hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     ڡ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ڡ / page 14 (17)

syntax - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2015-01-08 Thu

#2082. 夷ʤä° *the knight of his [genitive][article][syntax][do-periphrasis][timeline][synthesis_to_analysis][double_genitive]

ѸˤˤϡѲABBAȤѲˤäƤޤ븽ݤ뤳ȤꡤϤФФݤޥΰˤʤ館ơ֥衼͡ (Duke of York) ȸƤФ줿衼ͤʼٻξ˾夲ơ줫鲼̤򸫤лϲѤäƤʤ츫̵̣˸뤽ιưˤⲿͳäϤǡֱѸˤˤΤ褦ѲȤˤϤظˤɤʰ̣Τͤʤ礭ʿ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥פȤΤζǤä


괧ȼ°ʹ¤˴ؤʸνФǡ (179) ʾΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ѸˤΤʤ "Duke of York" ŵϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) #491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1]) ǤߤʿʸǤ do ˡȯãȿǤ롥16˰٤ȯã17ˤϿषɡ夹˻ʤäۤˤϡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) #1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]) 󤲤롥
äƤ°ʤȤ a knight of his this hat of mine Τ褦ʹ¤Ǥ롥ѸǤ *a his knight *this my hat Τ褦˴졦ؼȽͭ̾ܤ뤳ȤǤŪ°ʹ¤ѤȤƵǽ롥ι¤εΩˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬a his knight Ȥ饹ȤѸ°̾ his ֤ of ȤȤ˸褦ˤʤäȤ⤬ͭϤǤʵp. 183ˡ̾űѸ줫ѸˤƤ°ʹ¤ȯãǤϡ°̾줬֤뤫 of ִ뤫Τ줫ä°ʤξˤϡξäƤޤäȤȤ
°ʤȯãϡ14ȾФ a man of þair (a man of theirs) ΥפϤޤꡤ̾νͭԤ򼨤 an officer Of the prefectes ؤ⹭ä100ǯˤϡؼȼ this stede of myne Υפ괧ȼ the fellys of Thomas Bettsons Υפ줿4ԤΤǸ괧ȼΤΤߤष17˾äƤä
ϡκǸΥפ˴ؤ "Duke of York" θݤDȤǽƤȯȳΩˤäưŪ˲ǽȤʤäΤΡǽŪˤϡְ̣Ū괧 the ɬʤ (192) ԲǽȤʤäΤȤʬϤ롥DȤǽƤȯȳΩϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ°ʤȤع¤ȯãΤͭŪ˴ؤ븽ݤȹͤ졤°ʤȯã⤽礭ȤߤΤʤª٤ȤĥˤĤʤcf. #1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])ˡ  *
괧쥿פοˤĤơϰ̣ŪɬƤ뤬Ϲʸ;ȸƤ褤⤷ʤyour car üŪɽǤȤ虜虜Ū the car of yours ɽɬפϤʤȤʵp. 193ˡ
"Duke of York" ظˤ礭ʿ¤õȤΤϡΤ˱Ѹˤ礭̥Ϥ1ĤǤ롥

塡ֱѸˤΤʤ "Duke of York"ס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ179--96ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-12-1]

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2014-09-19 Fri

#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ [drift][grammaticalisation][generative_grammar][syntax][auxiliary_verb][teleology][language_change][unidirectionality][causation][diachrony]

Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤ򼨤ȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥

Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)


So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)


Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ

Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.

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2014-09-16 Tue

#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬ [componential_analysis][semantics][antonymy][hyponymy][syntax]

Ūʰ̣Ǥϡΰ̣򡤰̣ʬ뤤ϰ̣θ (semantic components or primitives) ؤʬ򤹤ʬʬ (componential_analysis) μˡΤƤϡˤֲǤ«ǤפȤͤΰ̣ˤѤΤǤ롥
̣ʬϡǤˤƱͤˡѳ̤ˤäɽʤФ + - դΩȤɽ蘆뤬ʲǤϤĤƤʤˡȤơȿ˻Ҥɽ魯 bachelor ʬʬϤ򼨤

bachelor [MALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]


Ǥϡbachelor γǰỤ̄4ĤʬȤ߹碌ȤƼƤ롥Ȥ߹碌ʤ bachelor ΤΤǤȲ᤹ΤפǤ롥षȤ߹碌ˤäƴϢ¾θȤθỤ̄ŪطΤˤʤȤǡʬʬϤͭѤʤΤǤ롥㤨СȿȽɽ魯 spinster ϡΤ褦ʬʬϤ

spinster [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]


4ĤʬȤ߹碌 spinster ΤΤǤȤϡbachelor ʬʬϤӤȤߴطΤˤʤȤ礭ʤbachelor spinster ϤȤ [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED] ȤǤ϶̤뤬[MALE] [FEMALE] 1ˤ㤤ˤäơΤȤеطȤʤ뤳ȤƤ롥spinster ȴϢơwoman wife ʬʬϤ⼨

woman [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN]
wife [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [MARRIED]


spinster woman ϡԤ [UNMARRIED] ȤʬͿʤȤ1ˤưۤʤäƤꡤΤȤԤԤξ̸ (hypernym) Ǥ뤳ȤȽ롥ޤspinster wife δطˤĤƤϡ[UNMARRIED] [MARRIED] Ȥ1ˤΩ򼨤еȤȤˤʤ롥ˡ*The man is a wife. ΰ̣Ū̷⡤줬 [MALE] ʬޤǤΤˡҸƤʤ [FEMALE] ʬޤǤ뤳ȤˤǤ롥ʬʬϤκŦȡäˤȿдط (antonymy)ݴط (hyponymy)̷طʤɳƼδطŪɽǤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ۤˤ⡤ʬʬϤϡŪŪ (selection restriction) εҤˤϤȯʤɡͭǧƤ롥
Katz Fodor ʤɤ̣ԤϡʬʬϤιͤȯŸơ㤨С#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1]) 褦ʬϤʤ᤿ɤޤǤ⥢ꥹȥƥ쥹Ūʬˡǰ̣򰷤ȤʬʬϤμˡˤϡǰȽƤŪ񤷤꤬ŦƤ⤤뤬̣ʬϤͭϤˡ1ĤȤơޤ˱ƶϤ򼺤äƤʤ
ʾ塤Saeed (259--66) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2014-09-11 Thu

#1963. ʸʸˡ [bnc][construction_grammar][syntax][cognitive_linguistics][prototype][web_service][speech_act][generative_grammar]

ʸʸˡ (construction grammar) ϡλȾδ֤ȯŸƤǧθؤ˴ŤʸˡǤ롥Lakoff, Fillmore, Goldberg, Kay ʤɤˤäƤ
ʸȤªΤΤϡˤĹ롥¤ؤǤ뤵Ƥήʸפιͤ⡤ض̤ƹΤƤ롥ʸˡоˤꡤιʸʸв졤ŪӸݤȤư褦ˤʤä
1970ǯȾǧθؤˤꡤʸñ˷ŪʴǤϤʤǽỤ̄Ūʴ饢ץ褦ˤʤäιʸϡع¤ΤǤϤʤ켫Ȥλʤˤΰ̣ľܹ׸ñ̤ǤȤͤ㤨СMe write a novel?! Ȥ츫˳Ūʹʸϡ켫ΤȼαΧʼȽ徺ĴΥȥ͡ӤӤˤȼ֤פްդ롥ޤThere's the bell! Τ褦ʹʸϡͺؤ夲ưȤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿γФľפɽ魯ȤäʸʸˡǤϡʸΤΤ̣ѡΧʤɤꤷƤª롥
ʸ̣ʤɤꤷƤȤäƤ⡤εζѰۤ롥㤨СIs A B? ιʸŵŪ˼ȯù԰٤ɽ魯Is that a fact? ϡ̾ǤϤʤüԤζäɽ魯ʤŪȯù԰ (indirect speech_act) Τ褦ˡʸʸˡϡʸȤΰ̣δطץȥŪ˹ͤɬפȼĥ롥ޤ귿ʸȤʤȡΤʤθ¾ΤΤ˸򴹤Ǥʤʤʤɡ̣ŪŪͻ̤Τʤʤ륱⤢롥㤨СThanks a lot, Thanks a million ȯŸ Thanks a billion ϲǽ*Thanks a hundred ԲǽȤʤ롥day in day out, month in month out ϲĤminute in minute out century in century out ԲĤǤ롤 (Taylor 225--28)
ʸʸˡϾ嵭Τ褦ʸˡؤΥꥢȤƤǯǤʸˡ¦Ǥ⹽ʸʸˡȿΤȿʬʤɤȯŸƤƤ롥ʸħˤʤäƤȤ
ʸʸˡȤߤ BNC ʸ˹ʸդǡ١http://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/ ǸƤꡤΥ󥿡եꥢǤ롥ܤ٤Ѹ칽ʸϿƤ롥

Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.

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2014-06-25 Wed

#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ [aave][creole][pidgin][sociolinguistics][ame][caribbean][syntax][be][aspect][inflection][3sp][variety][existential_sentence]

#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħ򼨤Ȥ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤ򽸤Ƥ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ򤷤̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7󤲤褦

(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥ󥰥ɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ

(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ

(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡ󽬴ȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤ򤨤ʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥ꡼Ȥͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥

(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥

(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ

(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ

(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ

1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE Ȥƥꥫ񳰤ذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬󥰥ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬Ǥȹͤ򤨤ʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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2014-06-07 Sat

#1867. May the Queen live long! θ [word_order][syntax][auxiliary_verb][subjunctive][pragmatics][optative][may]

Ѹˤϡư may Ѥιʸ롥ֽСפɽ魯ɸʸΤ褦ˡmay + + ưפȤˤΤ§Ǥ롥ߤǤϤƷĥäʸǤꡤ㤨 May you succeed! ФơǤ I hope you'll succeed. ۤɤǺѤޤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪʸȤơthat Τʤ may Ѥ I hope you may succeed. I wish it may not prove true. Let us pray that peace may soon return to our troubled land. Τ褦ʸ⸫롥may εʵڤӼˤˡ󤲤褦

May you be very happy! ʤ¿򵧤ޤ
May the new year bring you happiness! (褤ǯ򤪷ޤ
May it please your honor! ʶʤ鿽夲ޤ
May he rest in peace! ΰ¤餫̲󤳤Ȥ򡥡
May you have a long and fruitful marriage. ʤ¤ꤢ뺧ޤ褦ˡ
May all your Christmases be white! ʥۥ磻ȥꥹޥǤޤ褦ˡ
May I never see the like again! ʤʤ٤ȸʤ
May his evil designs perish! μٰʷײ褬ޤ褦ˡ
May you live to repent it! ʺ˸Ф褤
May you rot in hell! Ϲ


嵭θθ§æ롤Much good may it do you! ʤ줬ˤʤޤ褦ˡˡLong may he reign. बĹ󤳤Ȥ򡥡ˡA merry Play. Which this may prove. ʷࡤ줬󤳤Ȥ򡥡ˤΤ褦ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
Ūʴߤȡˡư may εˡϡΩĻˤŪѤƤ³ˡưȤȯŸƤаޤ롥ޤҤ I hope you may succeed. Τ褦ˡư˸³ that ˤˡȯãȤή⤢롥ή1500ǯդ˹ήḽΡֵ mayפ줿OED Ǥ may, v. 1 θ12ˡ˳뤬16ΤΤǤ롥ǽοƤߤ褦

   [1501 in A. W. Reed Early Tudor Drama (1926) 240 Wherfore that it may please your good lordship, the premisses tenderly considered to graunt a Writ of subpena to be directed [etc.].]
   1521 Petition in Hereford Munic. MSS (transcript) (O.E.D. Archive) I. ii. 5 Wherefore it may please you to ennacte [etc.; cf. 1582--3 Hereford Munic. MSS (transcript) II. 265 Maye [it] pleas yo(ur)r worshipes to caule].
   1570 M. Coulweber in J. W. Burgon Life Gresham II. 360 For so much as I was spoyled by the waye in cominge towards England by the Duke of Alva his frebetters, maye it please the Queenes Majestie [etc.].


it may please . . . may it please . . . 귿ʸФmay + ư + פθɬ⸶§ȤϤʤäƤʤ褦
θ塤ֹ¤ŪˤʤäƤ椯ηаޤͳˤĤƤϾܤ餫ˤʤḽѸˤ³ˡλ褬Suffice it to say . . ., Be that as it may, Come what may ʤɤθ˸뤳ȤȲط뤫⤷ʤ
Quirk et al. (3.51) ˤСˡ֤ may "pragmatic particle" ȤƵǽƤȤ3;ΤФ̿Ȥ Let them come here Let the world take notice. ˤʸƬ let ƱͤθŪʵǽ̤Ƥ롥̻ŪʸȤȤ館Ȥ⤷꤫⤷ʤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2014-04-21 Mon

#1820. c-command [syntax][generative_grammar][terminology][ppcme2][ppceme][ppcmbe]

#310. PPCMBE ǹѸ̻ ([2010-03-03-1]) ǡPenn Parsed Corpora of Historical English Ҳ𤷤Helsinki Corpus ١Ȥʤĥä˱Ѹ쥳ѥǡܺ٤˹ʸϤ줿 Penn-Treebank format ˤĥ꡼Ȥ⸡ǤΤħǤ롥ηϤʣǡCorpusSearch ʤüʥץѤƸɬפ⤢ꡤ鿴ԤȤʤˤߵ郎⤤ŪΤ˵ꤵ줿ʸ򽸤ȤäӤǤϡΤȤ Penn Ϥιʸϥѥ (PPC) ˤʤΤϤʤ
PPC ιʸϤŪפʸˡѤѸü첽ΤΤǤϤʤŪŪʤΤʤΤǡ̤ƤʤȤⲿȤѤϤǤ롥㤨СCorpusSearch ̿ᷲˡ"Dominates", "iDominates" (=immediately dominates), "HasSister", "IsRoot" ʤɤ뤬ĥ꡼ΤϤΤäƤСѸ줬ؤط򤹤뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤ
˵󤲤Τ⾯ä̿ˡ"CCommands" ȤΤ롥c-commandc-Ȥϡ1980ǯȯŸ« (binding theory) ˤƹڤ줿طǤ롥«ϡUG (universal grammar) ΰ̸§ΤʤǤˤʤΤȤäƸ椵줿ǤꡤȤ櫓Ƶ̾ʤɤɽȱ (anaphora) ̾졤¾̾ȡԻȤδطꤹ븶§ɵ椷ŪȯŸβǡȤ櫓פȤ褦ˤʤäط1Ĥc-Ǥ롥ۤˡϢοΤ« (binding) Ψ (government) 롥
ʲǡc- (c-command) « (binding) ˤĤƳ⤷褦βͶĥ꡼ˤơ

Syntax Tree for C-Command 1

B C F c-椷Ƥ
C F ϤȤ B, D, E c-椷Ƥ
D E E D c-椷Ƥ

ȸ롥ˤС X ۤƤǽλʬ̤ Y ۤƤȤX Y c-command סաp. 86ˡ
ʸˡ c-椬׻뤵줿ΤϡƵ̾Ȥ줬ؤԻδطꤹ뤿ˡc-ȤطṲ̄Ȥ狼äƤʲ2Ĥʸͤ褦

(1) *John's mother criticized himself.
(2) John's mother criticized herself.

Syntax Tree for C-Command 2

ʸ (1) Ǥϡ"John" NP ۤƤǽλʬ TP Τ NP Ǥ뤫顤"John" "mother" c-command Ƥ뤳ȤˤϤʤäƤ⡤"himself" c-command Ƥ뤳ȤˤϤʤʤ"himself" Ω줫餤С"John" c-command ƤʤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʾ硤ʤ "himself" "John" «ƤʤˤϡȱΩʤȤΤѸǤΥ롼Ǥ롥
ʸ (2) ǤϡƵ̾ "herself" "John's mother" ɽ NP ԻȤƤ뤬 NP ۤƤǽλʬ TP Ǥ뤫顤"John's mother" "herself" c-command Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥"herself" Ω줫餤С"John's mother" c-command Ƥꡤ«ƤΤǡȱΩġʸˡȤϡc-桤«Ȥطε̤ơѸξȱ˴ؤ̸§줿ȹͤ
PPC äȡ㤨 his ouermoch fearinge of you Τ褦̾򸡺Τˡ"CCommands" Ȥ̿ˤ̾줬̤̾ c-椷Ƥ褦̾פȤꤹФ褤ʣΤȤǡ authentic ʸФȤˡPPC CorpusSearch ϰϤȯ롥

ʸˡ١ҡ2009ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-24-1]

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2014-04-15 Tue

#1814. 18--19 be λο CLMET dzǧ [perfect][clmet][corpus][syntax][be][auxiliary_verb][aspect][participle][lmode]

#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ǡѰư (mutative verb) ϡ18ޤǡ̾ be + ʬȤǴλäƤȤ򸫤ѸˤǤϡ be λ18դ򶭤˿ΰӤ򤿤ɤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤƤ롥#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 CLMET3.0 ϡ1710--1920ǯ򥫥С3,400줫ʤ緿Х󥹥ѥǤꡤμθѲɤˤϺŬʥ꥽ȻפΤǡѤ be λοǧƤߤ
ϡεǤ夲7ĤѰư (arrive, become, come, fall, flee, grow; go) ˸ꤷCLMET3.0 3Ĥλʬ (1710--1780, 1780--1850, 1850--1920) 6ĤΥʬ (Narrative fiction, Narrative non-fiction, Drama, Letters, Treatise, Other) ˤäơѥ򽦤ä3ĤλΥ֥ѥεϤϤ褽Ʊ٤̤Υ֥ѥϡ[2013-10-20-1]ɽǼ褦ˡNarrative fiction 礭ФäƤΤǡβˤդפ롥ʲ(1)--(7) ˳ư˴ؤܤѤ߾夲ա(8), (9) 7ưҤä᤿̡ư̤Υ򼨤Ѥ߾夲դ򼨤(1)--(6) ˤĤƤϡӤΤYκͤ·Ƥ롥ǡեɽϥHTML򻲾Ȥ줿

Be Perfect with Seven Verbs


ưˤäƿΥԡɤ˼㴳ΰ㤤ߤ뤬ΤȤƵ޷˿षȤϡŪ䤫ˡ¤˿षƤäȤݤ롥(7) go ϡʸѸǤ be gone ǥಽƻĤäƤ뤳Ȥʬ褦ˡ˸ѸˤϤۤǤ餺¾ư礭äƤ뤿ˡ(8) (9) ˼褦 be λο¿ʤȤĤƤ뤳Ȥˤդɬפ롥

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2014-03-07 Fri

#1775. rob A of B [preposition][syntax][word_order]

å of ȸƤФ롤ֻ of ˡ롥ɸιʸϡABåפȤդˤʤ뤬ܸȤѸؽԤδФȤƤϡषBAåפʤΤǤϤʤȴ졤ɤˤ¤꤬Ѹˤƶˤ٤ι⤤ֻ of ϡʬΥֻ off ƱǤꡤŪˤԤԤǤȤˤʤĤޤꡤof ˤ off ˤ衤ŪʸʬΥåʤΤ顤ɸιʸ take A from B ۤɤΰ̣ȤƲǤΤǤмȤºݤΰ̣ϡ take B from A ǡǤ롥
1ǯۤΤȤˤʤ뤬к۰ˡιʸ˴ؤ򤤤ܤΤĤαʸˡǡιʸˤĤơA B ؤ transposition ȤݤȤž⤬ƤȤҤΤ褦ˡΤ of ̾礬ž֤Ƥ褦˻פΤǡľŪ˼줽ˤϻפ롥Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡžñ˼櫓ˤϤʤ褦ΤȤˤޤȤ᤿кؤܥ֥Ƿ֤ˤʤΤʲˤʸϤǺܤ롥

OED ʻĴ٤¤ꡤŪ transposition λ¤ͤߤ뤳ȤϤǤޤǤ
ޤtransposition ȤݤäȤȤ¾ڤǤ뤫ɤrob ˤȤäƸƤƤߤޤrob him of money Ȥʸϡtransposition ä̤Ǥȼĥ뤿ˤϡ

(1) б rob money of him Ūˤäȡ
(2) rob money of him ΥפŪǤ뤳

2򼨤ɬפȹͤޤ
(1) ǤOED dzǧ¤ꡤΤ rob money of him ιʸŪˤ¸ߤޤֻ from ¿褦Ǥof ⤢ޤ (OED rob, v. 5) MED ǤƱͤ˳ǧޤ
(2) Ǥrob him of money rob money of him ϽФϤ줾 a1325c1330(?a1300) Ǥ٤ΰ㤤Ǥϡɤ餬ŪΩäƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ褦˻פޤʤdeprive ˤĤƤϡԥפ c1350ԥפ c1400 (?c1380) ǤΤǡ̤˿ȤСdeprive him of money ΩäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
ưˤĤƤѸdzǧǽξʸ¸ƤȹͤƤ褵ǤΤǡtransposition λ¤ϡɤξڵ˰͵򤹤뤫ꡤŪˤϳǧǤʤȤˤʤޤ
ʾꡤtransposition β⼫ΤѲ뤳ȤϤǤʤŪˤᤤ㤬ȯС(2) ƹͤưŤˤϤʤޤˤΤΡtransposition äѶŪ˼ĥ뤳ȤϤǤʤ褦˻פޤ
⤦äޤȡrob deprive ϼѸʤΤǸűѸˡޤ̤뤳ȤϤǤޤ󤬡bereave ˤĤƤǤΤ̤뤳ȤǤޤbereave him of money ʤɤιʸǡűѸǤ of money ʬ°ʤɽ蘆Ƥޤ줬Ѹʹߤ of ִ줿ȤΤѸˤǤǤMustanoja 88ˡbereave money from (out of) him ιʸ (of ΤߤȤʸϤʤ褦Ǥˤ14˽Ƴǧޤưξˤϡ餫 bereave him of money ΥפŪΩäƤޤbereave ȡrob deprive ɤޤʿŪ˹ͤƤ褤ΤȤϤޤ⤷Τ褦˹ͤ뤳ȤȤС (2) μĥФѶŪȿڤȤʤޤ
ξڵ󶡤ƤƤ OED Ȥof, prep. 5a(b) ǡå of ˡ "by a kind of transposition" ȤƸڤƤΤˤʤޤ祤ʤȤǤ͡
¾åưηŪĴ٤ʤкǽŪʷФȤϤǤޤ󤬡ʳǤϡŪʴϡtransposition ȤˤϻǤޤ


ε򿶤֤äƤߤȡȤƤ transposition äȤʤäȤƤ餺ˤΤޤä褦ʴǤ롥äĴ٤Ƥߤɬפ롥
ʤrob åˤƱʸưȤƤϡclear ҤŤˡcure ʼŤˡdeprive åˡempty ʶˤˡrelieve ʼƤˡrid ʼˡstrip ʤϤȤˤʤɤ롥碌ƹθ٤

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2013-12-28 Sat

#1706. Ѹ one the most [syntax][me][superlative][sggk]

αѸޥ󥹤η Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ǡФεΤо줹 (ll. 135--56) ǡɸΡone the + ǾפɽʰѤ Andrew and Waldron Ǥˡ

Þer hales in at þe halle dor an aghlich mayster,
On þe most on þe molde on mesure hyghe;


On þe most ϡ"the very biggest (one)" ۤɤζĴ줿̣"one of the very biggest (ones)" Ȥ϶̤뤳Ȥդ줿Ǿ򶯤Ư򤹤 one ˡǤ롥ѸǤˤ˸ˡǡMED Ǥ ōn (pron.) θ 7b ΤȤˡ¿㤬󤲤Ƥ롥OED Ǥϡone, adj., n., and pron. θФȤΤȤ C. pron. 3a ˡεҤ롥
Mustanoja (297) ˤȡthe + Ǿפˡthe + פȤ㤬 Trin. Hom. 185 1ĤȤ

þat is þat bihotene lond, þar is on þe wunsume bureh and on þe hevenliche wunienge þar alle englen inne wunien


the + ǾפΤ̤ۤǤꡤˡ11ʸڤ롥ane þa mæstan synne, on þe fairest toun, oon the grettest remedye, oon the unworthieste, oon the beste knyght, on þe sellokest swyn ʤˤȤޤʤˡ16ˤϤޤȤʤꡤSpenser Shakespeare ۤܺǸλѼԤȤʤ롥ޤˡѸ˲ڡ餤ƻäդɽäȤ롥
Middle High German, Early Modern High German, Middle Low German, Middle Dutch, Old NorseSwedish ʤ¾Υޥˤбɽʸڤ졤ꥷ μóνος ƥ unus ζĴˡˤ̤Ȥꡤޤե󥹸 une dame la plus belle ˤӤΤǡѸ one the most ηˤϤδͿΤǤϤʤȵ⤢뤬Mustanoja (298--99) ϱѸȼȯãȸƤ롥

There is every reason to look upon the types one the good man and one the best man as natural outgrowths of the organic structural pattern of native linguistic usage. They offer striking parallels to the common OE type min se leofa (leofesta) freond. The characteristic feature in constructions of this kind is the isolation of an attribute or other defining word from the noun or noun-group by means of an intervening element (called a Gelenkspartikel and particule d'articulation by German and French Romance scholars). This isolation has the effect of bringing out into relief the idea expressed by the attribute, i.e., of making this word and the whole group more emphatic.


one the + ǾȤΥ뤳ȤˤäŪڤӰ̣Ū˺ΩȤ˴ؤơMustanoja (299) ϼΤ褦ɽȤδϢŦƤ롥

This peculiar rhythmic arrangement, which probably has counterparts in most languages of the world, is responsible for such common types as all the world, both the(se) boys, half a bottle, too long a story, what a night, etc.


half a bottle Τ褦ɽθˤĤƤϡ#788. half an hour ([2011-06-24-1]) DZΧŪװMustanoja Τ褦˰̣ŪǽŪװθɬפ
one the most ηѸ˺餤ƻäɽȤȤǤСλޤ᤿̻ŪĴɬפȤʤ롥

Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2013-12-26 Thu

#1704. a great many years [syntax][phrase]

ɸζϸѸǤѤ뤬ʸˡŪˤɤΤ褦ʬϤΤmany years ȤĤʤȲ᤹ȡ¿ĴΤˤʤƻ great ѤΤǤʤ괧 a ԤΤ򤻤ʤΤ֤ʤ¿ǯפΰդȤʤ뤳ȤͽۤǤȤƤ⡤ʸˡŪˤϤɤʤäƤΤ긵ʣμǤϡʬϤˡa great [good] many ΤȤơάˡ֤ʤ¿Ρפɽ魯ϸȤȤ館Ƥ롥ʸϾʤ餺󤲤뤳ȤǤ롥

There were a great many people present there.
I've known her for a great many years.
A great many people who voted for her in the last election will not be doing so this time.
Most of the young men went off to the war, and a great many never came back.
We've both had a good many beers.


many ϡ¿פ̣̾ȤȤ館롥̾ʤΤ顤a great ǽƤΤԻ׵ĤϤʤȤ a great multitude ⤢Сa large number ⤢롥a great many years ξˤϡʣ̾ years ľܸ³ƤΤ̯ȤȤǤ롥*a great many of years Τ褦 of ߤƤ򤷤䤹a great many years ľܤ³ΤϤɤ櫓ƶŪʬϤ褦ȤСa great many years ƱʤȲ᤹ۤʤ
Ūˤϡɸζϡa great many of + ʣ̾פΤ褦ʹ¤ of æΤǤϤʤOED many, adj., pron., and n., and adv. θ 6.a ˤȡa great many of + ʣ̾פη16Ⱦ鸽롥ߤǤ of θˤϴ졤ؼ졤ͭƻȼä̾졤뤤̾줬Τ§Ť̾ʣñΤǸ뤳Ȥ⤢ä 6.b Ǥϡof ȼ鷺 a many ľʣ̾³ˡ󤬤äƤ롥a many + ʣ̾פη16Ⱦʸڤ졤Ĵa great many + ʣ̾פΤ褦ɽ⡤OED ʸȤƤ18鸽ƤʤºݤˤϤäᤫäǽ⤢ˡޤ 6.c Ǥ a great many ñΤ̾ȤѤˡҤƤ뤬ν16ȾФǤ롥
ŪΩ줫ŪʬϤ褦Ȥ̯ǤȤФݤʤ̻ŪΩǹͤа´¿ʤȤäʤfew ȤäƱͤɽȤ She must have cooked a good few dinners over the years. Τ褦⤢롥

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2013-12-04 Wed

#1682. Young as he is, he is rich. ιʸ [syntax][conjunction][analogy]

ɸʸϡѸʤɤǤ褯 as Ѥ⹽ʸǤ롥Though he is young, he is rich. ʤɤȸȤ롥ޤYoung though he is, he is rich. ȤȤǤΤǡˡȤƤ as = though ȹͤ褦ˤפ롥ȤȡȤʤƻ줬³˰ưȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
Ūˤߤȡas though ιʸεϰۤʤ롥ʸˡʤɤ˲⤵Ƥ̤ꡤas ξ⹽ʸϡAs young as he is, he is rich. κǽ As äΤǤꡤФӾɽ魯°ޤʸȤȤˤʤ롥ºݡä˥ꥫѸǤϺǽ As ⸫롥ޤǼФӾ򼨤ΤǤ뤫顤ΰ̣Ͼ˸ꤵʤʸ̮ˤäƤϡYoung as he is, he is reckless. Τ褦ˡͳɽ魯ȤȤʤꤦ롥OED as, adv. and conj. B. 4 򻲾ȤȡŪʵȯã褯狼롥
ιʸνФ1200ǯǡso young as . . . ηǸ롥϶ѸؤĤʤä

c1225 (?c1200) St. Katherine l. 173 (MED), Þohte þah..se ȝung þing as ha wes, hwet hit mahte ȝeinen þa heo hire ane were aȝein se kene keisere.


ˡ1300ǯ as young as . . . ηФߤޤ³

c1300 St. Michael (Laud) l. 656 in C. Horstmann Early S.-Eng. Legendary (1887) 318 (MED), And ȝeot, ase gret ase þe eorþe þinchez and ase luyte ase heo is, þare nis bote þat seouenþe del.


Ǹˡ17ˡƬ as ä young as . . . η롥

a1627 H. Shirley Martyr'd Souldier (1638) ii. sig. D2v, Darke as it is, by the twilight of my Lanthorne, Methinks I see a company of Woodcocks.


Young as he is . . . ιʸŪˤϾ嵭Τ褦ȯŸƤ櫓̣ŪŪ though ȴϢŤ褦ˤʤäΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥Young though he is . . . Ϥޤ֤ǤꡤƻǤϤʤưʶˤƬ뤳ȤǤ (ex. Go to Kyoto every week though he does, Jim likes Tokyo better.) 顤ƱȤ as ǤǤ褦ˤʤä (ex. Try as she may, she never seems to be able to do the work satisfactorily.) as though δ֤ˡŪ (analogy) Ѥ̤
as ΤιʸˤĤơٹ (p. 215fn) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤΤǡѤƤ

褳η as...as ǤäΤǡas ʸ˴פΤǤϤʤ as ʤæΤǤ롥Eliot The Mill of the Floss, I. iii Big a puzzle as it was, it hadn't got the better of Riley. Ȥʸ뤬Big μ a ΤΤʸƬˤ As ФλѤ򼨤ΤǤ롥


ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-08-1]

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2013-11-30 Sat

#1678. ư spare contronym? [antonymy][polysemy][syntax][contryonym]

츫ȿ1Ĥθ줬ȿ2Ĥθľ礬롥Τ褦ʸ contronym ȸƤФ졤ϡ#566. contronym ([2010-11-14-1]) #755. contronym ȤƤ literally ([2011-05-22-1]) #1308. learn Ρֶפθ ([2012-11-25-1]) ǵ󤲤⤦1ĤȤơư spare Ȥʤ뤫⤷ʤʸɤμȤǡΤ褦ʸ˽Ф路

But she does not spare us the information that it was drafted by a 'Marxist', even though there is nothing Marxist in the reasoning of the letter.


ʸ̮򻲾ȤȡϤ줬ޥ륯Ԥˤäƽ񤫤줿Ȥ桹˱ʤפȲ᤹٤Ȥ狼ꡤäƤǤ spare ϡͿʤǤפθȤ狼Τˤ spare ˤϡͿפθ⤢뤫狼ˤȻŦʤۤɡư spare ¼ŵǰȡˡͿ롤äƤ䤯פȤäȻפȡ̤θǤϡͿʤǤĤΤ줵פȤ롥ˡξȤ˺Τ褦 SVOO ʸǽǤꡤ츫ȤŪξʬʤϤʤ
Τ褦ʾˤϡܸǹͤˡѱѼŵѤƱѸˤðǰɤ߲򤯤Τ褤㤨 OALD8 ˤȡܸͿפΤϰʲθǤ롥

TIME/MONEY/ROOM/THOUGHT, ETC.
1 to make sth such as time or money available to sb or for sth, especially when it requires an effort for you to do this
. . . .
? sb sth Surely you can spare me a few minutes?


θǤϡľŪȤʤ̾礬̣Ū˸ꤵƤ뤳Ȥդ֡⡤ڡʤɤλ񸻤Ǥ롥Ūɽ蘆ʪˤȤäơֳݡפ뤳ȤåȤȤʤ롥ˡͿʤǤפߤ褦

SAVE SB PAIN/TROUBLE
2 to save sb/yourself from having to go through an unpleasant experience
? sb/yourself sth He wanted to spare his mother any anxiety.
Please spare me (= do not tell me) the gruesome details.
You could have spared yourself an unnecessary trip by phoning in advance.


θǤϡľŪȤʤ̾ϡԲʷиפɽ魯Ǥ롥Ūɽ蘆ʪˤȤäơֲפ뤳ȤåȤȤʤ롥
2Ĥθͤ碌ȡspare 濴Ūʰ̣ϡ֡ʴŪɽ蘆˿ʪˤȤäƥåȤȤʤ褦ˡľŪɽʪפȤȤˤʤ롥ŪʽϡοʪˤʪͿסʳݡˤȤȤ⤷ʤͿʤǤסʲˤȤȤ⤷ʤΤ줫ϡľŪɽ蘆ʪȤȤˤʤ롥
ֻѤعʸ򸫤ƤߤȡShe was spared from the ordeal of appearing in court. ʤɤǡfrom ˤäơͿʤǤסʲˤθ졤ξζ̤߲Ƥ롤2Ū칽ʸǤϤζ̤Ū¤ƤޤȤȤ
ܸ𤹤 spare contronym Ǥ뤫Τ褦˸뤬ѸȤƤϰӤǧΤǤ롥ʤƻ sparing ΡּǤʡʡפȡִʡιפθ⻲ȡ

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2013-11-22 Fri

#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement [generative_grammar][syntax][auxiliary_verb][lexical_diffusion][agreement][synthesis_to_analysis]

can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must Τ褦ʸѸˡưϡ̤ưȤϰۤʤä졦Ū񤤤򼨤͡ʺۤ뤬ʲˤĤ򼨤

(1) λȤʤ: *He has could understand chapter 4. (cf. He has understood chapter 4.)
(2) ʬȤʤ: *Canning understand chapter 4, . . . . (cf. Understanding chapter 4, . . . .)
(3) Ȥʤ: *He wanted to can understand. (cf. He wanted to understand.)
(4) ̤ˡư˸³ʤ: *He will can understand. (cf. He will understand.)
(5) ŪľܤˤϤȤʤ: *He can music. (cf. He understands music.)

űѸѸǤϡ嵭ʸб빽ʸϤ٤ƲǽäĤޤꡤˡưϡĤƤϰưäΤǤ롥ѸˤδפʤȤϡ(1)--(5) ˡưŪħġΡʽưˤäƻ֤ȤȤ˰ĤҤȤĽ˳줿ΤǤϤʤɤ餹٤Ƥħ쵤˳줿褦ȤȤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤθϡư줫ˡưؤȯŸƤäȤϡҤȤӤư줫ˡưؤڤؤäŪˤС16Ⱦ Sir Thomas More (1478--1535) ϡ(1)--(5) ʸȤιʸ򤹤٤ѤƤηѾԤ1ĤѤʤä (Lightfoot 29) Lightfoot ϡ16 V-to-I movement η̤ǤƤ롥
ѸѸ칽¤򤽤줾ڤǼ

a) Ѹ

b) Ѹ


Ѹι¤ꤹȡI ΰ֤ can Ƥ뤳Ȥˤꡤ(1)--(5) ʸʤǧʤΤŪ롥λʹԷ VP Ǻ뤿ˡγˤ can ˤϴͿʤɸ to ̤ˡư I 뤿ᡤcan Ȥ϶¸ǤʤI ľܤŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸι¤ꤹȡ̤Ƥ I ΰ֤ذư;Ϥ뤿ᡤ(1)--(5) θѸˤʸϡʸȤʤʤ
Ūʥ٥ǤѲʤʸˡѲϡġΡˡ˽ưˤĤƤϰۤʤ륿ߥ󥰤⤷ʤΤˤĤƤ (1)--(5) γƹܤҤȤޤȤˤǰ쵤ΤǤϤʤǵƤΤϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) Ǽ夲Ѳ "clusters" "bumpy" ȤǤ롥"clusters" Ȥñ̤ "bumpy" Ѳ켫ΤġΡˡ˽ưˤäưۤʤ륿ߥ󥰤뤳ȤϤ뤷ϤޤäѲ˸춦ƱΤعäƤ椯Ȥ⤢롥Ĥޤꡤ "bumpy" ĥ Lightfoot θѲϡ"gradual" ĥóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ɽŪˤ̷⤹褦Ǥʤ顤ºݤˤ̷⤷ʤΤǤ롥̷⤹褦̷⤷ʤȤˤĤơľ Lightfoot (30) ΤȤФѤ褦

The change in category membership of the English modals explains the catastrophic nature of the change, not in the sense that the change spread through the population rapidly, but that phenomena changed together. The notion of change in grammars is a way of unifying disparate phenomena, taking them to be various surface manifestations of a single change at the abstract level. Tony Kroch and his associates . . . have done interesting statistical work on the spread of such changes through populations of speakers, showing that it is grammars which spread: competing grammars may coexist in individual speakers for periods of time. They have shown that the variation observed represents oscillation between two fixed points, two grammars, and not oscillation in which the phenomena vary independently of each other.


"bumpy but gradual" ϡѲλŪǻɷŪǤ롥
ʤLightfoot ƱͤʬϤƱʸˡȤߤǤ⡤principles and parameters theory ѤʬϤΤ Roberts 롥Roberts (33) ˤСѸΰ (agreement) ˤϡŪʤΤŪʤΤؤΥѥ᡼ڤؤȤƲǤȤλ16ȤƤ롥ơˡ˽ư V-to-I movement ⤽礭ڤؤΰĤˤʤȤ

[T]he choice of a morphological or a syntactic agreement system is a parameter of UG. Our central proposal in this paper is that English has historically developed from having a morphological agreement system to having a syntactic agreement system: We propose that this parametric change took place during the sixteenth century. The development of a class of modal auxiliaries was part of this change.


Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
Roberts, I. "Agreement Parameters and the Development of English Modal Auxiliaries." Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 3 (1985): 21--58.

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2013-11-20 Wed

#1668. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (2) [adjective][syntax][french][latin][word_order][implicational_scale]

ε#1667. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (1) ([2013-11-19-1]) ³ԡѸˤˤơƻθֽϸűѸ줫鸫줿ֽѸǤϷ褷ƵǤϤʤäѸδֽ֤ͥȤʤä (Rissanen 209) Fischer (214) ˤȡLightfoot (205--09) ϡŪаޤƧޤ Greenberg ήθ෿˴Ťްռ (implicational scale) δ顤ƻ (Noun-Adjective) θοϡSOV (Subject-Object-Verb) θοϢưƤĤޤꡤSVO 夷ĤĤäѸǤƱ˷ƻ֤ȯãƤΤȤΤǤ롥SVOθȯãˤĤƤϡ#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ѸηƻθεҸߤ¤ꡤLightfoot ٤¤Ϥʤ㤨СSir Gawain and the Green Knight Ǥϡ8䤬ƻ֤Ǥꡤ֤򼨤Ĥ2Τ2/3㤬ΧˤȤޤͽۤȤꡤʸ걤ʸΤۤŪ¿ֽ򼨤ˡֽηƻϡե󥹸 "learned adjectives" (Fischer 214) Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ä (ex. oure othere goodes temporels, the service dyvyne) Ĥޤꡤ̾Ȥ碌ơɽ¿ϥե󥹸δɽäȹͤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥
Ѹˤ뤳ηϡѸˤ³Rissanen (208) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The order of the elements of the noun phrase is freer in the sixteenth century than in late Modern English. The adjective is placed after the nominal head more readily than today . . . . This is probably largely due to French or Latin influence: most noun + adjective combinations contain a borrowed adjective and the whole expression is often a term going back to French or Latin.


λȤƤϡa tonge vulgare and barbarous, the next heire male, life eternall ʤɤ󤲤Ƥ롥Ѹδ֤ˤθ礬षƤȤ礭ήϤĤθ (Rissanen 209 򻲾ȡˤǻŦƤ뤬ƥȥפġ̤˾ܺ٤ĴƤ椯ɬפ뤫⤷ʤεǤ⿨줿褦ˡե󥹸줬θͿƶϡ¤줿ϰϤˤƤǤϤ뤬ѸǤŪǤ롥ƻ֤ϡѸ˾塤̣ơޤȤʤΤǤϤʤ

Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.
Lightfoot, D. W. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-01-05-1]

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2013-11-19 Tue

#1667. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (1) [adjective][word_order][syntax][french][law_french]

ѸǤϡ̾ˡηƻ֤̾뤬̾θ֤ճ¿롥ƻθֽˤϰʲΤ褦͡ʼबǧ롥

(1) ̾ -thing, -body, -one: ex. something strange, nobody else, everything possible; cf. all things English
(2) all, any, every, Ǿȼ -able, -ible: ex. every means imaginable, the latest information available
(3) ե󥹸ʤɤαƶŪˡ: ex. the sum total, from time immemorial, the devil incarnate, bloody royal
(4) ̤ͭ̾ˡ: ex. Elizabeth the Second, Asia Minor, Hotel Majestic
(5) ȼäĹʤ: ex. a friend worthy of confidence, a meal typical of Japan
(6) ˡ˶ᤤ: ex. all the people present, the authorities concerned, the person opposite
(7) ưŪʬƻ: ex. the people arrested, the best car going
(8) Ĵоȡꥺδط: ex. America, past and present
(9) ¾δŪˡ: ex. on Monday next, for ten years past, me included, Poet Laureate, B flat/sharp/major/minor, Longman Group Limited/Ltd (UK), Hartcourt Brace Jovanovich, Incorporated/Inc (US)

ܤΤ (3) Υե󥹸αƶŪɽǤ롥Quirk et al. (Section 7.21) ˤС"institutionalized expressions (mostly in official designations)" ȤƼΤ褦㤬󤲤Ƥ롥

attorney general
body politic
court martial
from time immemorial
heir apparent
notary public
postmaster general
the president elect ['soon to take office']
vice-chancellor designate


ɽϴɽǤ뤫顤̾ʬϤ줺ʣΤ褦ˤߤʤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ˡΧѸˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) 򻲾ȡ
Ѹˤδä˽פʤΤϡQuirk et al. (Section 7.21) μǤ롥ꥶ٥īήԤˡȤ϶̣ŦǧĴɬפ

The postpositive adjective, as in the president elect and vice-chancellor designate, reflects a neoclassical style based on Latin participles and much in vogue in Elizabethan times.


ե󥹸αƶˤƻ֤ȤƤϥꥶ٥ī⤺äȿΤȻפ뤬ʬͭ "postposed 'mode' qualifier" ȸƤФ⤢ (Section 17.60)

Postposed 'mode' qualifier: Lobster Newburg
There is another French model of postposition in English that we may call postposed 'mode' qualifier, as in Lobster Newburg. Though virtually confined to cuisine (rather than mere cooking), it is moderately productive within these limits, perhaps especially in AmE. In BrE one finds veal paprika and many others, but there is some resistance to this type of postposition with other than French lexical items, as in páté maison, sole bonne femme. Nevertheless (perhaps partly because, in examples like the latter, the French and English head nouns are identical), the language has become receptive to hybrids like poached salmon mayonnaise, English scallops provencal.


Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2013-11-05 Tue

#1653. be λ [syntax][be][auxiliary_verb][grammaticalisation][tense][aspect][passive][perfect][participle]

Ѹǡbe + ưβʬפŵŪ˼ư֤빽¤Ѱư (mutative verb) Ǥϴλɽ魯

The cookies are all gone.
All my lectures are finished.
The sun is set.
How he is grown up!
Babylon is fallen.
Everything is changed.


ŪˤϤʸ gone finished ʤɤϷƻȹͤƤꡤλɽ魯칽¤ΰȤϤȤ館Ƥʤbe have Ѥ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼Ȥꡤbe λǤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤˼Ūʹ¤Ȥ虜ʤbe have Ωˤϡbe λϾ֤ɽ路have λϹ԰٤ɽ魯Ȥ롥be λϤΤ褦λξ֤ǤϤ뤬#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1])#1347. a lawyer turned teacher ([2013-01-03-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬƻˡΤʤˤ̮̿ݤäƤ롥ʲbe λˤ򡤡رѸIIIA (432--33) ˵äƳ⤷褦
Ѹˤ be λϸűѸ鹭롥űѸǤϡư졤Ȥ櫓ѰưˤĤ wē sindon ȝecumene Τ褦ʹ¤ϰŪäűѸˤʤȡ褯褦ˡhave + Ū + ʬעhave + ʬ + ŪפθѲФ have λʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ¾ư̤˹äǤᤤλ have λϤޤ˼ưˤĥƤΤǡbe λƤ椯ˤϤǤ˻ϤޤäƤȤ⤤롥Ѱư be λϡθ18Ⱦ˻ޤͥݤäƤ18ˤʤäƤ褦䤯be have ̤ͥϤȤȤʤäˤ be λ֤ɽ路Ƥ褦ˡŪˤ֤ɽ魯ˡäǹ԰٤ɽ魯ˡ⾯ʤʤäŪʾ֤ˡϡѸˤƳΩΤǤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤλΥʥåץåȤ򸫤Ƥߤ褦ʲϡFridén ˤ롤Spenser ʡMarlowe 5ʡShakespeare ʤоݤˤ7Ĥμ׼ư (come, go, arrive, fall, flee; become, grow) ˤĤơbe λ have λʬۤĴΤǤ롥ʤɽʤ 's ϡhasis Τ줫ܷ (enclitic) ؤɽϡG. Fridén. Studies on the tenses of the English Verb from Chaucer to Shakespeare: With Special Reference to the Late Sixteenth Century. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksells Boktryckeri Ab., 1948. Rpr. Nendeln/Liechtenstein: Kraus, 1973. ˴ŤرѸIIIA١p. 432 ꡥ

ưcomegoarrivefallfleebecomegrow
SpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShakSpMarShak
be9288789195799289836767656567828650901008990
have86139098111133332735077030113
's0690512006008033117507007


ʳǤϡޤ be λϴ˷ߤǤꡤhave λ fall 㳰ȤС10%ۤɤΥˤʤȤ櫓פ̣ become, grow Ǥ have λγ礬ʤ
18 have λ be λο路ƤäˤˤĤƤϡVisser (2043) Rissanen (215) 򻲾ȡ

ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.

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2013-09-09 Mon

#1596. ʬˤβ [lexical_diffusion][language_change][speed_of_change][generative_grammar][negative][syntax][do-periphrasis][schedule_of_language_change]

ɸϱѸ "polarization hypothesis" ȸƤФ롥ǽΤäΤǤ롥ε#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1]) ӡ#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ʤɤǸѲοʹԥѥˤĤƵƤSʬˤβϿ⤤
ʬˤβϡʸˡ䤽˴Ť콬ȤߤߤѲοʹԤ˴ؤ벾Ǥ롥ˤȡʸˡ§ˤ絬§ (major rule) Ⱦ§ (minor rule) ̤Ȥ絬§ϡƤʬιܤˤĤŬѤ뵬§Ǥꡤ㳰ŪʹܡŵŪˤϸùܡˤˤ㳰ǤȤĤƤꡤ̤˽롥§ϡΰĤ줿ܤˤΤŬѤ뵬§Ǥꡤʳ¿ιܤˤŬѤʤξԤκۤΩƸС絬§ˤϸ§ȤŬѤ뤬ŬѤʤ㳰ꡤ§ˤϸ§ȤŬѤʤŬѤ㳰롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ϡ㳰ܤοʤȤǤ롥ʬˤβ⤬ͽۤΤϡε§㳰ܤξʤ絬§§Τ줫Ǥꡤ㳰ܤ¿浬§פϤꤨʤȤȤδ⡤㳰Τޤ¿浬§ʤϤ䵬§ȸƤ٤ʤ⤷ʤˤΨŪǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥꡤʬˤβ˹Ϥ롥
ʬˤβȸѲȤδط򼨤ΤˡŪ do ( do-periphrasis ) ˤ깽¤ȯã󤲤褦#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) ۤεǿ줿űѸѸǤ깽ʸˤưθ not ʤɤ꼭֤ǺѤ꼭֡neg-placementˤѸ do ˤ깽¤ȯãƤdo ؤΰܹԤβˤĤƤ褯ΤƤΤϡknow, doubt, care ʤɾưϤΰܹԤФƺǸޤ񹳤I know not ʤɤ餳ƤȤǤ롥
ơűѸѸǤ꼭֤絬§äѸǤ do ֤졤ư㳰ȤƤľ§ؤѤädo δߤСȯãϤ᤿16ˤϡư줬Ϳˤʤ§ä17ȾˤϾ㳰絬§ؤѤä꼭֤ο do ȯã򥰥դȡʳ®Ѳ򼨤ʵաSȤʤ롥

Polarization Hypothesis

óȻʬˤβϡνн꤬ޤǰۤʤˤ⤫餺SȤǰפ򸫤ȤΤ⤷
碌ơʬˤβδϢʸȤƱĤΡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡פɤĤϡʬˤβαѤȤ̻Ū򰷤ݤȰ֤ŤƤ롥

إե󥿥Ѹˡ١ҤĤ˼1996ǯ111--12ǡ
ѡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡סThe Northern Review ̳ƻءˡ١121984ǯ47--57ǡ

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2013-08-10 Sat

#1566. existential there ε (2) [adverb][syntax][oe][grammaticalisation][existential_sentence]

ε[2013-08-09-1]˰³¸ߤ there εˤĤơ֤ɽ魯ؼŪˡ there locative there ȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡlocative there λؼŪʰ̣ޤꡤʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤäΤ existential there ǤȤΤŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤȤǤ롥
Bolinger ϡʸˡȤѸ줳ѤƤʤexistential there εȯã嵭ήǤȤ館Ƥ롥ʲϡBreivik ʸΰѤǤBreivik ¸ߤˡ there2 Ȥơؼˡ there1 ȤƸڤƤˡ

Bolinger argues that there2 'is an extension of locative there' . . . and as such does refer to a location, but he characterizes this as a generalized location to which there2 refers 'in the same abstract way the the anaphoric it refers to a generalized "identity" in It was John who said that' . . . . According to Bolinger . . ., '[there2] "brings something into awareness", where "bring into" is the contribution of the position of there and other locational adverbs, and "awareness" is the contribution of there itself, specifically, awareness is the abstract location. . .' (337)


Bolinger ϡŪʰ֤ɽ魯 there1 Ūʵդɽ魯 there2 ذܹԤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Breivik Bolinger Τθ "impressionistic account" (337) ȤŪɾƤꡤεǽΰܹԤʸڤʤȼĥ롥षthere1 there2 ˡϡѸˤ̤ȤϰۤʤΤΡǤ˽űѸǤΤ˶̤ĤƤϤƤ롥

There is no evidence in the material utilized for the present investigation that there2 originated as there1, meaning 'at that particular place'. We have presented conclusive evidence that there2 sentences occurred already in early OE. The factors governing the use or non-use of there2 in older English were, however, different from those operative today. If there2 did indeed derive from there1, the separation must have occurred before the OE period. Whether or not there2 carried any semantic weight in OE and ME is a question we know nothing about. However, to judge from my material, it does not seem likely that OE and ME there2 was used to refer to what Bolinger, in his discussion of present-day English there2, calls an 'abstract location'. (346)


there1 there2 ϸߤ˵Ū̵طǤȤޤǤϸʤΤΡBreivik ϡ˻ޤǤξˡϤäʬƤȤĴƤ롥
ǽɤ߹˰¸񤷤ڵιۤȤäˤĤƹͤǤ⤢롥

Breivik, L. E. "A Note on the Genesis of Existential there." English Studies 58 (1977): 334--48.

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2013-08-09 Fri

#1565. existential there ε (1) [adverb][syntax][oe][existential_sentence]

¸ߤɽ魯 there is/are . . . . ʸѤŪ there ϡ¸ߤ there (existential there) 뤤ϵ there (expletive there) ȸƤФƤ롥OED Ǥ there, adv. θ4ˤˡƤ롥ϸűѸȤʤäƤꡤŤĤȤ狼롥ޤMED Ǥ thēr (adv.) 3a, 3b θΤȤˡ there ˡ¿ȤȤ˵ҤƤ롥
¸ߤ there ȯˤĤƤϡMustanoja (337) ʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ANTICIPATORY AND EXISTENTIAL 'THERE.' --- The use of anticipatory and 'existential' there goes back to OE . . . . In this function there occurs mainly in conjunction with intransitive verbs: --- an cniht þer com ride (Lawman A 26187); --- now knowe I that ther reson in the failleth (Ch. TC i 764); --- whilom ther was dwellynge in Lumbardie A worthy knyght (Ch. CT E 1245); --- him thenkth ther is no deth comende (Gower CA i 2714); --- and some þer were . . . That pleined sore (Lydgate TGlas 179). There is occasionally found also with transitive verbs, usually before an auxiliary of tense or mood: --- whan it was ones itend . . . þere couþe no man it aquenche wiþ no craft (Trev. Higd. I 223). . . . / It is unnecessary to explain this use of there as a reflection of Celtic influence on English, as has been done by W. Preusler . . . . The construction occurs in other Germanic languages too (e.g. Sw. där ligger en bok på bordet).


¸ߤ there űѸ줫鸫줿ȤϳΤʤ褦ʬۤˤĤƤϵ롥 (367) ˤȡԤˤäƤϡʸ Chron Bede ǤϾʤ Ælfric ˤ¿ȤԤ⤢Сʸ Beowulf ʤɤαʸǤ¿ȼĥԤ⤢롥OED 侮ꤤĤ󤲤褦

þa com þær gan in to me heofencund Wisdom. (Ælfred tr. Boethius De Consol. Philos. iii. 1)
þa com þær ren and mycele flod and þær bleowun windas. (West Saxon Gospels: Matt. (Corpus Cambr.) vii. 25)
7 þær is mid Estum ðeaw, þonne þær bið man dead, þæt. . . (''Or 20, 19--20)
On ðæm dagum þær wæron twa cwena (Or 46, 36; in Latin "Duae tunc sorores regno praeerant")
þær wæs sang and sweg samod ætgædere fore Healfdenes hildeswican (Beowulf 1063)


Traugott (218--19) ˤСűѸǤϤιʸǤ뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦ޤʸ̮θȡȤ櫓äդħäΤǤϤʤȤǽŦƤ롥

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
С סرѸ I١Ѹ8罤۽Ź1980ǯ
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 168--289.

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