hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ڡ / page 15 (17)

syntax - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2013-07-17 Wed

#1542. ³ȤƤ for [conjunction][syntax][prototype][coordinator][subordinator]

³ȤѤ for ˡ롥ʸŪǤϤ뤬ƤФŪʺ­Ū˽Ҥ٤ȤѤ롥񤭸դǤ for ˥ޡߥ󡤥åʤɤζ֤졤ڤٻߤȼʸ򤤤Ĥ󤲤褦

It was just twelve o'clock, for the church bell was ringing.
We listened eagerly, for he brought news of our families.
I believed her --- for surely she would not lie to me.
He found it increasingly difficult to read, for his eyesight was beginning to fail.
She remained silent, for her heart was heavy and her spirits low.
The man was different from the others, with just a hint of sternness. For he was a coroner.


for ϡͳҤ٤ŵŪʽ°³Ǥ because, since, as ʤɤˡʬŪ˽Ťʤ롥ºݤʤɤǤ "I did it for they asked me to do it." ʤɤľܤͳҤ٤ because ˶ᤤ⤢롥Ĥǡbecause ʤɤν°³ȤŪۤʤꡤ椨ष³Ȥʬव뤳Ȥ⤢롥
㤨Сfor Ƴ˻äƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ (ex. * For he was unhappy, he asked to be transferred.) ޤit is . . . that ζĴʸζĴΰ֤ for äƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤbecause A and because C ʤɤ and ˤ֤Ǥ뤬for A and for B ʤɤȤϤǤʤľ just, only, simply, chiefly ʤɤ֤ȤǤʤ
for ³餷̿񤤤򼨤ȤΤǤ롥㤨СŵŪ³ or ǤϡI may see you tomorrow or may phone later in the day. ʤɤȼ줬Ʊ硤2ˤϾάǤ뤬for ǤϾάǤʤ (ex. * He did not want it, for was obstinate)
Quirk et al. (927--28) ϡ°³³ʬŪʴϤʤȤʤ⡤Ūˤ for ԤʬहΤŬڤȹͤƤ롥if because Τ褦 prototypical ʽ°³ǤϤʤΤΡprototypical ³Ǥ and or γ֤Τۤ礭ȽǤƤ롥Quirk et al. (927) ˤŪ6ȡ̤齾°ؤϢ³򼨤ɽʲ˵󤲤褦ɽΡ֡ޡפϾˤäƤϳܤʤäꤹ뤳Ȥ򡤡֡ߡפ (and) yetand ʤɤ֤ǤդǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤

(a) It is immobile in front of its clause.
(b) A clause beginning with it is sequentially fixed in relation to the previous clause, and hence cannot be moved to a position in front of that clause.
(c) It does not allow a conjunction to precede it.
(d) It links not only clauses, but predicates and other clause constituents.
(e) It can link subordinate clauses.
(f) It can link more than two clauses, and when it does so all but the final instance of the linking item can be omitted.

Table 13.18 Coordination--conjunct--subordination gradients
Coordination--Conjunct--Subordination Gradients


ʤOED MED ˤȡŪˤ³ȤƤ for ϡűѸ줫Ѹؤβϴ˽ФƤ롥


1123 Peterb.Chron. (LdMisc 636) an.1123: Ac hit naht ne beheld, for se biscop of Særes byrig wæs strang.
c1150 Serm. in Kluge Ags. Lesebuch 71 Hwu sceal þiss gewurðen, for ic necann naht of weres gemane.
1154 Anglo-Saxon Chron. anno 1135, On þis kinges time wes al unfrið..for agenes him risen sone þa rice men.


ñΤ³ȤѤ for ȤȤơűѸǤ ðe ȼä³첽 forþam, forþan, forði 줿13ˤ for that ʤɤ compound connective ⸽줿³ȤƤϼŪǤϤΤΡƳȸŤˤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-07-27-1] [2023-03-02-1]

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2013-07-16 Tue

#1541. Mind you θ [imperative][word_order][syntax][emode]

ѸǤϡ2;ΤФ̿ʸǤϡ̾ you Ͼά롥Ф뤤ɽ路ꡤοͤؤ᤹̿ˤϡäˤ you 뤳Ȥ⾯ʤʤξˤ "Come on! You open up and tell me everything." Τ褦ˡyou ư֤֤졤ȼ
ѸޤǤϡ you thou ά줺ɽФˤϡưθ֤˸줿ڡ켣 (406) Ӻٹ (149) ˰ѤƤ롤Shakespeare 񤫤󤲤褦

Bring thou the master to the citadel (Oth II. i. 211)
So in the Lethe of thy angry soul Thou drown the sad remembrance of those wrongs Which thou supposest I have done to thee. (R 3 IV. iv. 250--2)
So speak ye, and do so. --- James, ii. 12.
Go, and do thou likewise. --- Luke, x. 37.


18ʹߤϡ줬ư֤礬ͥȤʤä̿ʸǤϡޤ "Don't you be so sure of yourself." Τ褦ˡyou don't θ֤֤ʶ don't ΤۤˡϡŤѸ̾ĤǤ롥Ʊͤ̾ĤˡѸ mind you, mark you, look you ʤɤ󤲤롥 you ưŪǤϤʤޤ̿ʸˤ줿Ǥ롥⡤֤褯ʹ˺ʡäƤפۤɤΰ̣ǡάȯäˤäƳȤʹդȤѤ롥you ˶֤롥

Mind you, this is just between you and me.
Cellphones are becoming more and more popular. Mind you, I don't like cellphones.
I've heard they're getting divorced. Mind you, I'm not surprised --- they were always arguing.
She hasn't had much success yet. Mark you, she tries hard.
Her uncle's just given her a car --- given, mark you, not lent.


OED ˤȡmind you ν1768ǯʸ12bˡmark you Shakespeare ʸ27bˡlook you Shakespeare ʸ4aˤǤꡤѸθˡȤȤˤʤ롥ʤLook ye. ָפˤĤƤϡ#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1]) ε⻲ȡ

ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-08-1]

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2013-06-08 Sat

#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ [variation][syntax][lexicon][variety][sociolinguistics][terminology][linguistic_area]

ޤǤεǤܡ (linguistic item) ȤѸѤƤѰۤ򼨤뤢ñ̤ؤνѸȤơHudson (21--22) ˤäƳ줿ΤǤ롥ŪʸѸǤ "lexical items" ñ, "sounds" ȯ, "constructions" ʹʸˤʤɤñ̤̤Ƥ뤬ҲŪѰۤ򼨤Ȥǰ㤤Ϥʤñ̤Ǥ졤ؼǤѸ줬ߤȤ櫓Ǥ롥
Ƹܤ嵭3Ĥñ̤˶̤ơ줾ñ̤ˤѰۤļҲŪʵǽͤȤ˺ϤΤĤޤꡤñѰۡȯѰۡʸѰۤȤ٤ȡҲŪˤߤơѰۤμ˰㤤ϤΤ
ͻˤäơܸǤѸǤ⡤ȯѰۤñ乽ʸѰۤȤϰۤʤ밷䤹Ȥ¤ŦƤϰˤĤˤȤ̤ˡäʸˡΰ㤤⡤ȯΰ㤤Ŧ뤳Ȥ¿¤ (accent) ȤƸڤΤǤ롥ѸαƺǤ⡤äˤʸˡˤϤ뤬줾ѼüԤϡޤȯˤäѼǧ롥ʪŪʸݤȤľŪѰۤΥǥåȤߤʤ䤹Ȥ𤬤ꤽǡȯüԤνм򼨤ҲŪʵǽ¾ñ̤⶯äƤȲꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡФƸä乽ʸѰۤϤɤΤ褦ʵǽäƤȲǤ뤫
Hudson (44--45) ϡХ륫Ⱦɤ (linguistic area) ˤơʸˡܤγۤƹäƤ󤲤ʤ顤ʸʤɤʸˡܤϸäȯ٤Ѱ̤ۤʤȤΩƤƤ롥θǤϡäѰۤϼҲŪʺۤɽ魯Τͭ˳ѤƤ롥顤Hudson (45) ϸܤ3Ĥñ̤ˤĤơŪʲ󵯤

A very tentative hypothesis thus emerges regarding the different types of linguistic items and their relations to society, according to which syntax is the marker of cohesion in society, with individuals trying to eliminate alternatives in syntax from their individual language. In contrast, vocabulary is a marker of divisions in society, and individuals may actively cultivate alternatives in order to make more subtle social distinctions. Pronunciation reflects the permanent social group with which the speaker identifies.


ķɽ魯ʸɽ魯áǥƥƥɽ魯ȯڤ٤Ȥơ¤˶̣򤽤롥

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-05-15 Wed

#1479. his °ʤο [genitive][clitic][synthesis_to_analysis][syntax][metanalysis]

his °ʤˤĤƤϡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) Ǽ夲αѸ˾ν#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])
ԤǤϡJanda Allen θΰ㤤˸ڤJanda ܸ̾ (enclitic) ȤƤ -'s ȯã޲𤷤¤Ȥơhis °ʤ򤪤ɾΤФơAllen Ū -es °ʤŪʬ (metanalysis) ˤ꽽ʬȤơhis °ʤδͿɾʤξԤεˤϰĹû뤬his °ʤѤ褦ˤʤäʳǰʬϤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤ
his °ʤνиȯãˤĤƤϤ˵ɬפhis °ʤοˤĤƤϤޤܤʤhis °ʤϡűѸѸ˨꤬졤15ʹߤˤʤꡤ17ޤ¸³18溢ޤǤˤѤ줿ѤȤʤäطʤˤϲäΤ
Janda (247--48) ϡΤ褦Ƥ롥

Though 'very rare in the North and infrequent in the rest of the country, [it] gains ground considerably in the 15th century and remains a popular means of expression right down to the 17th' (M:161). 'The use of his . . . as a sign of the genitive . . . had its widest currency in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries' (P:196). Use of the construction declined gradually thereafter, so that it was virtually lost by the mid-eighteenth century. It has been conjectured that '[t]he pronoun form dropped out partly perhaps because of the antipathy of most stylists from the sixteenth century on to "pleonastic" or repetitive pronouns' (T:125)--and, in general, to any analyticity (periphrasis) in English where it diverged from Latin syntheticity. (247--48)


Ĥޤꡤ16ʹߤʸԤ (1) his °ʤΤľĹ(2) ƥΤ֤ѸʬäǤϤʤȤޤJanda ̤βս (250) ǡ-'s Ȥɽδ㤬ΩȡǽŪˤ⡤h 첻μ岽ˤ벻ξṳ̈ơ˲Ūˤ his °ʤʬŪ˲᤹ʤʤäΤǤϤʤȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ʸŪӲŪʾȤ߹碌ˤꡤhis °ʤ -'s ΤۤŪ˹ޤ褦ˤʤäȤȤβ뤿ˤϡξˤĤƤܺ٤ʸڤɬפ

Janda, Richard. "On the Decline of Declensional Systems: The Overall Loss of OE Nominal Case Inflections and the ME Reanalysis of -es as his." Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Ed. Elizabeth C. Traugott, Rebecca Labrum, and Susan Shepherd. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1980. 243--52.
Allen, Cynthia L. "The Origins of the 'Group Genitive' in English." Transactions of the Philological Society 95 (1997): 111--31.

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2013-04-30 Tue

#1464. ˡλʸΰ۷ [syntax][ame][lmode][perfect][tense]

ʸˡʤɤɬФ빽ʸɽ˲ˡλιʸ롥ư줬3ĤФƤʤζʸǤ롥

If I had missed the train, I would have had no chance to see the woman of destiny.


Ǥ had + ʬ줬׵ᤵ졤Ǥ would have + ʬ줬׵ᤵΤ§Ǥ롥ξǰۤʤưʤȤ߹碌ˤ׵ᤵΤdzؽԤˤȤäƺ𤷤䤹
ؽԤʤ餺ȤѸüԤˤȤäƤʹʸ餫Leech et al. (63) ˤȡAmE ǼΤ褦ʹʸʹȸ롥

If I would have missed the train, I would have had no chance to see the woman of destiny.


ιʸǤϼȽ°ξ would have ȤƱưȤ߹碌֤ƤꡤñǤ롥ƱʸϡDenison (300) ˤɸθѸǤѻȤ

Certainly, non-standard examples like the following are not uncommon, especially where there is some trace of a volitional meaning in would, (595a), or a non-English substratum, though Fillmore regards . . . it as common in current American usage:

(595) a. I think if he would have let me just look at things quietly . . . it would have been all right (1877 Sewell, Black Beauty xxxix. 123)
        b. If I would have known that, I would have acted differently.


ޤɸŪʶäΰ۷ʤΤ켫ΤʤȤ100ǯʾˤäʸǤ뤳ȤˤդƤȵ would have done ͭ嵭Τۤhad done ͭѸˤϸ줿parallel structure ؤλָϡ夤ʤ˺ѤƤϤȹͤΤǤϤʤ

Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 92--329.

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2013-03-14 Thu

#1417. °ȯã [genitive][clitic][synthesis_to_analysis][metanalysis][corpus][ppcme2][syntax]

Ѹʹߤ apostrophe s ϡ̾ˤĤȤߤʤϡ̾ˤĤܸ (enclitic) ȤߤʤۤΤǤ롥ȤΤϡthe king of England's daughter Τ褦° (group genitive) ȤƤˡǧ뤫Ǥ롥apostrophe s ϡ³˷Ūñ̤Ȥϡ췲³Ūñ̡ʤܸ (clitic) Ȥߤʤɬפ롥
apostrophe s εȹͤ -es ϡѸˤϡΤ̾ˤĤ޸ä줬̾ܤ°ʤˡΤϤʤηϲäΤѸˤǤ˵ƤǤ롥
Ĥθ (Janda) ˤС°ʤؤȯŸʳǡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) ޲ȤƺѤΤǤϤʤȤñ㲽ƼС(1) °ʸ -es ȿ;̾ñ° his Ȥ̵ƱȤʤ¤ȡ(2) ľ̾̾ȤƤ his °ʤȤ2ؤäơΤ褦㼰ǽȤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ

king his doughter : king of England his doughter = kinges doughter : X
X = king of Englandes doughter


Allen ϤƱդʤPPCME2 䤽¾ѸƥȤͿ뤢Ƥ̡his °ʤ޲ȤʤäƷ°ʤȤ븫ˤϡڵ塤̵Ȥ롥Allen ϡȤ櫓"attached genitive" Ū -es °ʡˤ "separated genitive" his °ʡˤȤδ֤ˡĶ˱Ƥʬ۾κʤȤ򺬵ˡѸ his °ʤ "just an orthographical variant of the inflection" (118) Ǥȷ롥
Ǥϡ°ʤȯã his °ʤ޲ȤΤǤϤʤäȤȡ¾ˤɤΤ褦ʷꤨΤAllen ϤȤơ"the gradual extension of the ending -es to all classes of nouns, making what used to be an inflection indistinguishable from a clitic" (120) ƤƤ롥14ޤǤ°ʸΧ -(e)s 褦ˤʤꡤ줬Ϥ޸ȤƤǤϤʤ̵Ѳܸª˻äΤǤϤʤȤޤǽη°ʤϡThe grete god of Loves name (Chaucer, HF 1489) þe kyng of Frances men (Trevisa's Polychronicon, VIII, 349.380) ˸褦ʡм򼨤 of ȼä귿Ǥꡤʣ̾ȤǤ褦ɽǤ롥줬Ȳ򤵤졤ľ˽ͭ򼨤 -(e)s ĤȤΤϤޤäԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ
Allen ϡ16Ⱦ鸽 his °ʤʿŪ her °ʤ their °ʤˤĤƤϡǤ-(e)s ˤ뷲°ʤΩʬ (metanalysis) η̤ǤꡤŪɽˤʤȸƤ롥ΰʬϤ"spelling pronunciation" ʤ "spelling syntax" (124) ȸڤƤΤ̣
Allen ηѤ褦 (124)

A closer examination of the relationship between case-marking syncretism and the rise of the 'group genitive' than has previously been carried out provides evidence that the increase in syncretism led to the reanalysis of -es as a clitic. There is evidence that this change of status from inflection to clitic was not accomplished all at once; inflectional genitives coexisted with the clitic genitive in late ME and the clitic seems to have attached to conjoined nouns and appositives before it attached to NPs which did not end in a possessor noun. The evidence strongly suggests that the separated genitive of ME did not serve as the model for the introduction of the group genitive, and I have suggested that the separated genitive was an orthographic variant of the inflectional genitive, but that after the group genitive was firmly established there were attempts to treat it as a genitive pronoun.


Allen Appendix I ˤơMustanoja (160) his °ʤȤƵ󤲤ƤűѸѸ줫[2011-07-25-1]ǵ󤲤ˤ¿路ǤƤ롥
ʤ°ʤˤĤƤϡBaugh and Cable (241) ˤñʸڤ롥

Janda , Richard. "On the Decline of Declensional Systems: The Overall Loss of OE Nominal Case Inflections and the ME Reanalysis of -es as his." Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Ed. Elizabeth C. Traugott, Rebecca Labrum, and Susan Shepherd. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 243--52.
Allen, Cynthia L. "The Origins of the 'Group Genitive' in English." Transactions of the Philological Society 95 (1997): 111--31.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2013-03-03 Sun

#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ [causation][language_change][speed_of_change][generative_grammar][lexical_diffusion][grammatical_change][auxiliary_verb][syntax][genitive][case]

Ѳ뤤ʸˡѲ®٤ˤĤƤ speed_of_change γƵǼ夲ƤۤȤɤѲ®˴ؤҲŪװŦˤȤɤޤꡤŪˤäƤʤä#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١ ([2011-01-08-1]) ǡ̤Ѳ®٤ˤĤơ餤Ǥ롥
ʸˡǤϡҶθ콬˴ؤᥫ˥ Primary Linguistic Data (PLD) ȤФϤδ顤ŪʸˡѲƤεͼԤ Lightfoot Ǥ롥Lightfoot 2006ǯʸĹǯˤ錄󤷤Ƥ롥

Changes often take place in clusters: apparently unrelated superficial changes occur simultaneously or in rapid sequence. Such clusters manifest a single theoretical choice which has been taken differently. If so, the singularity of the change can be explained by the appropriately defined theoretical choice. So the principles of UG and the definition of the cues constitute the laws which guide change in grammars, defining the available terrain. Any change is explained if we show, first, that the linguistic environment has changed and, second, that the new phenomenon . . . must be the way that it is because of some principle of the theory and the new PLD. (42)


Ѥ1ʸˡѲˤƤϡϢѲ«ȤʤäƱˤ뤤ϵ®롤Ȥ롥̤ΰѤ⼨

[I]f grammars are abstract, then they change only occasionally and sometimes with dramatic consequences for a wide range of constructions and expressions; grammar change tends to be "bumpy," manifested by clusters of phenomena changing at the same time . . . . (27)


ʸΤʤǡLightfoot ϡcan, may, must ʤɤˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) Ϳ¿θˤû֤16ޤǤ˴λȡdo-periphrasis ([2010-08-26-1]) 18ȡ2Ĥΰ츫ȴϢʤѸˤˤʸˡѲV-to-I operation ȤξüˤäƴϢŤ뤳Ȥ롥ޤѸˤˤפǤʤοȸȯãδطˤĤơsplit genitive, group genitive, of ˤ뱪Ū°ʡ-'s ˤȤꡤѤ뤳ȤǰϢʸˡѲϢŤǤȼĥ롥
«Ȥʤäơסֵ®ˡפȤΤLightfoot θѲˤƺǤפʼĥ1ĤǤ롥Ǥ餯Ū˷ӤĤƤΤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȹͤƤ롥óȻˤƤϡϢܤ«Ȥʤäơ׾ʤȤȻʳˤƤϡֵ®ˡ׿ʹԤȤƤ롥Lightfoot θѲȸóȻϡѤޤǰۤʤ뤷оݤ㤦ΤϳΤ"clusters" "bumpy" Ȥ̤ΥɤϸѲħɽ路Ƥ褦˻פƤʤʤ

Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.

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2013-02-13 Wed

#1388. inorganic for [preposition][syntax][metanalysis][germanic]

Ѹʸˡˡto ΰ̣μɽ魯ˡfor + ̾פ֤빽ʸ롥 for ϼȤʸˡŪʵǽôäƤˤ¼Ūʰ̣⤿ʤΤǡ"inorganic for" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥for . . . to . . . ʸεȯãϱѸˤǤ˰ƤѸΤ褦Ʊʸ򹭤ͳѤǤϥޥϤƤʤͳʻȤ "Hearne was no critic. A hasty and ill-natured judgment might conclude that it sufficed for a document to appear old for him to wish to print it." ʤɤ󤲤ʤ顤Zandvoort (265) inorganic for ޤ๽ʸˤĤƼΤ褦ɾƤ롥

Both in familiar and in literary style this construction has branched out in so many directions that not only has it become one of the most distinctive features of modern English syntax, but on occasion, too, one of those that may be employed to give to an utterance a somewhat esoteric turn.


ǼͳȸƤǤΤϡ"It is absurd for us to quarrel." Τ褦ŵŪˡΤߤʤ餺͡Ķ˸줦뤫㤨С"The rule was for women and men to sit apart." Τ褦ʼǤˡ"For us to have refused the loan would have been a declaration of economic war." Τ褦ʾ濫뤤Ϸ̤ˡ"She longed for him to say something." "I always wanted so for things to be beautiful." Τ褦ưθ֤ˡ"I am not afraid for them to see it." Τ褦˷ƻθ֤ˡ"There were cries for the motion to be put." Τ褦̾ȴؤäŪɽ魯ˡʤɡZandvoort (268) ϡinorganic for ΤˡηŪ˵Ҥʸˡ񤬸ʤʤǡKruisinga ̤ιֵΡȤ˼ƤʷˤŪͤҤ򸫤Ĥ仿

Prepositional Object and Stem with to.
Type: I shall be glad for you to help us. --- With regard to the facts of Living English it must be understood that the constr. is a supplementary one to the plain object & stem. the two are really parallel: a) the plain obj. & verbal stem are used with verbs; b) the preposit. object & stem is used with nouns & adjectives chiefly, and as a subject & nom. predicate, i.e. in practically all the other functions when a stem with to can be used at all. Finally the prep. obj. with stem is found with verbs, in a more or less clearly final meaning (see quot. in Shorter Acc.: pushing the glasses along the counter nodded for them to be filled).


"It is absurd for us to quarrel." ʤɤιʸεˤĤƤϡѸˤǤ "It is absurd for us | to quarrel." "It is absurd | for us to quarrel." Ȥʬ (metanalysis) ˤΤȤƤ롥Zandvoort (269) ϡΰʬϤǽȤʤ뤿ˤ for us absurd θ˸뤳ȤɬפǤꡤѸθǤϤξƤȤŻ뤹롥ɥĸ䥪Ǥϡ for us ʬϷƻ˸ΤǤꡤʬϤϤʤƱ²ȤӤ˴Ťιʸεˤ "the fixity of English word-order" (269) ȤޤɬפȤμĥϤ롥

Zandvoort, R. W. "A Note on Inorganic For." English Studies 30 (1949): 265--69.

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2013-01-12 Sat

#1356. 20ꥹѸǤ government οΰ [bre][number][agreement][noun][syntax][corpus]

ε#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä ([2013-01-11-1]) Ǽ夲Bauer ν̾οΰפ˴ؤĴˤĤơҲ³롥The Times μΥѥˤ̻ŪĴ̤ơBauer ϷȴƺѤν̾Ǥ government 20δ֤ˡΰפ˴ؤƶ̣ʬۤ򼨤Ȥȯ (Bauer 64--65)
20ˤϡgovernment ʣפ¿ΤΡ褫ŦƤȤꡤȤ館˱ñʣΤѰۤ򼨤ƤȤˤʤȡñʣפΰ㤤ؼоݤΰ㤤б褦ˤʤäʣȤѤȤˤϱѹܤؤñȤѤȤˤ¾ܤؤȤƤȤΤʸˡȤ⡤̣ʻؼоݡˤؤȰܹԤΤ褦ʲˡBauer (64) "Concord with government by meaning from The Times corpus, 1930--65" ΥǡƷǤ褦

YearBritish governmentNon-British government
SingularPluralSingularPlural
1930315123
1935213112
194021442
19452722
1950126260
19552280
196002380
196511341
Total131136518


1965ǯޤǤˤηΩθ塤θˤơ٤ϻؼоݤˤ餺ñפƤ롥government ˴ؤ¤ꡤ notional variation semantic distinction grammatical preference for the singular ȿ񤤤ѲƤȤȤˤʤ롥
䤦٤ϡ嵭20λȤʬηϼʳΥƥȥפǤƱͤ˸ΤȤ government ٤Ǹ뤳Ȥͽۤ줿Ȥ˼θˤüˡȯãȵȤǤ뤫⤷ʤѥ򹭤Ƴǧɬפ

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-25-1] [2021-05-20-1]

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2013-01-11 Fri

#1355. 20ꥹѸǽ̾ñפä [bre][number][agreement][noun][syntax][corpus][americanisation]

ưοΰפˤĤƤϡ#930. a large number of people οΰס ([2011-11-13-1]) #1144. Ѹˤ԰פ ([2012-06-14-1]) #1334. Ѹˤ̾ưο԰ס ([2012-12-21-1]) εǰäƤ̤ˡѸˤ government team ʤɤν̾οΰפϡꥫѸǤϤäѤñǰפ뤬ꥹѸǤϤȤ館˱ñǤʣǤפȤ롥ΰ̲ϳͭΰפ˴ؤѰۤ򼨤ꥹѸˤĤƤߤȡ20̤ñפηޤäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤŦ롥Bauer (61--66) The Times μоݤȤѥҲ𤷤褦
Bauer ϡ1900--1985ǯ The Times corpus μ⤫ʤ륳ѥоݤˡ̾줬ñǰפΨ᤿Bauer ϡĴ The Times μȤ˷ĥäʸΤˤĴǤꡤ줬ɬ⥤ꥹѸΤɽƤȤϤʤǤäạ̇̄դͿƤ롥ʲϡBauer (63) ΥդܸƤǿͤɤ߽ФƺΤǤ롥

Singular Concord of Collective Nouns

ľȤƤʤ餻Сǯ0.3178%γǤȤʤäƤ롥ͤꤷʤȤ䥳ѥФʤɤͳˤꤳη̤ɤޤǿǤΤȤʤ뤬Bauer Ϻ٤ͿƤ餺ȽǤǤʤΤǤ롥
Bauer ϤˡѥǺǤ٤ι⤤̾ government üʿ񤤤򤹤뤳Ȥܤθ̾ˤĤơñפγƷ׻ΥդƱΤǡBauer (66) Υդ˴ŤƲΥդƺʤ餹ǯ0.1877%γǤǤ롥

Singular Concord of Collective Nouns Excluding 'government'

η̤¿Dzη̤ˤȤɤޤ餶ʤ褦˻פ뤬ʤȤ⤵ĴʤƤ椯ΥˤϤʤ
ʤBauer 1930ǯˤη֤äȤ¤򺬵ˡꥫѸ줬ƶͿȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤƤ[2011-08-26-1]ε#851. ꥹѸФ륢ꥫѸαƶ2狼פ򻲾ȡˡ
government οΰפ˴ؤ뤪⤷񤤤ˤĤƤϡεǾҲ𤹤롥

Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.

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2013-01-10 Thu

#1354. ƻܿ [adverb][adjective][flat_adverb][syntax]

ƻƱ졤 flat_adverb ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ͡˼夲ƤƻεǽϤȤ˾֤ɽ魯ȤǶˤƶᤤطˤꡤФФɤʬहФ褤Τ¤Ȥ⤢롥ʸˡˤʻ (part of speech) 뤤ϸ (word class) ʬबԴǤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
Ūˤϡ߷ַƻܿפȤʸΤʤǡ6ܿ˭٤ʼȤʸغʤˤȤȤ˻ŦƤ롥߷ (3--5) ñˤޤȤ褦

(1) flat adverb ñˡ̤˥ꥫѸˤϤ뤫¿ˡ礷Ƥȸ졤äաä˶ܤΤʤͤäդħŪȤ롥#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb ([2012-01-04-1]) 򻲾ȡex. Now the Picton boat began to swing round steady, pointing out to sea.---K. Mansfield, The Voyage.
(2) Ѥηƻ졥ϤꥢꥫѸ¯ä¿α (1) ˵Ϣơ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ򳫤 ([2012-01-06-1]) #1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1]) 򻲾ȡex. His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold.---O. Henry, The Last Leaf.
(3) ư졥stand ΩäƤˤȤ֤ˤ get to stand ΩġˤȤưԤ롥ưɽ魯̣ϡԤưΰ̣Ȥ߹ǤʤȤħŪǤ롥ξԤζ̤̯Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ־֡ƻפȡưפȤζ̤̯Ǥ뤳ȤˤĤʤ롥ex. The old man sat motionless.---B. Malamud, The Mourners.
(4) ư졥ȡ֡ĤǤפδطΩĤΤħex. His tongue felt dry and large, as though covered with a fine hairy growth, and it tasted bitter in his mouth.---J. London, Love of Life.
(5) ưѲư졥ѲơĤξ֤ˤʤפΰդǡϤȥδطΩġex. He noticed companion, and became crestfallen all at once.---J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness.
(6) Ʊʸ졥ִʸ˽һȤƷƻ줬źäơưμưƱŪ֡뤤ϤηŪ֤򼨤ס߷, p.5ˡex. Her dark hair waved untidy across her broad forehead.---J. Galsworthy, The Apple Tree.

¿󤲤ǡ߷ (5) ϰʲΤ褦˷֡

ƻȤδ֤κθϤξʻ줬ΤʳˤƱǤäȤˤ롥 -ly Ĥ뤳ȤˤäʬϷŪ˷ƻ줫Ωư -ly Ĥʤޤ޺ޤ¸³Ƥ롥줬 Flat adverb ñˤǤ롥μʬϡ־֡פ򼨤 be link ΤǷƻ˶᤯ޤΤ -ly ӽƤȤͤ롥
ѸǤϡ־֡פ򼨤Ϥܷۤƻȴ뤬־֡פ򼨤Ȥ롥ĤޤξʻˤޤΤˡκݳعʸˡΰæơ־ֻפȤä褦ʽѸꤷɤǤˤ衤ƻ줫줫̤ͤФʤʤȤ꤬ΤǤ롥


褦ʵ#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1]) Ǥ夲Τǡ׻ȡޤ linking verb γȤδطˤĤƤϡ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǾƤ롥
ƱɮԤˤ롤Ϣʸ (Osawa) ⻲ȡ

߷ ַƻܿסΩؿʸʳظǯ17桤1979ǯ3--5ǡ
Osawa, Ginsaku. "A Study of the Distinguishing Adverbs & the Distinguishing Adjectives." Ωʸѡ 49 (1974): 21--49.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-25-1] [2016-01-02-1]

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2012-12-21 Fri

#1334. Ѹˤ̾ưο԰ [number][agreement][noun][inflection][syntax]

Ѹˤϡ̾ưΤο԰פȤ꤬롥#312. ʸˡαƺ ([2010-03-05-1]) (3) Ǽ̤ꡤꥹѸǤ team, audience, board, committee, government, the public Τ褦ʽ̾ϡüԤΤȤñȤߤʤбưñǰפʣȤߤʤФʣǰפ롥ꥫѸǤ̾η֤Τߤ˰¸Ȥ졤ưñǰפ롥
Ѹο԰פˤϡۤˤ⡤someone everyone ʤɤ̾줬ʣư˰פ㡤ʬñ㡤ľθ˱ƶָפθݡThere's ʸʤɡ͡ʼΤ롥ΰˤĤƤϡƣ˵äơ#1144. Ѹˤ԰פ ([2012-06-14-1]) dz⤷
Ǥϡο԰פεϤɤˤΤˤ̤äƤߤϡѸˤ folk, people, host ʤɤν̾ο񤤤濴˸Ƥߤ褦Mustanoja (62--63) 󤹤ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
űѸǤϡfolk Τ褦ʽ̾ϡ°ǤʣưȰפΤͥäΩǤñưȰפΤ§äԤʣǤΰפ褦ˤʤΤϡ11ʹߤǤ롥ѸȡξˡƤΤΡŪˤСΩǤϤޤñǤΰפ¿ѸˤƤμǤʣǤΰפ§ȤʤäƤ椯folk, people ʤɤŪ˻ؼоݤʣǤ뽸̾٤Сcountry, court ʤɤŪʣɽ魯̾ϡή˾Τ٤ä
Mustanoja γϰǤꡤġˤ㳰⤢롥㤨СǶḫĤǤϡChaucer, CT. Pri. l. 626 peple ñ was ȰפƤ롥

Unnethe myghte the peple that was theere
This newe Rachel brynge fro his beere.


ƬǽҤ٤褦ˡ̾ưο԰פˤ͡ʼबꡤ̾˸¤äƤ people פ country פȤ̤ɬפꤽμˤʬɬܤ԰פŪȯŸɤȤäƤ⡤ǤϤʤ褦

ƣ ֱѸñʣˤĤơסإסرûظ浪ס331993ǯ69--88ǡ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2012-08-24 Fri

#1215. °̾ο of ȯã [word_order][syntax][genitive][lexical_diffusion][statistics][synthesis_to_analysis]

ε#1214. °̾ΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-23-1]) ǡѸˤ、̾Ф°̾ΰ֤θĤˤĤƸ֤Ǥ֤Ǥ졤°̾줽ΤΤƱ˿षƤäȤ¤˺ƤϤʤʤ°̾Ѥ A's B B of A Ȥof ˤ뱪ȯãԤ򶼤θطϡɤ鸫С礫ʬϤ (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤĬή˾äѲǤ롥
Fries (206) ͿƤɽϡűѸ줫Ѹˤ3°ʡ°ʡof °ʡˤ줾ɤ٤γѤ줿򼨤ͤǤ롥򥰥ղƤߤ

 Post-positive genitive'Periphrastic' genitivePre-positive genitive
c. 90047.5%0.5%52.0%
c. 100030.5%1.0%68.5%
c. 110022.2%1.2%76.6%
c. 120011.8%6.3%81.9%
c. 12500.6%31.4%68.9%
c. 13000.0%84.5%15.6%


Development of Three Types of Genitive

դϡ3°ʤθबǤ롥űѸνˤƸ°ʤहˤȤʤä°ʤĹθ13 of 쵤˳礷°ʤ֤Ƥ椯of γˤĤƤϡMustanoja (74--76) ܤ

Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-19-1]

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2012-08-23 Thu

#1214. °̾ΰ֤θ경 [word_order][syntax][genitive][lexical_diffusion][statistics]

#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) Ⱥε#1213. Ūΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-22-1]) ˰³Fries θξҲ𡥺ϡ°̾줬、̾Ф֤뤫֤뤫ȤˤĤơ
c900--c1250ǯȯŸˤĤơΤ褦ʷ̤줿 (Fries 205)

 c. 900c. 1000c. 1100c. 1200c. 1250
Genitive before its noun52.4%69.1%77.4%87.4%99.1%
Genitive after its noun47.6%30.9%22.6%12.6%0.9%


Development of Genitive Before Its Noun

᤯13ˤϡ°֤̾ĤƤȤ狼롥
Ϣơ17Ⱦ°̾ǤϤʤ̳̾ñǤʣǤˤ¾֤̾ƤΤޤ޽ȤѤ (ex. school teacher, examination paper) 뤬、ΰִطꤵƤʤԲǽʤǤ (206)
ޤǤưľŪȴŪΰִط°̾、̾ΰִطˤˤĤƸƤȤˤʤ뤬٤ȤѸνޤǤˤϸѸŪʸ˸ꤷƤȤ狼롥ѸϡθĤʤȷŤƤ褤

Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-19-1] [2012-08-24-1]

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2012-08-22 Wed

#1213. Ūΰ֤θ경 [word_order][syntax][lexical_diffusion][statistics]

[2009-09-06-1]ε#132. űѸ줫ѸؤθȯãפǼ夲 Fries ĴϡѸθȯã˴ؤפʸǤ롥εǤϡưФľŪŪʰ֤˴ؤ̻ŪܤΤߤ夲Fries ϤۤˤľŪưФŪŪʰ֤䡤、̾Фƻ°̾Ūʰ֤оݤȤƤ롥ԤˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
űѸ줫ϡ900--1000ǯϰϤΥѥ2558򽸤᤿ F. C. Cassidy Ĵ̤򻲾ȤƤ롥ŪľŪΰִطˤĤơԤ̾줫̾줫ξԤޤफˤꡤͤ (202)

OE Corpus (900--1000)Dative-object before acc-obj.Dative-object after acc-obj.
Nouns249 (64.0%)140 (36.0%)
Pronouns674 (82.8%)141 (17.2%)
Both together923 (76.6%)281 (23.3%)


ΤȤƴŪ֤뷹ΩȤ櫓̾ξˤϡ줬ηϡc1200ǯνѸ쥳ѥˤƤΩäƤ8䤬֡ˡʤᤤΤʥѥäȤ狼롥
ŪưΰִطˤĤƤϡűѸ줪ӽѸΥѥ鼡η̤ (202)

OE Corpus (900--1000)Dative-object before the verbDative-object after the verb
Nouns95 (27.6%)249 (72.4%)
Pronouns495 (48.7%)518 (51.3%)
Both together587 (43.4%)767 (56.6%)
EME Corpus (c1200)Dative-object before the verbDative-object after the verb
Nouns26 (23.0%)88 (77.0%)
Pronouns218 (43.0%)288 (57.0%)
Both together244 (39.4%)376 (60.6%)


űѸǤɬΤʷ򼨤櫓ǤϤʤưθ֤ΤۤͥǤ롥ηϡѸdz礵Ƥ椯
˽Ҥ٤ŪŪ֤ηϸѸˤƶ졤Ѹ˸褦ʡưθ塤ľŪפȤ§15ȾޤǤ˳ΩƤä (203)

Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-08-23-1]

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2012-08-17 Fri

#1208. ե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶɾ [french][syntax][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][norman_conquest][me][word_order][idiom][contact][french_influence_on_grammar]

Ѹե󥹸ϱѸθäƶڤܤޤֻˤƤαƶڤܤ֤ʤʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ礭ʤ
Ѹ˵äʸˡѲΤΤϡƿä̾졤ƻ졤̾졤ưζηϤϡξüʿѤˤάʤ줿ʸˡϤʤʤä礬SVOظ경ƤäΤ褦ʸˡѲ˥ե󥹸줬ľܤ˴ͿȤȤϤʤ
ˡɽ (idiom) ˡȤạ̈Ǥǡե󥹸αƶʤβǽˤ򤤤ĤŦ뤳ȤϤǤ (Baugh and Cable, p. 167 15򻲾ȡˡե󥹸줬Ѹäʬ˵ڤܤƶȤ٤٤ʤΤȤơե󥹸αѸؤľŪʱƶ϶ϾǤ롥
ŪʱƶȤȤǤС[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. ե󥹸ȤθܿȶޤοפǼ夲ե󥹸ĴʤФʤʤե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶϡޤפȸθĤĬή߳˿ʹԤ뤿μҲŪˤ롥Baugh and Cable (167) ɾѤ롥

It is important to emphasize that . . . changes which affected the grammatical structure of English after the Norman Conquest were not the result of contact with the French language. Certain idioms and syntactic usages that appear in Middle English are clearly the result of such contact. But the decay of inflections and the confusion of forms that constitute the truly significant development in Middle English grammar are the result of the Norman Conquest only insofar as that event brought about conditions favorable to such changes. By removing the authority that a standard variety of English would have, the Norman Conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked. Beyond this it is not considered a factor in syntactic changes.


Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2012-06-14 Thu

#1144. Ѹˤ԰פ [number][agreement][prescriptive_grammar][syntax][singular_they]

Ȥʤ̾μȡбưμפʤϡŤʳαѸˤ⸽Ѹˤ¿ǧ롥Ѹˤ뤳ɽȤƤϡ[2012-03-16-1]εǼ夲 singular they ʤɤ󤲤褦Reid ˴Ťƣ (85--86) ˤС԰פϡ3ʬ롥ʲʸǡ԰פʬ֤Ǽ

(A) Τξñξʣ

At ADT (security systems) 98 years' experience have taught us that no one alarm device will foil a determined burglar.
Five years ago 5 per cent of tax returns were subject to review. Today, only one per cent are subject to review.
The whole process of learning a first and second language are so completely different. (Laura Holland)
Rudolph is especially effective in crowd scenes like the opening, where movement of people and camera are delicately braided, where odd characters flutter through the background unemphasized. (Stanley Kauffman, The New Republic)

(B) Τξʣξñ

The sex lives of Roman Catholic nuns does not, at first blush, seem like promising material for a book. (Newsweek)
Two million dollars comes from corporations and foundations, but almost $400,000 from private gifts. (The New York Times)
Two drops deodorizes anything in your home. (Air freshner advertisement)
For one thing, the player is much closer to the instrument than the listener, and the sounds he hears is thus a different sound. (John Holt, Instead of Education)

(C) and Ϣ뤵줿2ĤμΡξñ

Gas and excess acid in your stomach is what we call Gasid Indigestion. (Alka-Seltzer commercial)
We know that the company's destiny and ours is the same.
Galloping horses and thousands of cattle is not necessary to cinema; I call that photography. (Alfred Hitchcock, radio interview)
I just want you to know that this whole Watergate situation and the other opportunities was a concerted effort by a number of people. (Jeb Magruder, Newsweek)

ʾϡΤοȡǰξǾȤ԰פȤ롥AγʸǤСȤʤ̾μؤƤΤñƤ 98 years', tax returns, a first and second language, people and camera ʣ򴭵뤿ᡤ˰ưʣǸƱƤȤȤǤ롥
μҲŪϽŪŪ¦̤ȡĿŪϰæŪʸŪ¦̤ȤΤ᤮礤ȸä褤ƣ (87) ΤȤФڤСΤ褦ˤʤ롥

̾οüԤ֤ˤäưȤθƱ줫ʬΤϤʤκ¸ߤƤͤȡθƱüԤ idiosyncratic ʸ촶Сstylistic ʹߤˤäƤȤפ뤬ä礭ʸ԰٤ȤĤȡüԤ־θƱˤȤ줺˼ͳˡñ뤤ʣθƱƹԤȤɽ1ĤηȻפ롥


ƣ ֱѸñʣˤĤơסإסرûظ浪ס331993ǯ69--88ǡ
Reid, Wallis. Verb and Noun Number in English: A Functional Explanation. London: Longman, 1991.

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2012-04-10 Tue

#1079. Rivarol Υե󥹸ͥº (3) [french][language_myth][word_order][syntax][inflection]

##626,1077,1078 ˰³Rivarol Υե󥹸ͥꡥε[2012-04-09-1] (3) ǡRivarol ˤȡե󥹸Ρ򤵡פȤϡޤηǡȴϢSVOθꤷ礽ΤΤǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤ޤ򤵤κ򤳤˵ΤǤСषѸΤۤǤȤȤŦϤδ顤Rivarol ɾ
ޤޤȤȤǤС̾졤̾졤ư졤ƻΤθˤƤ⡤Ѹե󥹸Τۤޤμ¿ե󥹸޸ȸƤ֤ˤ񹳤뤫⤷ʤѸ٤жŪǤȤϤäƤ褤Ϣơ˥եñ줬ѤƤŪ褯ݤƤȤŦˤĤƤϡñ줬˼ѤˤϳƤϤޤ뤳ȤǤꡤե󥹸˸¤ääǤϤʤ
ˡSVOθꤷ硤Ȥ櫓1ΰ֤ˤĤƤ⡤ϥե󥹸õǤϤʤषѸˤ褯ƤϤޤ쵬§Ǥ롥ºݡ Rivarol ΰʬߤƤ⡤Lodge (24) λŦ褦, "C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté" que Ǥϼư줬֤Ƥ롥ƱͤˡĥäʸΤǤϡ"aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles" ˸褦ˡư֤Ϥ̤˸ (Lodge 26--27) ϡ"on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe" ֺǤѲ٤ư䤢ˡμʤѤƤθ򱣤ȤƤ̵̤ǤꡤθϾ¸ߤʤΤǤפȤ Rivarol μĥȤϴȿ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦 Rivarol ŪȽ뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݤȽϤʤƤ褦ǤöŤƤޤȡäȤ䤽äȤȿǤϤĤʤΤäȤΤǤ롥Ի׵ĤʤΤϡե󥹸Ȥư͡ΤߤοäƤȤȤǤФޤǤΤѸüԤǤƱäƤԤʤʤˤäƤϸؼԤǤäݤޤƤޤäƤȤȤ (Lodge 25--26) Rivarol οäθŪȽϤ䤹Ȥ⡤ʤοä褦ˤʤäΤȤ䤤ˤϡӡȹȤȤҲŪʥץɬפˤʤäƤθȤƤϡΤ褦ޤǤɬפȻפ

Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
Lodge, Anthony. "French is a Logical Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 23--31.

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2012-04-09 Mon

#1078. Rivarol Υե󥹸ͥº (2) [french][language_myth][word_order][syntax][inflection]

ε[2012-04-08-1]ʵڤ[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥ե󥹸ŪʸǤפȤáסˤ˰³Rivarol ̾¡ʸ Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français ʤ餶Υե󥹸ˤ餺פطʤˤĤƤꡥRivarol ϡ¾ʼ˱Ѹƥˤ¾٤ơե󥹸ΤɤΤ褦ʸħͥƤȹͤƤΤȯꤽ줾1ļ夲褦

(1) ե󥹸ȯϡե󥹤첻¿Ǥ褯Ĥ̥ե󥹤餫Ǥ롥̵ e ϡӤκǸοưӤ졤鷺Ĵ¤߽Ф (119)
(2) νƥθϱˤƤꡤ뤳Ȥ˼ѤƤե󥹸θϡʤȤֻϤ褯Ƚ̤Ǥ (102) Rivarol ϡä˱Ѹ˼ѤƤʤֻμΧ򼺤äƤʤեñǰƬƤ롥˭٤äƥθޤȤȤƤäΤФơե󥹸϶ޤ˰¸Ƥ餺촴ȤʴطݤäƤ뤫ȤͤΤ褦Ǥ롥ƥ˸褦ʷ㤷ޤκѤϤष򤵤»ʤȤϡ (3) ˤطƤ롥
(3) ե󥹸򤵤ϡSVOθθˤäƳݤƤ롥SVOθϡľŪɬŪǡפꡤּפˤʤäƤꡤʹ֤Ρ־QפȡפˤäƤȤŪ֤ˡǤϤʤǮͥ褵ʤǤꡤե󥹸ʳ¿θ줬ΰ˴٤äƤ롥ޤȯãƥʤɤϡ礬ꤷƤʤˡषΰ˴٤䤹

ʸɤǽΤäΤ̾ʸˤ "clair" Ȥϼ¤ΤȤSVOθΤȤˤۤʤʤΤǤ롥(2) ˤ (3) ˤϢޤηǡȸθȤȤǤСˤ⡤ѸΤۤե󥹸Ǥ롥䡤ѸϤ̤Ǥϰ²桤ü򤤤äƤ[2011-02-12-1]ε#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language."פ򻲾ȡˡRivarol Ѹη˴̵ΤäȤϻפʤˡȯˤϼ򤫤ʤ
³뤬 Rivarol ̾ʸʸ̮碌ưѤƤʸ̮ΤλѤΤǤ롥

   Ce qui distingue notre langue des langues anciennes et modernes, c'est l'ordre de la construction de la phrase. Cet ordre doit toujours être direct et nécessairement clair. Le français nomme d'abord le sujet du discours, ensuite le verbe qui est l'action, et enfin l'objet de cette action : voilà la logique naturelle à tous les hommes; voilà ce qui constitue le sens commun. Or cet ordre, si favorable, si nécessaire au raisonnement, est presque toujours contraire aux sensations, qui nomment le premier l'objet qui frappe le premier. C'est pourquoi tous les peuples, abandonnant l'ordre direct, ont eu recours aux tournures plus ou moins hardies, selon que leurs sensations ou l'harmonie des mots l'exigeaient; et l'inversion a prévalu sur la terre, parce que l'homme est plus impérieusement gouverné par les passions que par la raison.
   Le français, par un privilège unique, est seul resté fidèle à l'ordre direct, comme s'il était tout raison, et on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe; et c'est en vain que les passions nous bouleversent et nous sollicitent de suivre l'ordre des sensations : la syntaxe française est incorruptible. C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté, base éternelle de notre langue. Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français; ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin. Pour apprendre les langues à inversion, il suffit de connaître les mots et leurs régimes; pour apprendre la langue française, il faut encore retenir l'arrangement des mots. On dirait que c'est d'une géométrie tout élémentaire, de la simple ligne droite, que s'est formée la langue française, et que ce sont les courbes et leurs variétés infinies qui ont présidé aux langues grecque et latine. La nôtre règle et conduit la pensée; celles-là se précipitent et s'égarent avec elle dans le labyrinthe des sensations et suivent tous les caprices de l'harmonie : aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles, et la nôtre les eût absolument décriés. (112--13)


Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.

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2012-02-11 Sat

#1020. nor ... nor عʸ [syntax][negative]

Ѹˤ so ... that if ... then both ... and ϤȤơ͡عʸѰդƤ롥³ɤ뤤³Ȼؼ줬Фˤʤäơ¤ʤΤ
Τ褦عʸϸűѸǤꡤ[2011-07-18-1]ε#812. The sooner the betterפǼ褦ˡФʤξθ줬ƱǤΤʤʤä (ex. þā ... þā "when ..., (then)"þǣr ... þǣr "where ..., (there)", ge ... ge "both ... and", ne ... ne "neither ... nor") εǡƱξ¦ѤعʸǸߤˤޤǻĤäƤΤ The sooner ... the better Υפ餤ǤϤʤȽҤ٤ʤȤϤʤä
˻פĤΤȤ as ... as 롥ˤϡ[2011-03-21-1]ε#693. as, so, alsoפǸ褦ˡso ... so ʤɤΥꥨ⤢ä
ơ⤦1ĤϤʤŤᤫɸ˷Ǥ nor ... nor ʤ빽ʸ롥neither ... nor Ʊǡḽ夫鼡Τ褦ʸߤĤ롥

Nor silver nor gold can buy it. ʶǤʤʤ
Nor he nor I was there. ⤽ˤʤä
I nor fear her frown nor trust her smile. Ե򶲤Ϥʤ,ޤΤۤۤߤѤ⤷ʤ
Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace to-night. ʺŷϤʿ¤ǤϤʤä (Shak., Caesar 2.2.1)


츫ȡűѸ ne ... ne ȻƤꡤƱ餤ŤɽʤΤȵäƤޤԤ̤꼭ȼʤˡȤƤ϶äƤǤ롥OED "nor", conj.1 2. b. "Introducing both alternatives" Chiefly poet. Ȥꡤ1576ǯ ne ʤɤԤƤꡤʸȤȤƤŪʸ̮Ǥnor ... nor ʤäΤǤ롥ʤ ne ԤƤʸ̮Ǥ nor ... nor ιʸϡѸ줫鸽ߤˤޤϢʤ³Ƥ롥ѸǤϡMED "nor" (conj.) ʸ뤷ѸǤ They did not wait for you, nor for me, nor for anybody. ʤɤ㤬롥
äơnor ... nor ñȤعʸʤˡϡűѸˤޤ̤櫓ǤϤʤѸ˻Ĥ롤ͣȤϤ鷺ȤʤƱ֤ˤعʸ1ĤȤϡ°عʸʤ¾ȰۤʤꡤعʸǤ롥ǧΤǤС[2011-07-12-1]εǰä what with A and what with B ǧ뤳Ȥˤʤ

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