸ (turn-yielding/end-marking)
äˤĤʤ (link to previous discourse)³äͽ¬ (anticipation of forthcoming discourse)
ɸ (response-marking)¥ (response-inviting)
경ե졼ಽ (focalizing/topicalizing/framing)⡼벽 (modalizing)
Ū (subjective)ּŪ (intersubjective)


ϡʤФǤʤʸˡ (grammaticalisation)Ѳ (subjectification)ּѲ (intersubjectification)Ūް (conventional implicature) ηʤɹѲλݤˤͿ롥ŸڤߤΰǤ롥

ŵҡԡˡȯäΤϤȽꡡŪĴΤʤ١ҤĤ˼2017ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-09-03-1]

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2017-03-22 Wed

#2886. ʤֻܴط̾ thatפʤΤ (2) [relative_pronoun][preposition][pied-piping][word_order][syntax][determiner]

ε[2017-03-21-1]³ơ󤻤줿ɸμˤĤơѸξñ˸ϸűѸǤϤɤäΤָ褦
űѸˤ礭3ʺʬ4ˤδط̾줬ä켣 (248--49) ޤȤȡ̤Ǥ롥

(1) ̵Ѳ þe
(2) se žѡse ϴطγʤ˶ޤʡ#154. űѸη se ζޡ ([2009-09-28-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
(3) 嵭2ĤȤ߹碌ʣط se þese (3a) طγʤ˶ޤȡ(3b) ԻƱʤ˶ޤ礬롥

ơδطֻ̾ۤΰ֤ϡ嵭δط̾μ˱ưۤʤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥켣 (249) μݤ󤹤ȡ(1) (3b) ˤĤƤϡֻϴط˻α뤬(2) (3a) ˤĤƤֻϴطľ֤롥(2) ζ޷1ĤǤ þæt ʸ衤ñʡгʤζ޷ˤѤˤϡֻϴط˻α뤳Ȥ¿ȤĤޤꡤűѸꡤɸιʸ򤱤ƤȤȤǤ롥
ͳ꤫ǤϤʤ1޷ˤʤ þæt űѸνޤǤˡԻ̵طѤ̵ѲδطȤʤäƤȤͿƤΤǤϤʤʤħϸޤǰѤƤˡط þæt ̵ѲǤ뤳Ȥȡֻ줬Ū˲餫ͭɸʳʷ׵᤹ȤȤ褯ʤˡʤȤܤ뤳Ȥ˾ޤʤȴ줿Τ⤷ʤ
ֻ þætפ⳧̵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤʲ˵󤲤2ĤʸΤ1ܤϤΤ褦Ǥʱ켣p. 249ˡ

. . . fram ðam godcundum worde, ðurh þæt ðe ealle þing sind geworhte. (= from the divine word, through which all things are made) (c1000 Ælfric CHom II. 364. 14--15)
he forgiet ðæt grin ðæt he mid awierged wirð; (= he forgets the snare that he is accursed with) (c897 CP 331. 18--19)


켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2017-03-21 Tue

#2885. ʤֻܴط̾ thatפʤΤ (1) [relative_pronoun][preposition][pied-piping][word_order][syntax][sobokunagimon]

313դηǼĤǡɸμǼĤǤϡϡɤȤƤƱֻ³ thatפin that . . . except that . . . ʤɤƹϤߤʤȤȴϢƤΤȤݤΥȤդƤֻܴط̾ thatפȡֻ³ thatפϡɤƱǤϤ뤬칽¤ޤäۤʤΤǡ̤Ϥޤä̤θݤȤȤ館٤ȹͤƤ롥ֻ³ thatפˤĤƤϡ#2314. °³ȤƤ that ([2015-08-28-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ơΡֻܴط̾ thatסʤ pied-piping ƳפȸƤФ츽ݡˤƤʤˤĤƤϡѸŪˤϤɤΤ褦˹ͤФ褤Τ
ȤƤϡ¤ϡűѸ줫餢롥äȤϳΤǤꡤŪˤϴ򤵤ƤʸǤȤäƤ褤줬ˤΤʤǴΩäˤʤꡤѸǤԻѤˤĤʤäƤ롥
Mustanoja (196--97) ϡѸδط̾ that which λȤʬˤĤƤսǡԤλѤˤĤƼΤ褦ħŦƤ롥

Which, on the other hand, is preferred in connection with prepositions (this folk of which I telle you soo, RRose 743), and also when the antecedent is a clause or a whole sentence.


ͳȤǼΤ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ롥

Evidently because of the somewhat clumsy arrangement of the preposition in that-clauses. Prepositions occurring in connection with that are placed immediately before the verb (þet ilke uniseli gile þet ich of seide, Ancr. 30; the place that I of spake, Ch. PF 296), particularly in early ME. Less frequently in early ME, but commonly in late ME, the preposition is placed at the end of the clause (preciouse stanes þat he myght by a kingdom with, RRolle EWr. 112).


顤ֻܴط̾ thatפι¤ط̾ that 夷ƤѸˤϤǤ򤱤Ƥ餷Ȥ뤬ʤʤΤȤϻĤ롥طཾṽ¤˸¤餺̾μṽ¤ˤƤ⡤ĤƤֻ줬ɬŪ֤Ȥϸ¤ʤäȤͤȡֻȴطȤϡŪֻΰ֤˴ؤȤƤȤ館ɬפΤ⤷ʤ

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-01-01-1] [2017-03-22-1]

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2017-01-26 Thu

#2831. performative hypothesis [pragmatics][speech_act][syntax][verb][performative_hypothesis][performative]

#2674. Ūʸ3Ĥħ ([2016-08-22-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡʸˤϡĥĽʸ (constative) ȡξ˹԰٤ȼʸ (performative) 2ब롥ͤ褦ˤäƤϡĽʸĽҡפȤȯù԰ (speech_act) ԤʤΤǤΤ顤1οʸǤȤʸˤϡΡֿԡפưľɽ魯Ūʸ (ex. I command you to surrender immediately.) ȡǤʤżŪʸ (ex. Surrender immediately.) 뤳ȤͤС㤨 You're a stupid cow. Τ褦̾ĽʸϡʸƬ I hereby insult you that . . . ʤɤä򤹤٤ĽҡפȤԤɽ魯żŪʸʤΤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤΤ褦ˡĽʸϼ¤ϿʸǤꡤʸƬˡI hereby + ư (performative verb) פʤɤƤΤȲ᤹벾performative hypothesis ȸƤǤ롥
βϹϼƤʤȤƵ󤲤 I hereby insult you that you're a stupid cow. ȤʸͤƤߤ褦ʸỤ̄Ūˤʤ̾ȯäȤƤϤʤԼǤ롥Ūˤʸε餢롥ˡŪ˱ƤȤʬοư줬ֱĤ (lie) ֶ (threaten) ʤɤʸƤߤȤɤޤޤʸΤԼΩäƤ롥ˡƤư줬ʹ꤬ΤꤹˡϤΤȤ⤢롥
β1970ǯ󵯤줿1980ǯʹߡ̣줾Ω줫꤬Ŧ졤ȽƤǤ˲βȸäƤ褤Ȼפ뤬Ƭ˵󤲤̿פʤɡοư˴ؤƤϡʷŪȤƻȤΤ⤷ʤʾ塤Huang (97--98) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-24-1]

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2016-12-12 Mon

#2786. 칽¤Ͽ --- WALS Online [web_service][syntax][evolution][typology][word_order]

The World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS Online) ȤȤ롥¿θ͡ʴ鵭Ҥǡ١˴ŤŪʬۤϿ޾˥ץåȤƤ뵡ǽͭġǤ롥ʲؤʪȤ󶡤Ƥꡤʲؤ෿ˤ׸ǡ١ȤʤäƤ롥
ǤŪμ˭٤ǡ֡졤ä¿ˤ錄롥ɽ򥯥åƤȤǡñʬۿޤɽƤȤͥΤȤ߹碌ʬۿޤ򼨤ȤǤ֤شطõΤˤŬƤ롥㤨СVO/OV ֻ (adposition) ؤˤĤơFeature 83A 85A Ȥ߹碌ȡʬۿ롥ĤȲФΥޡΩĤĤܸ췿ΡOV礫ĸֻѡפ򼨤졤ФϱѸ췿ΡVO礫ֻѡפ򼨤Ǥ롥Ʊ褦 VO/OV NA/AN (Feature 83A 87A) Ȥ߹碌Ͽޤɽ뤳ȤǤˡʤ2Ĥϡ̾Ųؤ濴Ȥ븦ԤˤǤ줿ʸˡѲȸ٤Τʤμ㻳ʸǻȤ졤ƤΤǤ롥
ñΤǡ뤤Ȥ߹碌ǻʤͷ٤WALS Online ϡܥ֥Ǥϡ#1887. ˤͤݤ4Ĥλ ([2014-06-27-1]) Ǥ⿨ƤΤǡȤ

㻳 ָѲˤ޲ѿƯסʸˡѲȸ Ƿ ľ֡ ʹ𡦻¼ ͡ԡˡҡ294--308.

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2016-09-19 Mon

#2702. Jane does nothing but watch TV. watch ϸ줫 [infinitive][preposition][conjunction][contamination][syntax][but]

913դǷǼĤɸμ䤬󤻤줿Jane does nothing but watch TV. He does something more than just put things together. Τ褦ʸ˸2ܤư watch put ϸäƤ뤬ϸȹͤ٤ʤΤȤǤ롥
ѸǤϡ (bare infinitive) 礭ʬ4δĶǸ롥1ĤϡưγưʤɤŪ˸³ΤǡThey made her pay for the damage. The crow saw Gray score two magnificent goals. तǤ롥ҤȤĤϡʬʸ䤽˽ऺ빽ʸˤ What the plan does is ensure a fair pension for all. Turn off the tap was all I did. ʤɤʸ˸롥ˡI had said he would come down and come down he did. Τ褦ʷ֤ʸʤɤˤ⸫롥Ǹˡɽ魯ֻ (but, except) ˸³ She did everything but make her bed. Τ褦Ѥ (Quirk et al. 15.15; Biber et al. 11.2.2.3)
ɸμ˴ϢΤϡκǸˡΤȤǤ롥but, except ֻ³Ȥ¾ˤüʿ񤤤򼨤ɤΤ褦ʬϤ٤Ͻפ̡Ūˤϸ줬³üֻȤ򤷤Ƥ⤦1Ĥ (more) than ѤʸˤĤƤ⡤ֽ̣פǤϤʤbut, except ʿŪˤȤ館줬³ֻ˶ᤤΤȹͤƤI would rather [sooner] die than disgrace myself. Τ褦ʸ⻲ȡˡˡϢ I intend to build the boat as well as plan it. ʤɤ碌ƹθ
but, except ˤĤƤϡֻ̾Τ褦˿񤦤ȤǤ㤨 He does everything in the house but [except] putting the children to bed. Τ褦˸ư̾򽾤뤳ȤǤ롥ޤĤto 򽾤⤢ꡤNothing remains but to die. I have no choice [alternative] but to agree. ʤɤ⤢Τǡ䤳
θ˴ؤ뿶񤤤ü԰ϡbut, except ֻŪˤ³ˤѤ뤳ȤȴϢ˰㤤ʤŪˤϤɤΤ褦ʷаޤǤΤ褦ʹ¤ƤΤܤĴ٤Ƥʤʸ contamination ƤΤǤϤʤ롥#737. ʸ contamination ([2011-05-04-1]) ˵󤲤 (4) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.

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2016-08-17 Wed

#2669. ѸܸʸˡˤĬή [japanese][periodisation][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][syntax]

ˤˤʬˤĤƤϡperiodisation γƵǼ夲ƤѸˤ˴ؤƤСűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹʸޤˤ3ʬˡĹ餯ԤʤƤʸˡˤȤѸˤΤ3ʬˡ褦ȤʤС1ĤˤϰĸͳζޤɤΤ餤ݻƤ뤫뤤ϾüƤ뤫Ȥ٤롥ˤꡤűѸ = full inflection, Ѹ = levelled inflection, Ѹ = lost inflection ζʬ롥2ܤˡϢư뤫ǡŪˤʬ (synthesis_to_analysis) ؤĬήѻ졤μ٤ˤäơűѸ = syntheticѸ = synthetic/analyticѸ = analytic Ȥʬ롥ξ⡤ѸϲϴȤŪʰ֤ŤȤʤ롥
ơܸʸˡˤˤĤƤϡѸʸˡˤ˸褦礭Ĭή䡤ʬ벿餫δϤΤ (81--83) ˤСܸʸˡˤˤ³ؤ礭ή줬ǧ졤μ٤ˤäơ³ͥθ塤³ͥζ3ʬȤδơλħ⤹ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥

ŷĤκīޤʸˤ³δطŪɽ̤˽ФƤꡤŪط΢̤तƤ롥³δطϡīä˷Ӥˤäɽ蘆ƤꡤʿīޤǤ¿ͲϤ
ĮƬǯ֤ޤʸˤ³δطŪطƤ롥Ǥ³ƤǡŪˤʤΤͤ줿ήʸΩħϤι˸ˤߤ롥
±ǯ֤鸽ߤޤʸˤŪطŪɽ̤˽ФƤꡤ³δط΢̤तƤ롥


(85) θդܸʸˡˤ礭ĬήޤȤСָ³δطۤŪط΢̲ϲŪξԤؤä졤ϸȵդδطˤʤäסʸʸεΤϿΤˤʤƤˡäȸСӤο򼴤ȤʸˡˤȤȤˤʤ
ʾ夫顤Ѹʸˡˤ϶ޤο򼴤Ȥ礫ʬϤؤĬήܸʸˡˤϷӤο򼴤Ȥ³ططؤĬήŤߤǤ롥

ҡʸˡˤλʬסعء221955ǯ79--87ǡ

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