#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) εǡѸˤ nimen ȸťΥɸѸ taken ζˤĤĴ Rynell θ˿줿̤˸ťΥɸѸ줬Ѹ椤ˤƱѸ˿ƩƤäݤˤϡδϰδθ롥ΤȤʤ顤οƩˤϤ٤λ֤ΤǡΤۤƩٹ礤ϸȤʤޤťΥɸαƶ the Danelaw ȸƤФ륤ˤƺǤǤꡤؤϡξ⤬֤ޤʤŤƤäȹͤΤǤ롥
Τ褦˸ťΥɸθŪƶζˤĤƤϡϰδ֤̩ܤߴطꡤʬۤΤǤȤ롥ºݤˡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ˼ʬۿޤϡΤʬۤűѸȸťΥɸѸ줬礹륱Ǥϡ̤˾嵭ʬۤǧ뤳Ȥ¿褦Rynell (359) ۩"The Scn words so far dealt with have this in common that they prevail in the East Midlands, the North, and the North West Midlands, or in one or two of these districts, while their native synonyms hold the field in the South West Midlands and the South."
ϰ츫ۤñǤϤʤȤˤαդɬפ롥Rynell (359--60) Ͼʸ³ơΤ褦âդäƤ롥
This is obviously not tantamount to saying that the native words are wanting in the former parts of the country and, inversely, that the Scn words are all absent from the latter. Instead, the native words are by no means infrequent in the East Midlands, the North, and the North West Midlands, or at least in parts of these districts, and not a few Scn loan-words turn up in the South West Midlands and the South, particularly near the East Midland border in Essex, once the southernmost country of the Danelaw. Moreover, some Scn words seem to have been more generally accepted down there at a surprisingly early stage, in some cases even at the expense of their native equivalents.
äդ٤ϡ¸ѸƥȤʬۤФäƤǤ롥СѸ쥳ѥϰ˴ؤɽ (representativeness) 礤ƤȤRynell (358) ˤС
A survey of the entire material above collected, which suffers from the weakness that the texts from the North and the North (and Central) West Midlands are all comparatively late and those from the South West Midlands nearly all early, while the East Midland and Southern texts, particularly the former, represent various periods, shows that in a number of cases the Scn words do prevail in the East Midlands, the North, and the North (and sometimes Central) West Midlands and the South, exclusive of Chaucer's London . . . .
ťΥɸθŪƶϡѸᤤǡ٤ˤǴѻ롤ȤȤϳȤƽҤ٤뤳ȤϤǤΤΡ줬Ѹ쥳ѥλʬۤȸ˰פƤ¤ƨƤϤʤʤĤޤꡤ嵭γŪʬۤϡޤ¸ƥȤλ֡ŪʬۤʿԤƤ뤿ˡȤˤ˶ĴƤ뤫⤷ʤΤ䤹Τޤޤ䤹ʤꡤˤΤ줿ޤޤˤ빽¤Ū꤬ˤ롥
ϡťΥɸθŪƶˤȤɤޤ餺Ѹ̡ŤѲ̤ѻݤˤͿǤ (see #941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1]))
ϢơѸ쥳ѥ A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (LAEME) ɽˤĤơ#1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1) ([2012-10-10-1])#1263. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (2) ([2012-10-11-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rynell, Alarik. The Rivalry of Scandinavian and Native Synonyms in Middle English Especially taken and nimen. Lund: Håkan Ohlssons, 1948.
Υޥ衤ƱѸȯԤ줿ˤ1258ǯ Proclamation of Henry III Ǥ롥ϡեΤӤΤȤˤäɤˤäơǰŪʽäʼºݤˤϡ⤦1ᤤ㳰ꡤ1155ǯ Henry II ٥ʶͿõǤˡHenry III ˤ뤳ϡ1258ǯ˽ Provisions of Oxford ǧΤǤꡤեȡ餯ƥǤȯԤ줿ѸǤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϡSimon de Montfort ѸäȤΤǤʤԤ䤹褦ᤷϤȤȴط롥
ϥɤȥɤΤ٤Ƥνۤ줿褦ǡΤѸǤȤƤ2ĤΤ߸¸Ƥ롥1Ĥ Oxfordshire 줿Τǡ⤦1Ĥ Huntingdon ƤΤΤǤ롥Ԥϡ줬ܤȤʤäƤʤ̤줿ΤΤ褦Huntingdon ƤΤμ̤ϡ13Ȥᤤʸ¸ǸšˤΥɥɽ路Ƥȹͤ졤ѸŪˤͤ⤤ɥŪǤä14ޤǤˤϤषŪħȤƼ褦ˤʤäƤμ̤ΥƥȤϡäơ13Ⱦξκβޤ˼ƤȤǽפʤΤǤ롥
ʲˡDickins and Wilson (8--9) ꡤƥʸǤ褦
A Proclamation
Henri, þurȝ Godes fultume King on Engleneloande, Lhoauerd on Yrloande, Duk on Normandi, on Aquitaine, and Eorl on Aniow, send igretinge to alle hise holde, ilærde and ileawede, on Huntendoneschire. Þæt witen ȝe wel alle þæt we willen and vnnen þæt, þæt vre rædesmen alle, oþer þe moare dæl of heom, þæt beoþ ichosen þurȝ us and þurȝ þæt loandes folk on vre kuneriche, habbeþ idon and shullen don in þe worþnesse of Gode and on vre treowþe, for þe freme of þe loande þurȝ þe besiȝte of þan toforeniseide redesmen, beo stedefæst and ilestinde in alle þinge a buten ænde. And we hoaten alle vre treowe in þe treowþe þæt heo vs oȝen, þæt heo stedefæstliche healden and swerien to healden and to werien þo isetnesses þæt beon imakede and beon to makien, þurȝ þan toforeniseide rædesmen, oþer þurȝ þe moare dæl of heom, alswo alse hit is biforen iseid; and þæt æhc oþer helpe þæt for to done bi þan ilche oþe aȝenes alle men riȝt for to done and to foangen. And noan ne nime of loande ne of eȝte wherþurȝ þis besiȝte muȝe beon ilet oþer iwersed on onie wise. And ȝif oni oþer onie cumen her onȝenes, we willen and hoaten þæt alle vre treowe heom healden deadliche ifoan. And for þæt we willen þæt þis beo stedefæst and lestinde, we senden ȝew þis writ open, iseined wiþ vre seel, to halden amanges ȝew ine hord. Witnesse vsseluen æt Lundene þane eȝtetenþe day on þe monþe of Octobre, in þe two and fowertiȝþe ȝeare of vre cruninge. And þis wes idon ætforen vre isworene redesmen, Boneface Archebischop on Kanterburi, Walter of Cantelow, Bischop on Wirechestre, Simon of Muntfort, Eorl on Leirchestre, Richard of Clare, Eorl on Glowchestre and on Hurtford, Roger Bigod, Eorl on Northfolke and Marescal on Engleneloande, Perres of Sauueye, Willelm of Fort, Eorl on Aubemarle, Iohan of Plesseiz, Eorl on Warewik, Iohan Geffrees sune, Perres of Muntfort, Richard of Grey, Roger of Mortemer, Iames of Aldithele, and ætforen oþre inoȝe.
And al on þo ilche worden is isend into æurihce oþre shcire ouer al þære kuneriche on Engleneloande, and ek in-tel Irelonde.
Dickins, Bruce and R. M. Wilson, eds. Early Middle English Texts. London: Bowes, 1951.
ε#2520. Ѹ134 "such" ΰֻ ([2016-03-21-1]) ³ϽѸ쥳ѥ LAEME "such" ΰֻФƤߤ (see #1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1) ([2012-10-10-1])) θϡѸǤϷƻ졤졤³ȤѤ졤ƻξˤ϶ޤ⤹ΤǡΤȤ͡ʷ֤롥ե٥åȽ˰褦ʤäοͤʸڤ١ˡ
hsƿucche (1), schilke (1), schuc (3), scli (1), scuche (1), sec (1), secc (1), secche (1), sech (2), seche (1), selk (1), selke (1), shuc (1), shuch (1), siche (1), silc (1), silk (3), sli (1), slic (5), sliik (1), slik (3), slike (1), slk (1), sly (1), soch (5), soche (1), solchere (1), suc (2), sucche (2), such (51), suche (1), suecche (1), suech (1), sueche (1), sueh (1), sug (1), suic (1), suicchne (1), suich (12), suiche (3), suilc (14), suilce (1), suilch (1), suilk (1), suilke (2), sulch (1), sulche (1), sulk (1), sulke (1), suuche (1), suweche (1), suwilk (1), suyc (1), suych (4), suyche (1), svich (2), sƿche (1), sƿic (3), sƿicche (1), sƿich (1), sƿiche (14), sƿichne (1), sƿilc (30), sƿilch (22), sƿilche (1), sƿilcne (1), sƿilk (14), sƿillc (10), sƿillke (2), sƿi~lch (1), sƿlche (1), sƿuc (4), sƿucch (1), sƿucche (4), sƿucches (1), sƿuch (1), sƿuche (1), sƿuchne (1), sƿuilc (1), sƿulc (8), sƿulce (1), sƿulche (9), swch (1), swecche (1), swech (1), sweche (2), swich (5), swiche (1), swics (1), swil (1), swilc (5), swilce (1), swilk (2), swilke (2), swilkee (2), swlc (1), swlch (1), swlche (1), swlchere (1), swlcne (1), swuche (2), swuh (1), swulcere (1), swulch (3), swulchen (1), swulchere (1), swulke (1), swulne (1), zuich (10), zuiche (14), zuichen (3), zuych (10), zuyche (2)
ʸȾʸζ̤ϤĤˡ113ֻʸڤ롥Τʤ٤ˤƥȥå5ֻȴФȡsuch, sƿilc, sƿilch, sƿilk, sƿiche Ȥʤꡤ5369ĤΤ131 (35.5%) 롥
θѸ줫134ȹ碌ʣֻȡѸΤȤ247ΰֻ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѤϿޤ䥳ѥɬŪǤϤʤΤǡϹʿͤȻפ롥㤨СMED swich (adj.) ˷ǤƤֻäСϤ⤦
#53. Ѹ through ֤515̤ ([2009-06-20-1])#219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1]) ˰³ѸˤˤֻѰۤˤĤơϡֻμ¿ɾΤʡ "such" 夲롥
#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ѸϿ LALME βŻ eLALME ˤơItem List 10 "such" äƤ롥ΰֻȴФȡԳΤƾܤ˿Ƥ⡤ʲ134बʤäοͤʸڤ١ˡ
asoche (1), aswyche (1), schch (1), schech (1), scheche (3), schiche (1), schoche (1), scht (1), schuc (1), schuch (3), schuche (4), schut (1), schute (1), sclik (2), sclike (1), sclyk (2), sclyke (2), scoche (1), scwche (1), sech (8), seche (39), sewyche (2), shich (1), shiche (1), shoch (1), shoche (1), shuch (5), shuche (3), shych (1), sic (6), sic- (1), sich (53), siche (101), sick (1), sɩͨh (1), sik (1), sik- (1), sike (2), silk (3), sli (1), slieke (1), slik (10), slike (26), slilk (2), slkyke (1), slyk (13), slyke (26), soch (12), soche (60), souche (3), sowche (2), soyche (1), squike (1), squilk (2), squylk (1), sqwych (1), sqwyche (1), sswiche (1), suc (1), succh (1), sucche (5), such (242), suche (375), suchee (1), sucheȝ (1), suchet (1), sucht (1), suchte (1), suech (4), sueche (6), suhc (1), suhe (1), suich (9), suiche (7), suilk (6), suilk- (1), suilke (3), suilkin (1), sulc (1), sulk (4), sulke (2), sutche (1), suth (1), suuch (1), suuche (1), suuech (1), suueche (1), suych (13), suyche (15), suylk (7), suylke (6), svche (1), sviche (1), swc (1), swch (7), swche (4), swech (19), sweche (48), swelk (4), swhiche (2), swhilke (2), swhych (2), swhyche (1), swic (2), swich (77), swiche (84), swichee (1), swilc (3), swilk (76), swilke (45), swilkes (1), swisɩͨhe (1), swlk (1), swlke (1), swuch (3), swuche (2), swych (56), swyche (65), swyeche (1), swyk (1), swyke (1), swyl (1), swylk (62), swylke (35), swylle (1), syc- (1), sych (23), syche (67), syge (1), syk (4), syk- (1), syke (5), sylk (3), sylke (2)
̤ٳ뤷٤פȡȥå10 suche, such, siche, swiche, swich, swilk, syche, swyche, swylk, soche Ǥ롥ȥåפ2 suche such ϸѸƤԤˤȤäơʬQŪˤߤºݡ2617㤬ʸڤ졤1867Τۤ3ʬ1롥ޤȥåפ10ǡۤ3ʬ2롥äơֻ¿뤫ȤäơΤޤʤ뺮٤ȤȤˤϤʤʤΤ褦ʻϡѸ¿ֻǧ¿θˤĤǧ졤٤Τʤˤ⤢٤餷ΤɤäƤȤ롥ȤƤ⡤νɤˤȤäƤϤϤؤʾä˰㤤ʤˤĤƤϡ#1311. ֻɸಽϤʤɬפ ([2012-11-28-1])#1450. Ѹֻ¿ϤϤؤǤ ([2013-04-16-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ѸḽνĴ٤СäȰֻμŵϼǰˤΤΡ500ۤɤȤȤ롦
ε#2364. ΥޥαѸ̾Υե줫֤ ([2015-10-17-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤɤ̾ (first name) ˲ä (surname) Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤϡͥΥޥʹߤǤꡤѤνҲŪʬι⤤Ԥ㤤ԤˤƤǤä13--14ˤư̤˳Ȥä褦ϰ躹⤢ꡤ٤äCoates (327--28) Ѥ롥
Surnames came into use among the Norman aristocracy shortly before the Conquest. The practice was neither universal nor stable then or in the early period of Norman rule in England, though by about 1250 it was the norm in the highest social class and the knightly and other taxpaying classes. Between 1300 and 1400 the practice had spread to the urban moneyed classes, though it appears that in some towns, such as York, the lower classes might be without surnames till as late as 1600. Rural small free tenants, for whom evidence is more scant, began to acquire surnames before 1300 in the south, and the practice moved northwards, with new surnames still being formed in Lancashire as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and this development is mirrored by that of the servile class. The adoption of surnames did not happen overnight anywhere, and our knowledge of the process is hindered by the different degrees to which social classes are represented in the record. . . / Surnames are distinguishing names given to people bearing the same personal name, and many of these came to be inherited, though the system is not in fully complete operation everywhere till the 1600s. Those which have been inherited were of course the ones originally bestowed on males, for a complex of reasons involving unambiguous identification of the rightful heir.
ǴٲޤǤˤϡԤʤФʤʤۤɡδϤäȹޤäƤäȤˤʤ롥Ȥ˴ؤƤϡѸˤ¿θѲؤȤΤФ촷ѲȸƤ֤٤κѤषؤȳȤäȤΤ⤷
ŪŤФ̤ؤȤȤˤĤƤϡ#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1]) Ȥ줿
Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.
űѸμʤȤʬۡǯˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1]) ǰѸκʤˤĤƤϡ#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1]) ̾άȤȤΤߤǡʬۤʤɤƤʤä
ϡѸμʤˤĤơ켣 (57--59) ˤǤ褦ǯϸ§Ȥ Kurath et al. (1954) ˤΤOED ȤΤ⤢ȤΤȡѸʸؤΤȤˡ
| 1. | |
|---|---|
| c1275 | Kentish Sermons |
| 1340 | Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt (= D.M.'s Remorse of conscience) |
| 2. | |
| ?a1200 | Ancrene Wisse (Corp-C) (= The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle (= Nuns' Rule)) |
| ?a1200 | Laȝamon's Brute, or Chronicle of Britain |
| ?c1200 | Sawles Warde (= Soul's Guardian) |
| a1225--a1300 | Poema Morale (= Moral Ode) |
| ?c1225 | King Horn |
| c1250 | Floriz and Blauncheflur |
| c1250 | The Owl and the Nightingale |
| a1376--?a1387 | William Langland, Piers Plowman A-, B-, C-Versions |
| a1387 | John de Trevisa's Translation of Higden's Polychronicon (= H.'s History of many Ages) |
| 3. | |
| a1121--1160 | The Peterborough Chronicle |
| ?c1200 | The Ormulum |
| a1250 | Bestiary |
| c1250 | The Story of Genesis and Exodus |
| 1258 | Proclamation of Henry III |
| c1300 | Havelock the Dane |
| 1382; 1388 | Wycliffite Bible |
| c1375--a1400 | Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales |
| a1393 | John Gower, Confessio Amantis |
| c1400 | Mandeville's Travels (Tit) |
| 1425--1520 | Paston Letters and Papers |
| a1438 | The Book of Margery Kempe |
| 4. | |
| ?c1380 | Patience |
| ?c1380 | Pearl |
| ?c1390 | Sir Gawain and the Green Knight |
| 5. | |
| a1325 | Cursor Mundi (= The Runner of the World) |
| ?c1343--?a1349 | Richard Rolle, Prose and Verse |
| ?a1400 | Morte Arthure or The Death of Arthur |
##2219,2220,2226,2238,2247 εǰäƤ "Southern Voicing" ˴ؤꡥ
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])
#2238. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ (2) ([2015-06-13-1])
[2015-05-26-1]εǿ줿 Poussa ʸɤǤߤ Danelaw ϰ˸Ƭ [f] ͭʤä뤤Ϥθ̤ŤʤäͳǤϡƱϰ餫 [v] Ժߤäȡ뤤ϾʤȤŪǤϤʤäȤȤ롥Poussa (298) Ϥ¤ȤƤϼƤ餺ޤǿȤƤˤʤդɬפǤ롥
According to Skautrup (1944: 124), the sound system of Runic Danish had labial fricatives, voiced and unvoiced, and did not yet contain the labio-dental [f] and [v], but he believes that /f/ appeared in the following period. The development of the English dialects of the north midlands may have followed a similar time-table. The Runic Danish period corresponds to the period of Viking settlement in England, which was strongest in the north midlands. In the Eastern Division Viking Period settlement mainly affected East Anglia (particularly Norfolk) and part of Essex, which fell within the Danelaw in the late 9th. century. Southern Voicing of OE /f/ in initial position would have been unlikely in East Anglia, therefore, though during the OE/ME period initial [v] should have occurred in the Kentish dialect through the application of the Southern Voicing rule. [Skautrup = Skautrup, P. Det Danske Sprogs Historie I. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1944.]
ƬͭŪʬۤȤŪʳ硦̾ƼҲŪطʤ˾Ȥ餻С Poussa ̥ŪǤϤ뤬ǽפȤʤϤβŪʻ¤ΤƤʤȤΤԹ礬̤ϡ1ĤβȤƤȤɤƤۤʤ
Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995): 295--307.
ˤĤƤϡǶᡤʲεƤ (##2219,2220,2226,2238)
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])
ѸˤƬͭ ("Southern Voicing") ʬۤϡߤʬۤ⤺äΰ褬ˤޤdzȤäƤؤºݤޤʬۤεڤ⤢äˤζؤȲᤵ줿Ȥаޤ롥ؤβᤷޤơǤʤ "Southern Voicing" ʤäΤ
βᤷʬۤ˴ؤ Danelaw ΰȴϢŤΤε ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǥ̾ Poussa Ǥ롥Poussa ϡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) Ǥ夲Ѹ쥪첾μĥԤǤ롥Poussa (249) ηϡ
In sum, I submit that, whereas the original advance of the initial fricative voicing innovation through the OE dialects is a natural and not unusual phonetic process (it has its parallels in other Germanic dialects on the continent), the halting and then the reversing of such an innovation in ME is an unexpected development, requiring explanation. It can only be explained by some kind of intervention in the dialect continuum. The Scandinavian settlement of the north and east Midlands in the late OE period seems to supply the right kind of intervention at the right place and time to explain this remarkable linguistic U-turn.
Poussa ζŪʵ2롥1ĤϡťΥɸȤܿˤԥ뤤ϥ쥪벽桦αѸѼˤƤϡȤŪͭɸǤƬͭϺѤʤäȤ (Poussa 238) ⤦1ĤϡѸ East-Midland μҲŪʱƶϤɥɸѼη礭褦ˤʤˤĤơƬ⤿ʤƱΰҿޤäˡζ˲줿ΤȤҲŪǤ롥פˡθƬͭϿˤդ路ʤȯȤɾȽEast-Midland üԤ濴˳ȤäȤȤǤ롥
Poussa (247) ѤƤ˼ҲؤʹͻȤƶ̣
It seems to me that the voicing of initial /f-/, /s-/, /θ-/ and /ʃ-/ in OE and ME, which Fisiak convincingly argues are caused by one and the same lenition process, is precisely the type of rule which is typically jettisoned when a language is pidginized or creolized, and acquired only partially by learners of a new dialect. Furthermore, why should the speaker of a Danelaw dialect of English want to sound like a southerner, whether he lives in his home district, or has been transplanted to London? It would depend on what pronunciation he (or she), consciously or unconsciously, regarded as prestigious.
If this explanation is accepted as the reason why such an expansive lenition innovation stopped at approximately the Danelaw boundary during the late OE or early ME period, then the reason why the area of voicing subsequently receded southwards is presumably related: migration of population and the rise in the social prestige of the East Midland dialect meant that the phonologically simpler variety became the standard to be imitated.
Poussa, Patricia. "A Note on the Voicing of Initial Fricatives in Middle English" Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Eaton, R., O. Fischer, W. Koopman, and F. van der Leeke. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1985. 235--52.
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǽ夲"Southern Voicing" ȸ븽ݤˤĤƺƤӡεǤϡβʤʤäΤȤöŪʴʤȤѶŪʸƤϤʤäԤδؿ붽̣ͻĤΤǾҲ𤹤롥
βȤơΦϥޥ줫αƶ⤬Ƥ롥Nielsen (246--47) ˤСLow Franconian ǤϾʤȤ1100ǯޤǤƱͭƤڵꡤΦۤɤŤΤǤϤʤȤѸˤƤϡͭθ̤եѸˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ͭˤߤ뤳Ȥ顤βϸűѸ줫ѸˤƵäȤ롥ΥߥϡΦŤȤˤȤäԹ礬褤
Since there are other indications of late linguistic cross-Channel relations between the south of England and the Netherlands, there is nothing extraordinary about interpreting the presence of initial voiced fricatives in both places in terms of late contact. . . . / Samuels . . . is probably right in placing the innovatory centre within Franconian. The voicing of fricatives has perhaps spread from here into Upper German . . . , and similarly it may have crossed the Channel --- from Flanders to the south of England. (Nielsen 247)
Nielsen ûΤʤǤβˤĤƹͻƤˤڵϽʬȤˤϤۤɱ̣ǤϤ롥εƤȹ碌ȡΦؤꡤ̤ؤŸťΥɸ첽ͭʲĶäƤؤϿƩʤäȤڽ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Nielsen, Hans F. Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages: A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenshaft, 1981.
ε#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ǡѸˤƬͭȤѲҲ𤷤ǤϤͭʤäᡤפȤʤäƸȯãɸѸˤ⡤θ̤ȿǤƤʤˡɸѸä vane, vat, vixen ŪˤϰۼʤΤǤ롥
Ǥ̤ǤʤäѲȤΤϡѲ˸¤餺¿¸ߤ롥षΤ褦Ѳ̵ͭŪơʬߤƤȤäۤμεҤȤƤΤäơʤƬͭˤơˤʤäΤȤ䤤ϡ⤽פĤ⤷ʤä䤦ȤƤ⡤̾ϡʤ̵ͭΤȤ˰ռΤǤꡤʤ줬ǵʤäΤȤˤ
Knowles (41--42) ϡԤΤꤽˤʤۤε "speculative" Ȥʤ⡤ͳθȤơťΥɸˤƬͭԺߤƤ롥
Danish may also have influenced the pronunciation of an initial <s> or <f> in words such as fox and sing. In the Danelaw, as in North Germanic, these remain unchanged [s, f], but there is widespread evidence of the pronunciation [z, v] in the area controlled by Wessex (Poussa, 1995). The distribution is confirmed by placename evidence (Fisiak, 1994). Similar forms are found on the European mainland: for example, the <s> of German singen is pronounced [z], and the <v> of Dutch viif ('five') is more like an English [v] than [f]. Some [v]-forms have become part of Standard English: for example, vat (cf. German Faß), and vixen alongside fox, but otherwise the [s, f] forms have become general, and [z, v] survive only in isolated pockets.
ͤ٤ȤưʲΤΤƤ
Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995: 295--307).
Fisiak,J. "The Place-Name Evidence for the Distribution of Early Modern English Dialect Features: The Voicing of Initial /f/." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 97--110.
ѲǵʤäȤ˴ؤťΥɸδͿȤǽȡϡǤɾǤʤƤϡѲˤפʥåޤǤȹͤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲҲ𤷤ʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤϡä٤ѸǤϸƬ˴ؤƸűѸθݻ줿ˤ䤦Ȥʤ˸뤬ʤݻ줿Τ䤦ɬפȤΤ Milroy ŪȯۤʤΤǤꡤKnowles ⤽Τ褦˸ƤȤȤˤʤ롥ӸƤƤʤФʤʤѲФžȯۤ⤷
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ɸ3ϡŪ˵ʷϩ̤ɸѸꡤ夷Ǥ롥vane סˡvat ʾ¤Ѥʤɤβˡvixen ʻĥ͡ˤϡƬͭ v äƤ롥Ƭ v ǤϵǤⲿǤʤΤͺ˥ĥͤɽ魯 fox Фƻĥ vixen ٤Ƥߤ褦ˡ3ˤƤϸ츻Ū̵ f ͽۤȤͭðۤʤΤǤ (cf. OE fana, fæt, fyxen) ŪˤϡѸǤΤ߸Ƭ̵ΧͭʬۤŪ˸¤Ƥ3ˤĤƤϤɤ櫓ɸѸؤȯŸѼ˼ޤ졤̲ΤǤ롥ȤʤäƤϤۤȤɵŤʤ3ϻҲΡ¤äȯͳ褹ΤǤ (cf. vixen ˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary ˤ vixen ⻲ȡˡ
Ρ¤פϡΥɤǤ¸³Ƥ롥ǤϸƬ [f] Τ٤Ȥ [v] Τߤʤ餺[s], [ʃ], [θ] Τ٤Ȥdzơ [z], [ʒ], [ð] Ȥä褦ˡΤбߤ롥Upton and Widdowson (52) Ͽޤꡤfinger θƬˤĤʬۤ

ɤκüCornwall üǤɸŪ [f] ԤƤ뤬 Cornwall αѸήΤǤϤʤ˽Υȷϸ Cornish ֤ɸѸ˥롼ĤĤΤǤ (cf. #779. Cornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1])#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])ˡ
ơߤǤϸƬ [f] [v] ʬۤ˸¤Ƥ뤬Ѹˤϥ˹äƤιϰϤǡ餯Ǥ˸űѸƬͭϤޤäƤΤȻפ롥ѸǤ fader vader ʬۤ Plan and Bibliography (9) ˴Ť (101) ϿޤǤߤƤߤ褦

űѸǤϡǷѲޤǤϡˤ餺 [v] [z] ϸƬ뤳ȤϤʤäȤѸǤϡѲΤߤʤ餺̤ξƬ뤳ȤǽȤʤäLass (58--59) ϡθƬȤƤ [v], [z] ΰŪʵƤͳ1ĤϡޤͭˤȤߤƤ (cf. #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]))
A third factor, perhaps the most likely, was the existence in Middle English of varieties that had in Old English times undergone voicing of initial fricatives. Many southern dialects had voiced at least initial /f s/ --- a development whose relics survive still in the rural West Country ('Zummerzet'). This parallels, and may well stem from, the same process in continental West Germanic: the <v> in G Vater 'father', now pronounced with /f/, and Du. initial <v> and <z> in vader and zon 'sun' (/f s/ in more innovating dialects, still /v z/ in conservative ones) reflect this. While the voicing in England was mainly southern, it did extend well up into the midlands in Early Middle English, and the standard still has a number of forms with voiced initials like vat, vixen, vane (OE fæt, fyxen, fana). Contact between speakers of these dialects and others without voicing may have facilitated borrowing of French /v z/, making them less 'outlandish'.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Kurath, Hans, Margaret S. Ogden, Charles E. Palmer, and Richard L. McKelvery. Plan and Bibliography. U of Michigan P, 1954.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ
ɸ䤤˼üˤϡɽǻGörlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ
| South | Midland | North | ||
| Present Indicative | 3sg. | -(e)þ | -(e)þ | -(e)s |
| pl. | -(e)þ | -(e)n | -(e)s | |
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| LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' | LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero |
|
| LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero |
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| eLALME: 3sp 's' | eLALME: 3sp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 's' | eLALME: pp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 'n' | eLALME: pp 'e' or zero |
Ѹ줬λǤȤȤϡ#577. Ѹ̩ʤ˱ɡ ([2010-11-25-1]) #929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1]) ۤ me_dialect γƵľܴܤˤƤΰ⤤˴ؤƸƤϤʤΤϡѸˤˤѸ˸¤餺ĤǤԤƤΤǤꡤѸüԤϸ夫鸽˻ޤǾѤƤȤȤ
Ѹ줬λǤȤƼĥΤϡѸ˾夳λˤðۤϡλ˽ɽ蘆츽ߤäƤƥȤθդ٤ǤȤȤդˤơʤäդˤƤɸѸʤΤ¸ߤºݤ˹ԤƤΤϱѸνˤʤѸνγơϡΤ줫ȤäǤꡤǤ⤢äűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤνϤ̤ˤϤλ夽λ˳ΩʤĤĤäˤɸѸɤ߽ΤǤꡤդľդȤϵäѸϡ٤ɸѸ줬ʤäȤ̣ǡվ塤λȸƤФΤǤ롥
ѸɸѸ줬ʤäΤˤиޤɸಽʤäΤϡΥޥˤäƸűѸɸѸȤȥɸŪϰ̤θѸϰŪʸҤؤեΤӤΤȤɸಽεͿʤäǤ롥#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǡűѸ줫ѸˤƤɸѸѼοȾǤ "the first decline" ȸƤȤǤ롥Ѹ줬λȤƸȤơҲŪѤȡȼҲŪʵῴϤ㲼äΤ
Ѹ줬λǤ뤳ȤǤͺۤ˼ĥΤ Strang (224--25) ʲ˰ѤƤ
ME is, par excellence, the dialectal phase of English, in the sense that while dialects have been spoken at all periods, it was in ME that divergent local usage was normally indicated in writing. It was preceded by a phase in which the language had one kind of written standard . . . and followed by a phase in which it had others. It stands alone as having a rich and varied documentation in localised varieties of English, and dialectology is more central to the study of ME than to any other branch of English historical linguistics.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) ǡKrygier ˤϢʸɤεκǸǡseek /k/ ǹԤ줿ťΥɸƱ /k/ αƶˤΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤Krygier ϤٻƤ롥ǫϤʤΤǡפƤ
εǤȤꡤűѸб sēċan ǤꡤλҲ [k] ǤϤʤŸ˻ [ʧ] äθβϡGmc *sōkjan ˤƸ [j] ³ƤȤˤ줿ΤǤ롥űѸθ߷ޤǤϸ줿 [ʧ] 뤬2;ñ3;ñζΤߤ sēcst, sēcþ Τ褦 [k] ʤΥѥǤθؤˤĤƤϲŪʵ뤬ǤϾάˡŪʸˤȡ23;ñ [k] ѥ˹ꡤ1;ñʤɤ٤Ƥζ [k] ˻äȤ롥 (analogy) ΤʤǤѥǤοʿ (levelling) ȸƤФतβȤ (cf. #555. 2 analogy ([2010-11-03-1])) Hogg (7.42) ⤳ٻƤ롥
Following general principles of analogy . . . we would expect the nom.sg. to predominate over plural forms in nouns, and in strong verbs the present forms similarly to predominate over past forms. . . . In the present tense of weak verbs the alternation type sēcan ? sēcþ is, as would be predicted, the source of later seek, cf. beseech, where the affricate has been extended, perhaps on pragmatic grounds, and so for other similar verbs, such as think, work.
Krygier ϡ˵롥̾Ѥͭɸʷ̵ɸʷݤ߹ޤƤǤ롥ǤСsēċan ξ硤ष1;ñʤɤ [ʧ] ķ̵֤ɸȤߤʤϤ顤[ʧ] ؿʿƤ椯ΤڤȤ¤ȿФǤ롥ΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤष [ʧ] ؿʿ beseech ˴ؤƤϤĤΤǤꡤseek ˤĤƱФȤΤǤϤʤ
Krygier ϡseek Ʊ֥饹°ưʸ촴 [k] ļѲIưˤΥꥹȤä (catch (OFr cachier), dretch (OE dreccan), letch (OE læccan), quetch (OE cweccan), reach (OE rǣcan), reach (2) (OE reccan), rech (OE reccan), seek (OE sēcan), stretch (OE streccan), teach (OE tǣcan), think (OE þencan ? þyncan), watch (OE w(r)eccan), work (OE wyrcan)) ơ13ĤưˤĤơ5Ĥ˶ʬѸФ[k] [ʧ] 夲η̡ưΤȤƤΤȤƤ [ʧ] ͥǤϤĤưˤĤƤष [k] ͥǤ뤳ȤƾʤȤ¾٤٤Ȥ狼äŪˤϡHogg ΰѤͽۤ褦ˡseek, think, work 3줬Τ褦ʬۤ (Krygier 465)
Ǹˤä [k] ͥǤȤȤϡťΥɸδͿ碌롥ºݡ˵ưбťΥɸˤ [k] 롥3ˤĤƤСťΥɸ sœkja, þekkja/þykkja, yrkja Ǥ롥ξΤߤǤޤǤ뤬ξˤϸťΥɸλͿͤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤϡϤ [k] ɸȤƺѤ줿ȤʥꥪꤹΤߤseek beseech ʿŪȯãʤäΤϡťΥɸ sœkja ʸڤ뤬 *besœkja ʸڤʤȤȤطƤΤǤϤʤ (Krygier 468)
Krygier (468) ηʤΤǡѤƤ
By way of a summary, the following interpretation of the developments in the "seek"-group regarding velar restoration can be proposed. The Present-day English situation is a result of an interplay of two factors. One of them is analogical levelling of the alternations resulting from Primitive Old English syncope of medial unstressed [i]. Contrary to earlier scholarship, however, a path of development parallel to that in strong verbs is postulated, thus removing the minority velar forms from second and third person singular present tense. This would give palatal consonants throughout the present paradigm in all dialects of Late Old English/Early Middle English. On this pattern the influence of Old Norse equivalents of the "seek"-verbs should be superimposed. For obvious reasons, initially it was limited mainly to the north-east, later spreading southwards, with West Midlands as a possible relic area. The absence of an Old Norse equivalent would favour the preservation of the palatal type, while its existence would further velar restoration, as best exemplified by the seek ? beseech contrast. In individual cases other factors, such as the existence of etymologically related Old English words with a velar, e.g., wyrcan : weorc, could have played a secondary role, which can probably be seen primarily in isolated velar forms in the south.
Krygier, Marcin. "Old English (Non)-Palatalised */k/: Competing Forces of Change at Work in the "seek"-Verbs." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 461--73.
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
ѸˤǤϡդɸಽδäϡ14Ⱦ15ˤƤΥɥۤ줿ȹͤƤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#306. Samuels ѸȯãȤɸ4ס ([2010-02-27-1])#929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1])#1228. ѸˤˤɸѸȯŸȳΩäơ ([2012-09-06-1])#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲Ƥ
λθ塤ѸˤưѤƳȯŸȤ⡤ֻɸಽή˴ŪʱƶڤܤȹͤƤ롥#297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1]) #871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1]) #1312. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ (2) ([2012-11-29-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǶϤΰոФưФƤ뤬ʤȤѸ˾ΥߥȤƤϡѤоλֻɸಽˤ䤫˿ʤǤȤϤ褽ŤʤäƤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤΤλˡäդǤѲ¿äƤ첻 (Great Vowel Shift; [2009-11-18-1]) ɮƬˡ#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1]) ǵ褦ʼλҲξüʹԤƤäդѲƤˤ⤫餺դɸಽƤȤȤϡ˾ȸ虜ʤǡḽѸֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) Ƥޤä
Τ褦ήؤơѸֻɸಽϡ˾塤ʥߥƤޤäȤ롥Ѳդ®ȤֺϡʬŪˤϡȤֺбƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤΰ̣ǤϤˤƤ뤳ȤϡˤǤȤȤǤ⤢Τ⤷ʤΤСѸˤˤֻɸಽϡδä14--15ۤ줿Ȥ¤ǤʤȤ°ɥϤۤ줿Ȥ¤ˤطƤ롥Horobin (84--85) ŦƤ褦ˡƱ椷ƤäݼŪäΥɥֻɸಽδפ˿줿Ȥΰ̣礭
㤨СǤϡ<gh> ʤɤֻɽ蘆Ƥ /ç, x/ ϤǤ̵ȤʤäƤꡤ"knight" <nit>, "doughter" <datter> ʤɤ֤ƤǤϤλҲϤޤƤ餺ä <gh> ֻ¸졤ḽɸŪֻ <knight>, <doughter> Τʤ˸경뤳Ȥˤʤä /ç, x/ ξüȤѲϸؤڤΤǡɡɸŪֻ <nit> Ȥʤ뤫 <knight> Ȥʤ뤫κϡֺǤȤȤǤȤͤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ɸಽ <wh> ֻˤĤƤƱȤ롥ĤǤǤ /h/ ƤݼŪʥɥȯˤƤ /h/ ݤƤˡɸŪֻΤʤˤ <h> ȤƸ경뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäŪɾСȯˤĤƤϿŪŪʤΤ¿ɸδפȤʤꡤֻˤĤƤݼŪŪʤΤ¿ɸδפȤʤäȤϢơѸθѲΡ̤ءפȾŤˤĤơ#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ӡ#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1]) Ȥ줿
ʤ /x/ ˴ؤơǤ /f/ ؤȯŸdough ʴˤб duff ʥաʴθǤץǥˤؼѤ줿㤬ʡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ⻲ȡˡΤ褦ȯֻȤδط̩Ǥ㤬ä¿äʤСḽɸŪֻäľʤΤˤʤäȤϤꡤѸֻɸಽˤϡ֤Ǥʤ֤⺮äƤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥
Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.
McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3ΥѥȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)
i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb
| North: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -es | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| North: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -e, -ø (-en) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| Midland | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en, -e (-ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| South | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en (-e, -ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1]) ϡޤϤäƲƤʤѸˤǤ롥QŪˤϡҲŪƶϤΤ London 濴Ȥ륤ѲȯϤȤʤꡤʤɼդŤƤϤѸǤϤषդθबعߤƤȤ㤬¿
ФơMillar Samuels ήεǽŪΩ줫顤"conservative radicalism" ȤͿƤ롥ȤƼ夲ƤѲϡ3;ʣ̾ they ˤűѸ hīe ִȡͤȲꤵƤ롤³ though ˤ þeah ִӻؼ those ˤ tho ִ
The issue with ambiguity between the third person singular and plural forms was also sorted through the borrowing of Northern usage, although on this occasion through what had been an actual Norse borrowing (although it would be very unlikely that southern speakers would have been aware of the new form's provenance --- if they cared): they. Interestingly, the subject form came south earlier than the oblique them and possessive their. Chaucer, for instance, uses the first but not the other two, where he retains native <h> forms. This type of usage represents what I have termed conservative radicalism (Millar 2000; in particular pp. 63--4). Northern forms are employed to sort out issues in more prestigious dialects, but only in 'small homeopathic doses'. The problem (if that is the right word) is that the injection of linguistically radical material into a more conservative framework tends to encourage more radical importations. Thus them and their(s) entered written London dialect (and therefore Standard English) in the generation after Chaucer's death, possibly because hem was too close to him and hare to her. If the 'northern' forms had not been available, everyone would probably have 'soldiered on', however.
Moreover, the borrowing of they meant that the descendant of Old English þeah 'although' was often its homophone. Since both of these are function words, native speakers must have felt uncomfortable with using both, meaning that the northern (in origin Norse) conjunction though was brought into southern systems. This borrowing led to a further ambiguity, since the plural of that in southern England was tho, which was now often homophonous with though. A new plural --- those --- was therefore created. Samuels (1989a) demonstrates these problems can be traced back to northern England and were spread by 'capillary motion' to more southern areas. These changes are part of a much larger set, all of which suggest that northern influence, particularly at a subconscious or covert level, was always present on the edges of more southerly dialects and may have assumed a role as a 'fix' to sort out ambiguity created by change.
Millar Conservative radicalism ̾ΤȤDz⤷ƤηϤ˼ޤƤᥫ˥ϡƵǽŪȤ뤬Υᥫ˥बѤȤơܿ (dialect contact) ȽѰ۷ (variants) ζ¸äȤפǤ롥ܿ (contact) η̤ȤƷ֤Ѱ (variation) εޤ졤ηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ˤꡤ֤Ѥ줿ΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ѳ3 contact, variation, systemic regulation ФäƤ롥Millar conservative radicalism Ȥͤϡ츫ԲĻĤؤθѲŤȤˡӤŪͿƤ褦˻פ롥
they though Ѳ˴ؤ̤ȤƤϡ#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]) ȡ#713. "though" "they" Ʊ۵ ([2011-04-10-1]) ȡ
ʤMillar (119--20) ϡ3;νñ̾ she ˤűѸ hēo ִˤ conservative radicalism Ʊ褦ŬѤǤȹͤƤ褦she ˤĤƤϡ#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1]), #793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])#974. 3;̾μʷ˺Ѥ۲([2011-12-27-1]) ȡ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
ܥ֥ǤϡѸ˴ؤơθ졤ǡǤʬۤܤȤơϿޤȤȤˡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ʤɤƤʤۤˤ⡤me_dialect εȡˡޤŪѸʬޤ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Ǽ
Ѹ˸¤ʤ֤̤벻б (isogloss) ʣϤ褯ΤƤ롥ѸǤ LALME LAEME Ȥܺ٤ʸϿޤǤƤΤǡζŪϿޤƤߤаǤ롥ǡ绨ĤˤǤ礿Ѱۤ䲻бʵڤӤȿǤƤȹֻͤбˤƤΤ褦Ūǡ#1341. Ѹʬ8ĤŪʷ֡ ([2012-12-28-1]) ΩĤLerer (92) μƤʰޤΩLerer ϡ⤤6 ("stone", "man", "heart", "father", "them", "hill") ǡѸ5ʰŪ˿ʲϡLerer ΤΤȤƺäޤǤ롥

äįƤȡͶäƤΤ Ƥhill -- hell -- hull ˸첻ѰۤˤĤƤϡϢơ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1]) ȡ
ʤ顤Ѹʬϡ奤ɱѸʬȤ̵ǤϤʤ8Ĥθˤ븽ζʬϡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ȥ줿
Lerer, Seth. Inventing English. New York: Columbia UP, 2007.
ߤ̤뤬ۤʤäԤɤܿˤϡФиߤ˼ħ¤ܤߴ餻 accommodation κѤѻ롥Τ褦ʸήĿͥ٥ǤϤʤ礭ʽĥ٥褦ˤʤȡdialect contact ܿ) ȸƤ֤٤ݤȤʤ롥dialect contact ϡŵŪˤϡǤθήˤơޤԻԲ̱ϲ̱Ȥäˤ롥
dialect contact η̡ܤϤѤ̤θܤϤѤȤä˸ʤ dialect mixture Фơ͡δ֤κΤޤ롥
κΤ1--2ФȡƸܤμѰ۷졤ΡŵŪˤ1ĤΡ˷֤ؤ夯ꥨƤ椯οʿϡdialect levelling ȸƤФ롥
dialect levelling ʤʿԤ뤳Ȥ¿ά (simplification) βˤФơο koiné ȤȯŸ뤫⤷ʤ (koinéization) ˡ koiné ϡɸδפˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
ơdialect contact koinéization ޤǤΰϢήTrudgill (157) ˤ꺣ɤäƤߤ褦
The dialect mixture situation would not have lasted more than a generation or possibly two, and in the end everybody in a given location would have ended up levelling out the original dialect difference brought from across the Atlantic and speaking the same dialect. This new dialect would have been 'mixed' with respect to its origins, but uniform in its current characteristics throughout the community. Where dialect levelling occurs in a colonial situation of this type --- or in the growth of a new town, for instance --- and that leads to the development of a whole new dialect, the process is known as koinéization (from the Ancient Greek word koiné meaning 'general, common').
Ū˳ǧ koinéization ƤѸεȤʤäƤ뤬奮ꥷ Attic ŵŪ koiné Ǥ롥ƥ¯ƥ⡤koinéization ˤޤ17˥ꥹ饢ꥫغǽο̱ʤ줿塤δ֤˿̱ϤΤ⡤koinéization Ǥ롥Ʊ͡ʱѸüԤˤ륪ȥꥢ̱˥塼ɿ̱ΤȤˤˡԻԲη̤ȤԻ⡤¿ koiné Ǥ롥
Ѹ˾ dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koinéization βꤵΤϡ14ȾΥɥѸˤƤ͡üԤԻԥɥ˽ޤꡤdialect mixture dialect levelling äη̤ȤơɸؤȯŸѼθΩΤǤϤʤѸ busy, bury, merry ֻȯδط𤷤Ƥطʤˤ⡤嵭ΰϢβͿƤΤ
busy, bury, merry ˤĤƤϡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#563. Chaucer merry ([2010-11-11-1])#570. bury 첻ʬۡ ([2010-11-18-1])#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1])#1434. left hemlock Kentish ([2013-03-31-1])#1561. 14Norfolk ̱μҲŪ ([2013-08-05-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ε#1621. The Middle English Grammar Corpus (MEG-C) ([2013-10-04-1]) ǿ줿ѸϿ LALME βŻ eLALME ǯEdinburgh ؤꥪ饤Ǹ줿 LALME ˤä꤬ʤɡǤȤäƤ褯ǽ˭٤両ؤʤɤǡŻǤȤѤƤ椯ȤˤʤȻפ롥
ǤФƼγĥʤƤ뤬Item Number ʤɤбֹ椬ۤʤäƤΤ⤢Τդפ롥㤨Сbetween ΰ۷ʬۤˤĤơǤǤ Dot Maps 703--06, 1118--19 6ʬۿޤǺܤƤ뤬ŻǤǤ Item Number 89 ΤȤ16ʬۿޤǺܤƤ롥ºݡDot Map οŻǤˤʤä1/3ʾ
ޤ桼ϿޤȤΤܤĥ롥#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1]) ε ([2013-10-04-1]) Ǥˤ between Ū۷˴ؤơλҲ x ޤॿפѸǤɤΤ褦ʬۤƤΤꤿꤷ褦"User-defined Maps" εǽ顤"Select one or more items" "89 BETWEEN pr [North & Ireland]" ǡ"Select one or more forms" x ޤ֤Τ٤Ƥ˥å롥줫 "Make map" åСʲΤ褦 Dot Map ȤȤߤǤ롥 Dot Map ⡤٤塼˥Ǥ롥

Ǥ Item Map Τϡ־ǤϿѤθ³顤ŻǤǤʤؼʤȤơ桼ϿޤΥɥåȤå뤳Ȥˤꡤˤܤΰֻݥåץåפ뤳ȤǤ롥ϴ Dot Map ǤԲǽʤΤǡ桼ϿޤѲͤϹ⤤
Ҳ𤷤 LALME ϥѥ The Middle English Grammar Corpus (MEG-C) ȹ碌ơѸĤܳŪ˥ǥȤΤǤϤʤ
ʤϿȤмΡ#846. HelMapperUK --- hellog ͤαѹϿ CGI ([2011-08-21-1]) ɤ
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
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