
6˳ҤǤ줿ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲˤĤơǤ˲٤Ҳ𤷤Ƥޤ6̾θԤγơ15--20γαʸˡӤѲˤĤƼɮȤˡʹܤǤ
ܽ1ϡ15ʸˡŪʸŪѲפμɮô줿ҸĻرءȡVoicy heldio Ǥ̤¸ޤá15ȤΤŪʱѸˤλʬǤѸκǸΤǤϡȻפäϱԤǤΤˤ̤ʤΤǤ̤İƤС15ѸȤߤª뤳Ȥɬ̵ʤȤǤϤʤʬϤǤޤ#817. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- ҸȤ̡İ40ʬĶβۿǤˡ
伫Ȥ⡤Ҹ̤ޤǤϡ15αѸϤޤ Chaucer ɽ14αѸ³ˤʤȤ٤ǧǤȤäΤǤפ㤤ä褦ǤѸؤȤơѸ˾塤ˡǽפʻǤ뤳ȤʬäƤޤ15αѸ˴ؿƤߤޤǽ˼˼٤ϡ̤κǸˤ⤢ä褦ˡThomas Malory ˤ Le Morte Darthur إλ٤Ǥ͡Arthur νˡ
ʬˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ periodisation ΥΤĤ¿εǼ夲ƤޤΤǡҤɤ߲
ơ⤷ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ٤ˤĤƤϡޤ YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥסhellog, heldio ʤɤγƥǥǾҲ𤷤ƤޤʲꤴȤ
YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥפ#137. ʸˡ18λȳ̿ٹ뤬طʤ---λܻҤʱѸ졦Ѹ˸ԡˤ---
hellog #5166. ¼ԡˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ʳҡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-06-19-1])
hellog #5167. ʤ18˵ʸˡήԤäΤǤ ([2023-06-20-1])
hellog #5182. ʸܤȿС ([2023-07-05-1])
hellog #5186. Voicy heldio ˽¼о --- ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ٤ˤĤƤäޤ ([2023-07-09-1])
hellog #5208. ս17αʸˡˤĤ̤ޤ ([2023-07-31-1])
hellog #5224. 滳19αʸˡˤĤ̤ޤ ([2023-08-16-1])
heldio #769. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- ¼Ȥ̡
heldio #772. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- 16αѸᤰʡȤ̡
heldio #790. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- սȤ̡
heldio #806. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- 滳Ȥ̡
heldio #817. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- ҸȤ̡
¼ԡˡҸ סʡ ҡ滳 ü ¼ˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ҡ2023ǯ

6˳ҤѸʸˡѲ˾ƤضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲǤޤ¼Ļر̾ˤˤǤ6̾θԤγơ15--20γαʸˡӤѲˤĤƼɮƤޤ
Τӡܽ5ϡ19ʸˡŪʸŪѲפμɮô줿滳ʿؤۤȡVoicy heldio Ǥ̤¸ޤ19ϡѸΤߤȸ˶ᤤǤΤǡۤ礭ʰ㤤ϤʤȻפ줬ǤΤ˸ѸɤΤǤ19αѸ⤪褽ɤƤޤȤΤϻ¤Ǥ餳ʰ㤤ᤴƤޤ礭ʸ˴٤äƤޤΤǤƤˡȤˤϤޤʤ褦տռŪʴѻɬפȤȤˤʤޤդλ19αѸȤˤİޤ#806. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- 滳Ȥ̡Ǥɤİ褯27ʬۤɤβۿǤˡ
滳ȤϡޤǤ2 heldio ̤ԤʤۿƤޤ
#803. 滳ˤȤäƱѸȤϲǤ --- ֱѸϡǤ״δϢ̲2023/08/12 ۿ
#323. 滳Ȥ̡singular "they" 19Ǥ̤˻ȤƤ (2022/04/19 ۿ)
⤷ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ٤ˤĤƤϡǤ YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥסhellog, heldio ʤɤγƥǥǾҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡʲꤴȤйǤ
YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥפ#137. ʸˡ18λȳ̿ٹ뤬طʤ---λܻҤʱѸ졦Ѹ˸ԡˤ---
hellog #5166. ¼ԡˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ʳҡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-06-19-1])
hellog #5167. ʤ18˵ʸˡήԤäΤǤ ([2023-06-20-1])
hellog #5182. ʸܤȿС ([2023-07-05-1])
hellog #5186. Voicy heldio ˽¼о --- ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ٤ˤĤƤäޤ ([2023-07-09-1])
hellog #5208. ս17αʸˡˤĤ̤ޤ ([2023-07-31-1])
heldio #769. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- ¼Ȥ̡
heldio #772. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- 16αѸᤰʡȤ̡
heldio #790. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- սȤ̡
heldio #806. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- 滳Ȥ̡
¼ԡˡҸ סʡ ҡ滳 ü ¼ˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ҡ2023ǯ
¾ư (transitivity) ˤĤơ2ˤ錄äƤ
#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1])
#5204. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (2) [2023-07-27-1]
Bussmann (494--95) Ѹ켭ŵ transitivity ιѤ롥
Valence property of verbs which require a direct object, e.g. read, see, hear. Used more broadly, verbs which govern other objects (e.g. dative, genitive) can also be termed 'transitive'; while only verbs which have no object at all (e.g. sleep, rain) would be intransitive. Hopper and Thompson (1980) introduce other factors of transitivity in the framework of universal grammar, which result in a graduated concept of transitivity. In addition to the selection of a direct object, other semantic roles as well as the properties of adverbials, mood, affirmation vs negation, and aspect play a role. A maximally transitive sentence contains a non-negated resultive verb in the indicative which requires at least a subject and direct object; the verb complements function as agent and affected object, are definite and animate . . . . Using data from various languages, Hopper and Thompson demonstrate that each of the factors listed above as affecting transitivity is important for making transivtivity through case, adpositions, or verbal inflection. Thus in many languages (e.g. Lithuanian, Polish, Middle High German) affirmation vs negation correlates with the selection of case for objects in such a way that in affirmative sentences the object is usually in the accusative, while in negated sentences the object of the same verb occurs in the genitive or in another oblique case.
¾ưȤϡ(1) ǡǤ뤳ȡ(2) ˤäƤζˡ͡Ǥ뤳ȡʬäƤŪˤϡгŪ᤹롤̤ɽ魯ľˡιư줬¤ "transitive" ǤȤȤ
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

6˳ҤѸʸˡѲ˾ƤضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲǤޤ¼Ļر̾ˤˤǤ6̾θԤγơ15--20γαʸˡӤѲˤĤƼɮƤޤ
Τӡܽ3ϡ17ʸˡŪʸŪѲפμɮô줿սءȡVoicy heldio Ǥ̤¸ޤ17ϱѸ˾̣ʻǤϤޤ¤ѲʹԤƤפǤȤ˼夲뤳ȤʤǤΤǡ̤ϤषŤǤ#790. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- սȤ̡İ21ʬۤɤβۿǤˡ
κǸ17˺ʤǤ~פŪǤ͡
ܽˤĤƤϡǤ YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥסhellog, heldio ʤɤγƥǥǾҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡ⤴ȤйǤ
YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥפ#137. ʸˡ18λȳ̿ٹ뤬طʤ---λܻҤʱѸ졦Ѹ˸ԡˤ---
hellog #5166. ¼ԡˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ʳҡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-06-19-1])
hellog #5167. ʤ18˵ʸˡήԤäΤǤ ([2023-06-20-1])
hellog #5182. ʸܤȿС ([2023-07-05-1])
hellog #5186. Voicy heldio ˽¼о --- ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ٤ˤĤƤäޤ ([2023-07-09-1])
heldio #769. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- ¼Ȥ̡
heldio #772. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- 16αѸᤰʡȤ̡
heldio #790. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- սȤ̡
¼ԡˡҸ סʡ ҡ滳 ü ¼ˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ҡ2023ǯ
#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1]) Ұ³¾ư (transitivity) ˤĤơ
Halliday εǽʸˡˤȡ¾ưͤݤˤ3ĤΥѥפȤʤ롥 (process)Ϳ (participant) (circumstance) 3ĤΤȤ櫓 (process) ŪʥѥȤʤ롥
ֲפȾΤΤˤ礭3Ĥμब롥˾3Ĥμबդ롥줾ȡʪŪ (material)Ū (mental)طŪ (relational) Ū (behavioural), Ū (verbal), ¸Ū (existential) 6Ȥʤ롥
Transitivity A term used mainly in systemic functional linguistics to refer to the system of grammatical choices available in language for representing actions, events, experiences and relationships in the world . . . .
There are three components in a transitivity process: the process type (the process or state represented by the verb phrase in a clause), the participant(s) (people, things or concepts involved in a process or experiencing a state) and the circumstance (elements augmenting the clause, providing information about extent, location, manner, cause, contingency and so on). So in the clause 'Mary and Jim ate fish and chips on Friday', the process is represented by 'ate', the participants are 'Mary and Jim' and the circumstances are 'on Friday'.
Halliday and Mtthiesen (2004) identify three main process types, material, mental and relational, and three minor types, behavioural, verbal and existential. Associated with each process are certain kinds of participants. 1) Material processes refer to actions and events. The verb in a material process clause is usually a 'doing' word . . .: Elinor grabbed a fire extinguisher; She kicked Marina. Participants in material processes include actor ('Elinor', 'she') and goal ('a fire extinguisher', 'Marina'). 2) Metal processes refer to states of mind or psychological experiences. The verb in a mental process clause is usually a mental verb: I can't remember his name; Our party believes in choice. Participants in mental processes include senser(s) ('I'; 'our party') and phenomenon ('his name'; 'choice'). 3) Relational processes commonly ascribe an attribute to an entity, or identify it: Something smells awful in here; My name is Scruff. The verb in a relational processes include token ('something', 'my name')) and value ('Scruff', 'awful'). 4) Behavioural processes are concerned with the behaviour of a participant who is a conscious entity. They lie somewhere between material and mental processes. The verb in a behavioural process clause is usually intransitive, and semantically it refers to a process of consciousness or a physiological state: Many survivors are sleeping in the open; The baby cried. The participant in a behavioral process is called a behaver. 5) Verbal processes are processes of verbal action: 'Really?', said Septimus Coffin; He told them a story about a gooseberry in a lift. Participants in verbal processes include sayer ('Septimus Coffin', 'he'), verbiage ('really', 'a story') an recipient ('them'). 6) Existential processes report the existence of someone or something. Only one participant is involved in an existential process: the existent. There are two main grammatical forms for this type of process: existential there as subject + copular verb (There are thousands of examples.); and existent as subject + copular verb (Maureen was at home.)
ϡưˤƤȤ櫓Ūʰ̣ط6ӼäΤȤäƤ褤ůŪˤСΥѥɤޤǺŪʸ쥫ƥΤʬʤͤĤǤ롥
ǽʸˡŪˤ̤Ȥơֲפ졤ˤС¾ưפ٤ޤäƤ롤ȤȤˤʤäƤ롥¾ưȤϤŪʳǰѸǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʸѡʸˡѤȤߤФƤȯۤǤ뤳ȤΤäƤ
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
ؿѸؼŵ (1267) ˤȡ¾ư (transitivity) Halliday ʸˡˤѸǡˡ (mood) ȼ (theme) ȤȤ Halliday ʸˡˤ3Ĥ礭η֤롥¾ưȤϡ¾ư (transitive verb) ȼư (intransitive verb) ζ̤б복ǰȤ⡤ष˻ͿǴ֤ΡִͿפȤȤ館ۤŬڤ
㤨 Sir Chirstopher Wren built this bridge. ȤäŵŪ SVO ʸˤƤϡټԡɸ3Ԥߤ˴ͿäƤꡤ¾ưŪǤȤ롥ñŵŪˤʤĤλͿԤɤΤ褦˴ͿäƤ뤫Υѥ͡ǤꡤʬƤȺǽŪˤϰĤҤȤĤθ̶Ūʲ̤ʤФʤʤʤκʬμ٤ delicacy ȸƤǤ롥¾ưϡäơư줬Ĥι뤫Ȥ䡤ʸˡˤʸפȤϢƤ롥
ʸˡ˰Ĥƹͤ뤿ˡCrystal θؼŵ transitivity ơȤȤƤ
transitivity (n.) A category used in the grammatical analysis of clause/sentence constructions, with particular reference to the verb's relationship to dependent elements of structure. The main members of this category are transitive (tr, trans), referring to a verb which can take a direct object (as in he saw the dog), and intransitive (intr, intrans), where it cannot (as in *he arrived a ball). Many verbs can have both a transitive and an intransitive use (cf. we went a mile v. we went), and in some languages this distinction is marked morphologically. More complex relationships between a verb and the elements dependent upon it are usually classified separately. For example, verbs which take two objects are sometimes called ditransitive (as opposed to monotransitive), as in she gave me a pencil. There are also several uses of verbs which are marginal to one or other of these categories, as in pseudo-intranstive constructions (e.g. the eggs are selling well, where an agent is assumed --- 'someone is selling the eggs' --- unlike normal intransitive constructions, which do not have an agent transform: we went, but not *someone went us). Some grammarians also talk about (in)transitive prepositions. For example, with is a transitive preposition, as it must always be accompanied by a noun phrase complement (object), and along can be transitive or intransitive: cf. She arrived with a dog v. *She arrived with and She was walking along the river v. She was walking along.
¾ưˤĤƤϡͤƤ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
6˳ҤѸʸˡѲ˾ƤҤǤޤضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ٤Ǥ¼Ļر̾ˤԼԤ̳졤¾6̾θԤɮ˲ääƤޤܽˤĤƤϡǤˤΥ֥ YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥפǾҲ𤹤뵡ޤ
hellog #5166. ¼ԡˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ʳҡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-06-19-1])
hellog #5167. ʤ18˵ʸˡήԤäΤǤ ([2023-06-20-1])
hellog #5182. ʸܤȿС ([2023-07-05-1])
YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥפ#137. ʸˡ18λȳ̿ٹ뤬طʤ---λܻҤʱѸ졦Ѹ˸ԡˤ---
ΤӡܽᤰäԼԤν¼Ȥ̤뵡˷äޤޤ̤ͻҤϡī Voicy ֱͥѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤ#769. ضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ --- ¼Ȥ̡ȤۿƤޤΤ27ʬۤɤȤʤäƤޤ֤ΤȤˤäꤪİС
ǥץ5ץˤǤϡ̼Ͽˤäܽɽ沼Υӥå٥μ̿ˤĤƤεŤäҲ𤷤Ƥޤ
ҶѸʸˡѲˤĤƴؿƤС

¼ԡˡҸ סʡ ҡ滳 ü ¼ˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ҡ2023ǯ
ѸʸˡѲˤĤƥѥѤƼ¾Ū˸椷ͽҤǤޤѸʬΰdzƤ7̾Ҹᡤʡᡤսᡤܻһᡤ滳ᡤüᡤ¼ˤˤҤǤԤꤴܤޤͳ˴פޤ

ܤκħϡƾϤ15--20γͻϰϤȤƤ뤳ȤǤܤȾиꤵƤꡤ¬ȤʤäƤΤǤΤȤ줿̻ŪθȤʤäƤޤ֤ϤפƬ˼Τ褦ˤޤ (v)
ܽ϶Ѹ1500--PresentˤˤʸˡŪʸŪѲˤĤƥѥλѤˤ¾ŪǤ롥
ޤDZѸˤεҤˤ̤˽Ҥ٤뤳ȤϤޤʤä褦˻פ롥ҤȤĤˤϤۤȤɤθѲǤ뤿ᡤεҤȤ롥ʤ顤ʸػˤʤɤǤ̤Ϥ̤Ǥ㤨СOxford History of English Literature 12 volumesˡΤȤ⤢äƤѸˤˤƤǶ Kytö et al. (2006), Mair (2006) ʤɤǤ졤줾1920αѸˤѲħ˾ƤƤ롥
ܽǤ϶Ѹˤ嵭Τ褦ѲϢ³ȳħª뤿ˡʲɮԤδ֤Ƕͭ
1. ƤμɮԤ϶̹ܡư졤ˡʸˤĤƽҤ٤롥
2. ʳιܤǡħȹͤʸˡŪʸŪѲˤĤƽҤ٤롥
3. ŻҥѥƥȤäơ¾Ū˵Ҥ롥
Ѹˤλʬ (periodisation) ˤĤƤϡǶǤϡ#5140. ֱѸˤλʬ֤ο֤ ([2023-05-24-1]) Ǽ夲ʤɤ伫ȤĹ餯ͤƤޤָűѸפֶѸפʤɤȥ٥ŽΤǤϤʤäѤñ̤ڤ롤뤤ϸڤȤΤϳΤ˰ŪǤϤޤǤCurzan (33) Ҥ٤褦ˡ٥ΩԤñ̤褦Ǥ츫̵ʻʬΤ褦ǤơषɤޤϢ³ռȤ̤ΤǤϤʤǤ礦
ܽǤϥѥѤŪǼ¾Ūʸ椬Ҳ𤵤Ƥꡤʬ椹並ԤˤϡˡޤľܻͤˤʤޤޤʸˡѲʸѲȤäƤⰷ٤¿ˤ錄ΤǤƾϤǤϳαѸͻǤȤ櫓פʹܤФƤꡤؤͭѤǤ
ǽϤΤΤޤȤȤʤäƤꡤäƾϤΤ̤ʬ줿Τľ졤ɤλ볦äꤷޤʸ⽼¤ƤꡤѸ鸽˻ޤǤʸˡѲ˴ؿΤˤϡҼ˼äƤ餤ǤȻפޤ
Ԥΰܻ͡ҤĻرءˤˤޤƤϡܽνǤˤµ줿ȤܤޤᤷߤǤäѤǤ̽ʡꤤޤ
¼ԡˡҸ סʡ ҡ滳 ü ¼ˡضѸˤʸˡŪʸŪѲ١ҡ2023ǯ
Curzan, Anne. "Periodization in the History of the English Language." Chapter 12 of The History of English. 1st vol. Historical Outlines from Sound to Text. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 8--35.
khelfʷѸ˥եˤ褷ŸƤֱѸ˥ƥ50⡤ĤĤޤkhelf СѸ˥ƥĤ1ĤĥָƤǤ
ǶΥƥĤΤʤǤ褯ƤΤ1ľҲ𤷤ޤ526˸줿#35. ֶĴʸαѸ ~ "It ARE John and Anne that are married."ϥꡪ ~Ǥ
ĴʸȸƤФ칽¤ϡѸؤǤϡʬʸ (cleft_sentence) ȤƸڤޤƥĤǤϤʬʸˤΰüƤޤȤ櫓ΰ (number agreement) ᤰ˾ƤƤޤ

ƥĤδˤϡϢؤΥĥƤޤʬʸ˴ؤ hellog ȤƤϡʲƤޤ
#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1])
#2442. Ĵʸȯã --- ŪݤŪǽء ([2016-01-03-1])
#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1])
#4595. Ĵʸ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2021-11-25-1])
#4785. It is ... that ... ζĴʸθűѸ줫 ([2022-06-03-1])
#5139. Ѹˤˤơ֥ȸ첾פ꺻Ƥ ([2023-05-23-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ܤ1Ĥ "Lack of external possessor construction" 롥ѸˤϡֳŪͭ¤פ礱Ƥꡤ§ȤơŪͭ¤ (internal possessor construction) ΤߤȤ롥ơԤħϥȽȤθܿˤäͶ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ⤬Ƥ롥
Ūͭ¤Ȥ my head Τ褦ˡ°ʡʽͭʡˤˤľ̾ƽͭط¤ΤȤǤ롥Ūͭ¤Ȥϡ*the head to me Τ褦ɽˤߤ褦ˡŵŪˤͿʤˤŪ̾̾γ¦ͭط¤ΤȤǤ롥
ѸǤŪͭ¤§űѸǤϤषŪͭ¤ߤ줿㤨СHickey (499) ϸűѻ Poem of Judith ʲƤ롥
þæt him þæt heafod wand forð on ða flore
lit.: that him-DATIVE that head ...
'that his head rolled forth on the floor'
űѸ˸¤餺¿Υ衼åѤνǤϡŪͭ¤ޤƤХ졤ϥ졤ޥ륿ʤɤǤ⳰Ūͭ¤ѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ƥ衼åŪʸħȤߤʤȤǤ롥
ε㳰ѸǤꡤ륺ǤꡤȤΥꥹʬۤʤ˾θǤϡŪͭ¤ޤ롥¾Ūͭ¤ΤϡΥ줿衼åѤγǤꡤȥ륳쥺ʥե1ġˤˤߤ뤬ȥꥹν줬طƤȤϹͤˤĤޤꡤѸ졤륺졤Ūͭ¤ȤŪ˸ΩƤΤǤ롥
ơѸˤˤƤϾ嵭ǼȤꡤűѸǤϳŪͭ¤ѤƤŪͭ¤ؤȰؤаޤ롥˥륺䥳ʤɥȽˤߤ줿Ūͭ¤Ѹνͭ¤˱ƶڤܤǽ夹롥
Hickey (500) ϡββΤ褦äƤ롥
This transfer did not affect the existence of a possessor construction, but it changed the exponence of the category, a frequent effect of language contact, especially in language shift situations.
#5134. ưμʼ ([2023-05-18-1]) ǤСξ "transfer" "Rearrangement" ˳Τ̣ǤϤ롥
Hickey, Raymond. "Early English and the Celtic Hypothesis." Chapter 38 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. New York: OUP, 2012. 497--507.
Ѹˤˤ֥ȸ첾 (celtic_hypothesis) ˤĤơޤǤĤεǼ夲Ƥ
#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])
#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1])
#1342. ظƶؤȽ ([2012-12-29-1])
#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1])
#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1])
#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1])
#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1])
#4528. ꥹμϰ˻Ĥ3Ĥȯ ([2021-09-19-1])
#4595. Ĵʸ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2021-11-25-1])
#5129. ʹԷ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2023-05-13-1])
ǯΡ֥ȸ첾פǤϡʼ˸ðʳΡθबȽ줫ѸذưǽˤĤƸƤʤƤHickey (505) ˤꥱȸαƶ꺻ƤƤߤ褦ƹܤˤĤơܤƤϰ衦Ѽʸ˸륿ߥʤɤϥХХǤ뤳ȡޤܿˤ餺ŪװΤߤ⤷Τ뤳ȤʤɡɤˤդɬפǤ롥
Table 3. Possible transfer features from Celtic (Brythonic) to English
1. Lack of external possessor construction Morphosyntactic 2 Twofold paradigm of to be 3. Progressive verb forms 4. Periphrastic do 5. Northern subject rule 6. Retention of dental fricatives Phonological 7. Unrounding of front vowels
1 ϡѸ My head is sore. Τ褦Τ̤ʤɤ˴ؤƽͭʤɽThe head is sore. Τ褦˴Ѥʤˡؤ
2 ϡűѸʼ˥ȥˤˤ be ư줬첻뤤 s- ǻϤޤȡb- ǻϤޤ2ηʻ¸Ƥؤ
3 ϡ#5129. ʹԷ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2023-05-13-1]) ȡ
4 ϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1]) ȡ
5 ϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ȡ
6 ϡth = [θ] ȤŪʻҲޤǻĤäƤ¤ؤ
7 ϡűѸ˱߿첻 [y, ø] äȤؤ
Hickey ΰꥹȤˤĤƤϡ#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϢơVoicy heldio #715. ȸ첾ɤ
Hickey, Raymond. "Early English and the Celtic Hypothesis." Chapter 38 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. New York: OUP, 2012. 497--507.
ܿ (contact) ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) δؤˤĤơHeine and Kuteva ʸϢȤƤ롥¿ΰˤϡ줬ܵν°³ȤƤѤȤħ롥㤨СѸľܵʸ Who came? Фơܵʸ I don't know who came. ʤɤǧ뤬ǤƱ who ѤƤ롥ħϡѸˤȤɤޤ餺 Ȥ "Standard Average European" ȸƤФפʰ²θ췲ˤǧ롥Ūˤϡ²ǹͭƤ롤²ȤƤħȹͤ롥
̣ȤˡħϡŪܤƹԤʤƤˤѻ롥Ĥޤꡤǻ̩ʸܿФƤȤܤˤơ줬ܵν°³ȤƤѤȤΤϡˤΩǤϤʤȤθܿ (trigger) ȤʤäʸˡǤ뤳Ȥ롥
Heine and Kuteva (95) ϡԸȤĤļΤ褦ʻƤ롥
a. Basque on the model of Spanish, Gascon, and French . . . .
b. Balkan Turkish on the model of Balkanic languages . . . .
c. the North Arawak language Tariana of northwestern Brazil on the model of Portuguese . . . .
d. the Aztecan language Pipil of El Salvador on the model of Spanish . . . .
줬¤ǤСֿܿʡ (propel) ʸˡλȤȤˤʤ
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
ABؤबư뤳Ȥ "linguistic transfer" ʸưˤȸƤǤܿ (contact) ˤˤ˵븽ݤǤꡤŵŪʸ1Ĥμ (borrowing) Ǥ롥ǤϤʤΰ̣ự (semantic_borrowing) ⤢СŪñ̤طư⤢롥ǡηϡˤΰưŪܤΰư⤢뤫⤷ʤ "linguistic transfer" ȤäƤ⡤ʼबΤ
Heine and Kuteva (87) ϡ5θưǧƤ롥
a. form, that is, sounds or combinations of sounds,
b. meanings (including grammatical meanings) or combinations of meanings,
c. form-meaning units,
d. syntactic relations, that is, the order of meaningful elements,
e. any combination of (a) through (d).
ΰưȼ a c ϡʿСּѡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥b d ϲΰưȼʤưǤꡤԸˤʤäơʣ (replication) ȸƤǤ绨ĤˤСѤϤŪʹܤΰưǡʣϤŪʹܤΰưǤ롥ʤߤ e Ϥ٤ƤΤäѤǤ롥θưϡճȤ狼䤹ȻפäƤ롥
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
ɸ¿αѸؽԤȤΤ뵿ǤϤʤǤ礦
ܲ khelfʷѸ˥եˤǤֱѸ˥ƥ50褬ŤƤޤ413Ϥơkhelf СˤѸ˥ƥĤ1ĤĸƤƤޤƥĸ khelf θĥå @khelf_keio ⤪Τ餻ƤޤΤǡҥեޥȤƤѤ
ơɸεˤĤ422˸줿ƥ#9. ʤ be going to ̤̣ΡҲ𤷤ޤ

ˡΥƥĤ heldio ǤޤƥĺԤȤ̤ȤǡѤʵäƤޤ#711. ʤ be going to ̤̣ΡȤۿƤޤҤİ
ƥĤǤǤƤ褦ˡɤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤѸ˸Ǥ˽פʳǰѸǤΤǡܤƤܥ֥Ǥ¿εǼ夲ƤΤǡĤƤߤޤ
#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1])
#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1])
#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1])
#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1])
#3281. Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡܼ ([2018-04-21-1])
#5124 Oxford Bibliographies ˤʸˡγס ([2023-05-08-1])
Ȥ櫓 be going to ˴ؤʸˡεȴϢơʲȡ
#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])
#3272. ʸˡ2ĤΥᥫ˥ ([2018-04-12-1])
#4844. ̤ɽȯѥ ([2022-08-01-1])
#3273. Lehman ˤʸˡμ١6 ([2018-04-13-1])
ʸˡ˴ؤȤƤϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ݺƻͺʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˤǤ
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
#4595. Ĵʸ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2021-11-25-1]) ǻȤ Filppula and Klemola ʸɤƤ롥ƱʸǤϡѸˤ be + -ing ΡֿʹԷ (progressive form) ȯãʤλѸȤˤؤΥȸαƶˤΤǤϤʤȤ֥ȸ첾 (celtic_hypothesis) Ƥ롥
ޤ̣¤ȤơΥȷǹԤʤƤѸѼǤϡɸѸϤ˿ʹԷѤȤŪˤ Irish English, Welsh English, Hebridean English, Manx English ˤơɸŪˤϿʹԷˤȤư줬ФпʹԷѤ뤳ȡưưʹԷˤ뤳Ȥˤ꽬꤬뤳ȡwould used (to) ˿ʹԷ³Ūưɽ蘆뤳ȡdo will ˿ʹԷ³ˡߤ뤳Ȥ𤵤Ƥ롥Filppula and Klemola (212--14) ꡤ줾ʸ
There was a lot about fairies long ago [...] but I'm thinkin' that most of 'em are vanished.
I remember my granfather and old people that lived down the road here, they be all walking over to the chapel of a Sunday afternoon and they be going again at night.
But they, I heard my father and uncle saying they used be dancing there long ago, like, you know.
Yeah, that's, that's the camp. Military camp they call it [...] They do be shooting there couple of times a week or so.
ϸΥѼαѸ˸ʹԷ¿ѤȤݤΤǤꡤ¤ȤƼ롥ȸ첾ϡѸˤʹԷȯãΤΤؤΥȸαƶˤΤȤȤԤȸԤܤƤ¦̤ۤʤäƤ뤳ȤդǤ⡤Filppula and Klemola (218--19) ϡ5Ĥʤ顤ȸ첾ٻʰ PF "progressive forms" ؤˡ
(i) Of all the suggested parallels to the English PF, the Celtic (Brythonic) ones are clearly the closest, and hence, the most plausible ones, whether one think of the OE periphrastic constructions or those established in the ME and modern periods, involving the -ing form of verbs. This fact has not been given due weight in some of the earlier work on this subject.
(ii) The chronological precedence of the Celtic constructions is beyond any reasonable doubt, which also enhances the probability of contact influence from Celtic on English.
(iii) The socio-historical circumstances of the Celtic-English interface cannot have constituted an obstacle to Celtic substratum influences in the area of grammar, as has traditionally been argued especially on the basis of the research (and some of the earlier, too) has shown that the language shift situation in the centuries following the settlement of the Germanic tribes in Britain was most conductive to such influences. Again, this aspect has been ignored or not properly understood in some of the research which has tried to play down the role of Celtic influence in the history of English.
(iv) The Celtic-English contacts in the modern period have resulted in a similar tendency for some regional varieties of English to make extensive use of the PF, which lends indirect support to the Celtic hypothesis with regard to early English.
(v) Continuous tenses tend to be used more in bilingual or formerly Celtic-speaking areas than in other parts of the country . . . .
ȸ첾Ϥǯδ֤ŪȤʤäƤޤɤβˤȤɤޤȤäƤ褤ŪʱѸ˵Ҥ˰ФꤸܿνܤƤ줿Ǥϡس˹ƤɾǤ롥
Filppula, Markku and Juhani Klemola. "English in Contact: Celtic and Celtic Englishes." Chapter 107 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1687--1703.
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϡޤؤμפΰƤ롥ϸˡ˸ءѲʸ̮鸽ƤǰߤǤǧθؤ䥳ѥؤȤӤĤʸˡˤưĬήƤ롥ʸˡζŪϡ̣ǥСΤ¿ΤΡФвˡʤɳƼ̤ؤϤ߽ФƤΤạ̇̄Ǥ1ĤθؤȤߤʤƤ褤ۤɤǤ롥
Oxford Bibliographies ϡʬȤŪ˥åץǡȤĤľҲ𤷤Ƥפʥ "Grammaticalization" ιܤΩƤƤ롥D. Gary Miller Elly van Gelderen ˤǡǽ2016ǯǽӥ塼2022ǯȤʤäƤ롥ʸ˥ˤϥ֥饤֤ɬפǤ롥ǤϡA4ǰ13ڡۤɤˤ錄Ƭʬ "Introduction" ΤߤѤƤ *
The essence of grammaticalization is the evolution of a lexical category to a grammatical one or of a hybrid/functional category to another grammatical category. The first involves changes such as that of the verb have from "possess" to the marker of the perfect tense. The second involves changes such as that of to from a preposition (a hybrid category in English) to an infinitive marker or such as that of a demonstrative (e.g., the Latin ille 'that') to a definite article (the Italian il, the Spanish el, and so on). These changes have attracted attention for hundreds of years and are very well known. More recently, additional conditions and stipulations have been placed on this leading idea, but the essence remains the same.
Oxford Bibliographies ξҲ𥷥 hellog Ȥơʲ⻲ȡ
#4631. Oxford Bibliographies ˤ̣Ѳγס ([2021-12-31-1])
#4634. Oxford Bibliographies ˤѸ˸ˡ ([2022-01-03-1]) ⻲ȡ
#4742. Oxford Bibliographies ˤѲγס ([2022-04-21-1])
ε#5062. ֻŪפˤСֻ (preposition) ̾줢뤤̾ۤΤȤ롥Τˤϡ̾ (noun phrase) ۤȤäƤΤ褤ºݤˤŵŪֻȤߤθˡ츫Ȥ̾ǤϤʤ̤ΤΤ³⾯ʤʤ㤨СHuddleston and Pullum (599) 4Ĥ褦
i The magician emerged [from behind the curtain]. [PP]
ii I didn't know about it [until recently]. [AdvP]
iii We can't agree [on whether we should call in the police]. [interrogative clause]
iv They took me [for dead]. [AdjP]
줾ֻθˡֻ̤硤, ᡤƻ礬³ƤȤʤäƤ뤬Τ褦ʤֻ줬̤ˤΰۤʤʸȤ櫓ǤϤʤֻ줴ȤˡɤΤ褦ʸ뤫ޤäƤ롤ȤȤǤ롥㤨 until ۤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ϻۤǤʤդ on ۤǤʤϼ롥礦ɸġưˤäƻۤǤʸΥפޤäƤΤƱȤǤ롥
ޤŪˤСֻʸ֤ΤǤʤ餳֡ȸƤФˡֻˤĤƤʸθ֤뤳Ȥꡤθ¤ˤƤϡָ֡ȤƤ٤ΤǤ롥Huddleston and Pullum (631) ꡤnotwithstanding apart/aside (from) ۤʤѤƤʸ褦
i a. [Notwithstanding these objections,] they passed ahead with their proposal.
i b. [These objections notwithstanding,] they passed ahead with their proposal.
ii a. [Apart/Aside from this,] he performed very creditably.
ii b. [This apart/aside,] he performed very creditably.
ֻˤϡ褦ʡ餷ʤֻʤˡˤˤդɬפ롥Ϣ heldio #133. ֻʤ̸ֻ¸ߡ⻲ȡ
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum, eds. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ͳɽ魯Ƴ because ϱѸؽᤤʳdzؤ֡Ūǹ٤θǤ롥ȶ̤᤹ʴͯƤʤɽˤ⤷ˤƤ뤳Ȥʤʤ
because ʬ by + cause Ȥʤ롥ԤϸűѸ줫³ŤֻǤꡤԤϥե줫μѸǤ롥ȤȤ2줫ʤֻä줬ŪˤⵡǽŪˤ줷ΤñǤ롥δ餹ȡ1κ (blend) ȤߤƤ褤
ʲ OED Ȥơbecause Ҳ𤷤褦θαѸǤνФ14ΤȤǤ롥Bi cause whi (= "because why") Τ褦ѤƤΤ⤷
c1305 Deo Gratias 37 in Early Eng. Poems & Lives Saints (1862) 125 Þou hast herd al my deuyse, Bi cause whi, hit is clerkes wise.
ۤ because that Τ褦 that ³ޡȤ;ŪѤ⡤Ѹ줫Ѹˤƿ¿ߤʡ#2314. °³ȤƤ that ([2015-08-28-1])ˡ⤽ cause ̾ˤʤΤǡƳˤƱʤ that λ٤ɬפʤΤǤ롥because that 3ĵ褦
c1405 (c1395) G. Chaucer Franklin's Tale (Hengwrt) (2003) l. 253 By cause that he was hir neghebour.
1611 Bible (King James) John vii. 39 The Holy Ghost was not yet giuen; because that Iesus was not yet glorified.
1822 Ld. Byron Heaven & Earth i. iii, in Liberal 1 190 I abhor death, because that thou must die.
³ȤƤ because ³ˤĤ because of ȤƶƳˡ14ȾФʸڤ롥 Wyclif Ǥ롥
1356 J. Wyclif Last Age Ch. (1840) 31 Þe synnes bi cause of whiche suche persecucioun schal be in Goddis Chirche.
⤦1Ķ̣Τϡbecause θ to 줬³¤Ǥ롥ǤϻĤäƤʤ¤162㤬Ƥ롥̣ͳפǤϤʤŪפäȤΤ⤪⤷
1523 Ld. Berners tr. J. Froissart Cronycles I. ccxxxix. 346 Bycause to gyue ensample to his subgettes..he caused the..erle of Auser to be putte in prison.
1546 T. Langley tr. P. Vergil Abridgem. Notable Worke i. xv. 28 a Arithmetike was imagyned by the Phenicians, because to vtter theyr Merchaundyse.
because ϤŪ˿ꤷƤñǤ롥ޤǤʲεǤñ˿ƤΤǡȤ
#1542. ³ȤƤ for ([2013-07-17-1])
#1744. 2013ǯαѸήԸޡ ([2014-02-04-1])
#2314. °³Ū that ([2015-08-28-1])
#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1])
#4569. because ɽ魯3ͳ ([2021-10-30-1])
Ѹˤϡư (verb) Ⱦ (particle) Ȥ߹碌ʤư (phrasal_verb) ¿¸ߤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ѽФŪŪʰ̣ĤΤ¿칽¤¿ͤʷ뤿ᡤФбѸؽξɤȤʤ롥
㤨 run up Ȥ߹碌ɽͤƤߤ褦Ūˤ4ĤΥѥ˶ʬ롥
(1) A girl ran up. ֤뾯äƤ
ran up ΤȤ1Ĥμư롥
(2) The spider ran up the wall. ֤ΥɤФäƤä
ư ran ֻ up the wall Ȥ߹碌Ǥ롥
(3) The soldier ran up a flag. ֤ʼΤϴǤ
ran up Ȥ߹碌ˤ1Ĥ¾ưŪ롥ξ硤 up ̾Ū a flag ΰ֤ϥС֥ǡThe soldier ran a flag up. θǽŪ줬 it Τ褦̾ξˤϡष The soldier ran it up. θΤߤƤ롥
(4) Would you mind running me up the road? ƻϩޤǼ֤˾褻ƤäƤޤ
¾ư run ֻ up the road Ȥ߹碌Ǥ롥
run up Ȥ߹碌Τߤ˸ꤷƤ⡤Τ褦4Ĥηǧ롥¾ư¾ξȤ߹碌ΤθСȤƤ8ĤηꡤʣȤʤ롥
Cowie, A. P. and R Mackin, comps. Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. Oxford: OUP, 1993.
#4995. ư̾칽ʸ there is no ---ing ---뤳ȤϤǤʤפѸ ([2022-12-30-1]) ϸѸˤ³ʸȤΤƤ뤬Ѹˤ there was ---ing Ȥ̣ʸ¸ߤ---Ԥʤ줿ס---ȤȤȤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥Mustanoja (576) ˤĤ㤬Ƥ롥
The construction there was . . -ing is frequently used in ME for the expression of indefinite agency: --- þer was sobbing (Havelok 234); --- þer was sembling (Havelok 1018); --- thar wes oft bikkyring (Barbour ix 343); --- so greet wepyng was there noon, certayn, Whan Ector was ybroght, al fressh yslayn, To Troye, Allas, the pitee that was ther, Cracchynge of chekes, rentynge eek of heer (Ch. CT A Kn. 2831--4). A similar case is and thus the woful nyhtes sorwe To joie is torned on the morwe; Al was thonkinge, al was blessinge, Which erst was wepinge and cursinge (Gower CA ii 3317--18).
ư̾ɽ蘆ưιټԤǤꡤưΤΤ˾ƤѤ빽ʸʤΤOED -ing, suffix1 ˤäˤιʸ˴ؤ뵭ҤϤʤMED -ing(e (suf.(1)) ˤڤʤ
ιʸϡǤäΩäʸȤƸڤ뤳ȤϤʤΤΡ١ȤϼѤƤ褦there is/was ---ing BNCweb ꤤĤƤߤ褦
'Well, like I told the foreign gentleman, there was dancing in the sitting room, and this Mrs Heatherington-Scott she was dancing with Mr Merrivale.'
There is shooting almost daily in the capital as roaming snipers attack military checkpoints;
There was rationing at home and war in Ireland.
First there was cheering then jeering.
There was knocking on the front door.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
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