#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) ΥեʸǤȸƤǤ褤ΤˡLa Francophonie ʥեϢˮˤ롥֤դפ4ˡ˳ȤեեˡLe Monde de la Francophonieפꤹ뵭ߤ30Ǥ˼Τ褦롥 *
֥եοʸŪŪ¿οסʿ¡̱οʡסֶȸλٱסֻ³ŪȯŸ˷Ҥ붨Ϥγȯפ̿Ȥݥեˡ (OIF: Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) 80˵ڤֹϰ5Φ٤Ƥʬۤ뤬Τ٤ƤեѸȤ֥եפȤ櫓ǤϤʤ֥եեˡפȤϡե̤βʹѤȤƾ嵭̿Τ2ǯȤ˥ߥåȤԤʤޤޤʳư˼ȤŪȿǤ롥
տȤ館褦ΰǡ֥ե̤βʹѤȤơפȤ꤬Ǥʤ̸˲餫βͤȤ̸ˤʹѤտ路ƤȤȤǤ롥ե餷Ǥ롤ŪʸǤ롤ʿ¤θǤβͤŤΤȤեФ뤳βͤŤɤȤȤǤϤʤ̸ˤϱˤƤΤ褦ʲͤŤʤΤȤ̣ǡ˲ʹѤտ路Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ΰѤǤϡե˲ʹѤտ路ƤȽҤ٤ƤΤǤϤʤեȤ̸ֲʹѤȤפȤ롥⡤ֶ̤βʹѤȤפȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϰβ̣Τ̸ʹѤȤȤϡɽαDz꤫Ƥ褦ʵơʤThe Commonwealth of Nations La Francophonie ⡤εῴϤѤƴˤ䤫ʹݥ֤ȤݤȻפ뤬Ϳ褦ˤʤȡꥹեˤ뿷̱ϼǤȤηǰ롥La Francophonie ˤȿѸδȤ¦̤⤢뤬С켫Ȥ (linguistic_imperialism) οԡԤȤʤӤӤƤ褦˻פ
ΤȤƤ La Francophonie ʥ1960ǯˤ뤬θ塤ĤʳФȯŸƤǽιݥߥåȤϡ1986ǯ˥ߥåƥΤθƤӤˤ륵dzŤ줿ʸ塤褽2ǯ1٤ΥڡǥߥåȤƤ롥La Francophonie OIF αפˤĤơPerret ΥեˤΥ (71) Ѥ褦
La Francophonie et la francophonie La Francophonie (avec une majuscule), organisation plus politique que linguistique, est née au debut des années 1960 de la volonté de quelques dirigeants de nations francophones devenues indépendeantes, comme Hamani Diori, Habib Bourguiba, Norodom Shihanouk et Leopold Sédar Senghor, malgré les réticences de la France, alor peu désireuse de s'impliquer dans un «Commonwealth français». De Conférence des états francophones (1969) en Organisation commune africaine et malgache (1966) et en Agence de coopération culturelle et technique (1970), l'idée prit corps et le gouvernement canadien finit par accepter que le Québec et le Nouveau-Brunswick soient inclus dans l'organisation naissante. Les sommets francophones ont commencé à se réunir à partir de 1986; ils ne regroupent pas seulement des États dont l'une des langues officielle est le français, mais aussi des régions, des «États associés» et des «États observateur», si bien que cette Organisation internationale de la francophonie compte en son sein des pays non francophones comme l'Albanie, la Bulgarie, La Guinée-Bissau, la Guinée-Équatoriale, la Macédoine, la Moldavie, le Mozambique, la Pologne, la Roumanie, Saint-Thomas-et-Prince, la Serbie et l'Ukraine, pays qui ont choisi le français comme langue d'enseignement, première ou seconde, et/ou comme langue internationale. Aussi ne parle-t-on plus d'États francophones mais d'États ayant le français en partage.
ܤˤˤĤƤϡLa Francophonie θ Une histoire de la francophonie - Organisation internationale de la Francophonie ˾ܤ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ε#2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥϡʩбη̣Υ٤(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݤܤϡ(2) եäμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäեȤ2ĤλƳ롥
ޤ (2) ˤĤơѸȥեбӤȤ´κθϡֺǤ롥䤿ӤƤΤϡ̾ѸȸեбǤ롥եñ줬ѸؼѤ줿Τϡ¿ѸˤƤǤ (cf. #117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])) Ĥޤꡤ6--8ۤΥեä6--8ۤαѸήεǤߤ褦ˡμѲˤƤ model Ȥʤեñ loan ȤʤñΤ¿ΥåפΤ̤äΤǤ뤫顤ޤƤФˤξбɤ̣ˤƥԥäȰפʤΤ϶äȤǤϤʤ6--8Τˡθη̣ϡե¦ǤѸ¦ǤȼѲƤǽ⤤
㤨СѸ doubt ϥե douter б뤬ֻϰۤʤ롥ñֻ <b> ƤΤϱѸˤǤꡤֻϥեǤ夷ʤä (cf. #1187. etymological respelling ζ ([2012-07-27-1])) ޤե journée ϡ1פΰ̣бѸ journey ϡιԡפǤ롥ѸǤѸˤϡ1פθäˡ1ΰưΥפФơιԡפθȯŸȤȤθѤ줿λ֤СäȤ줬ΤϤΤȡ鸫ǤϤбΤȵ虜ʤۤɡߤˤΥ줿ؤȯŸǽ롥
ˡ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäեȤ˽פǤ롥ǯǤϤʤäȤΥåפ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤եѤθɬեɸեˤǤϤʤȤ¤롥䤿ؽ븽եΥեͳ褷Ƥ뤬Ȥ櫓Ѹ˱Ѹ줬Ѥեä¿ϼ¤ϥե˹ԤƤΥޥե (norman_french) Ǥ (cf. #1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])) פˡΡ¤äץեñ줬ñȤƼѤƸߤ˻äƤΤǤꡤȸɸեȤӤȤˡ줬ΤǤ롥ΥեüԤλ鸽Ѹбįȡ֤ʤѸΤΡ¤äեñѤƤΤפȼʤ롥ŪʻˤĤƤϡ#76. Norman French vs Central French ([2009-07-13-1])#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1])#388. äȤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2010-05-20-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ʾ塤2ˤ錄äƱñȥեñθˤĤƲ⤷ƤξԤΥåפϡ(1) ѲΤΤ˵Τ⤢С(2) Ѥ夬ΤȤǤꡤθξŪȯŸη̤ȤƤȤ館⤢뤷(3) μѥեɸäȤ¤ˤΤ⤢롥ñȸեñȤʿŪįƤǤϸƤʤΩŪʱԤѸˤ̤ƴƤ餤
Ѹ˳μȤʤɤǡѸθäˤ¿Υեñ줬ޤޤƤ뤫ˤȡʹϰͤ˶ä绨ĤˤäƱѸä1/3ե줢뤤ϤοƸǤƥ줫μѸǤ롥Ϣ뤤ĤפˤĤƤϡ#110. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-15-1]) ӡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) ƬĥäȤ줿
λ¤ʹȡѸȥե˶̤ä¿Τϡñ줬ե̤¿褦ߤαѸŪͥޤܸˤ¿αѸäήƤ¤ͤСե줬¿αñѤƤϤȤΤ̵Ϥʤ
ѸˤȤмºݤˤϵդǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū˱Ѹ줬եñ̤˼ѤƤ椨ˡ̤Ȥξ˶̤θä¿ΤǤ롥üŪˤС1066ǯΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤꡤɤΰҿ줬Ѹ줫եذܤäˡ̤Υե줫̤αѸؤȸä̤ήȤȤǤ롥ʱѸ줬եͿƶȤλϡŪˤŪ˵Ǥ롥#1026. 18Ѹ줫եäѸ ([2012-02-17-1])#1012. ˤѸ줫եؤαƶ ([2012-02-03-1]) ȡ
եǤ⤫äȤΤԤǤСʩǶ̤ϳΤ¿ɡ̣ߤˤƤȤ㤬ʤʤȤ˵ŤбäϤΤ̩ˡƱפǤ櫓ǤϤʤˤꡤfalse_friend (Fr. "faux amis") ꤬뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])) ե¦ model ȱѸ¦ loan Ȥδ֤ˡ̣Τ줬ƤޤΤϡäʤmodel loan ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ȡˡ
䤤ˤϡ(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݡ(2) եäμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäեȤ3ˤĤƤɬפ롥ϡ(1) ܤ褦äμѲ˵꤬ʸݤȤϡѸˤη̣¿ʤȤĤƼإԡΤ̤Ǥ뤳ȤޤܤСѸϡȤȯֻ¿쾯ʤηϤŬ礵ήΤ̾Ǥ롥㤨Сեα߿첻 /y/ Ÿɡ /ɲ/ ϡɬ⤽ΤޤޤηDZѸ˼줿ΤǤϤʤ¿ξ礽줾 /ɪʊ/, /nj/ ȤƼޤ줿 (cf. #1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])) ̯ʺۤǤϤ뤬μѤˤ model Τޤ˥ԡ櫓ǤϤʤȤƤ롥Ѹ /ʃəːt/ (shirt) ܸ /shatsu/ ʥġˤȤƼޤʤɡäդäȤܤǤϡΤ褦ʥ줬Τ϶ˤ̤Ǥ롥
˰̣ܤƤ⡤model loan δ֤ˤϤФХåפѻ롥Ȥ櫓ѤˤƤ model θΰΤߤѤ뤳Ȥ¿̣ϰϤȤƤ model > loan δطΩĤȤ¿ͭ̾ưʪȡѸ beef ϸťե boef, buefѤǤ롥model ˤϵȵξθޤޤ뤬loan ˤϵθޤޤʤǤϥեñ줬̣̾DZѸؼѤƤʤ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ⻲ȡˡƱͤˡѸ room ϡ֥롼פȤθˤܸäƤ뤬;Ϥθϡ֥롼פˤϤʤ
ǵƤǤϡñȥեñδ֤κۤϤäȤƤŪΤäեؽˤƽвñαʩ֤ΥȰ´ϡФФä礭õˤϡ(2) (3) λȤɬפǤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ
ѸοƳˤƤϡʣ (compounding) (derivation) 礿ˡȤʤäƤƤꡤ (borrowing) ι٤Ū㤤1ۤɤοܤߤƤ⡤ѤγŪܸꤷƤ (cf. #873. ѸοˤʣΥХ ([2011-09-17-1]) #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]))
Ū˸äƤƤȤϤüѤϸѸǤ³Ƥ롥#874 Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬΤʤǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡѤ餺¿ͤǤ롥#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǤϡѸؤθԤȤưƳܸ줬ͭϤǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ܸʤɤޤ̤Τܤ礬ΤꤿȤ
Algeo (78) ϡGarland Cannon (Historical Change and English Word-Formation. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. pp. 69--97) Ĵ˴Ťơ20ȾäƤѸäΥ̳Ƥ롥Ūˤϡ褽1963--88ǯδ֤˱ѸäƤѸϿ4ĤμĴоݤȤ̤˼Ѹ夲줾γФ4ĤμȤϡ(1) The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963 (1973), (2) The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1980), (3) Webster's Third (1961), (4) The Barnhart Dictionary Companion Index (1987) Ǥ롥줾줫407, 332, 523, 1661428ξýǤϤ뤬˴ŤưʲĴ̤줿
| (1) BDNE | (2) BENE2 | (3) 81W3 | (4) BDC | Rank | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| French | 31.4% | 17.5 | 21.2 | 12.0 | 1 |
| Spanish | 6.6 | 10.8 | 6.1 | 12.7 | 2 |
| Russian | 3.4 | 5.4 | 2.1 | 24.1 | 3 |
| Japanese | 7.9 | 9.3 | 6.3 | 9.0 | 4 |
| African | 6.1 | 7.2 | 6.7 | 3.0 | 5 |
| Italian | 4.7 | 4.5 | 10.7 | 2.4 | 6 |
| German | 5.9 | 5.4 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 7 |
| Greek | 6.9 | 4.8 | 8.0 | 1.2 | 8 |
| Latin | 5.2 | 5.1 | 9.4 | 9 | |
| Yiddish | 5.7 | 2.7 | 5.0 | 3.6 | 10 |
| Arabic | 2.0 | 3.9 | 1.7 | 6.0 | 11 |
| Chinese | 1.7 | 4.2 | 3.6 | 6.0 | 12 |
| Portuguese | 1.0 | 2.7 | 1.0 | 1.8 | 13 |
| Hindi | 2.2 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 2.4 | 14 |
| Hebrew | 0.7 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 15 |
| Sanskrit | 1.7 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 16 | |
| Persian | 0.2 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 17 | |
| Afrikaans | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 18 | |
| Dutch | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 19 | |
| Indonesian | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 20 |
| Malayo-Polynesian | 2.1 | 0.2 | 21 | ||
| Norwegian | 0.2 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 22 | |
| Swedish | 1.0 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 23 | |
| Korean | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 24 | |
| Vietnamese | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.6 | 25 | |
| Amerindian | 1.2 | 0.6 | 26 | ||
| Bengali | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 27 | |
| Danish | 0.5 | 1.0 | 28 | ||
| Eskimo | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 29 |

Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" ꤹ뵭ǤϡOED ȤΨ̻ŪܤĴ𤬤롥űѸ줫鸽Ѹؤγˡ츻̤ˤɤο줬ä˲ä줿ȤȤ˥դǼƤ롥ʸˤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡФθ츻˴ؤ OED θ츻Ф줿ϡäĤƲᤷʤФʤʤȤΤϡ츻ˤ줬ڤƤȤƤ⡤줬Ѹθ츻ɽȤϸ¤ʤ褽λͤˤʤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤ̻ŪʳѤΤͭѤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ǤϡCSV뤤EXCELǸƤ̤Ǹ츻̤οͤҼڤեȥƥ줫Ѹäɲä줿Ѹοܤղ¤٤Ƥߤ
![]() |
![]() |
binomial 2।ǥˤȸƤФ "A and B" ʤɤηɽˤĤơbinomial εǰäƤbinomials ϡword pair, paired word, doublets, collocated words ʤɤȤƤФ롥"A and B" ˸¤餺ȡ³ˤ礵줿Ʊ֤2סҸp. 170ˤȤʤʰʲǤϸƾΤ word pair ˡѸˤˤ word pair θϤȤʤŤѸǤ word pair ˭äǤ롥ä˶ѸλϤޤޤǤϡ̤˸줿
word pair ˤ⤤ʷ뤬츻Ūˤߤ줫ʼȤƥե줫Ρ˼Ѹ줫ȤȤ߹碌ˤäƱѱѥסʽƱǡ˱ʩסʩʩפʬ롥word pair θ̤ˤ⤤Ĥμब̤롥#820. ʩƱ ([2011-07-26-1]) ǤҤ٤ʸŪŪ⤢СߤΤʤθ¥ˡߤο⤦θźȤ⤢롥뤤ϡ#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡä˱ʩפˡΧѸˤơƤ줫ȤϫȤʤäȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤޤξˤ⡤̣ĴȤƯϤ٤ϴޤޤƤΤǤϤʤ
Ǥθ츻ܤʬȸ̤ܤʬबʤطˤΤȤ϶̣Ȥ櫓ʩפ˴ؤơեѸΰ̣뤿źȤܤ㤬¿ȤʤJespersen (89--90) ϡAncrene Riwle ȤƼΤ褦 word pair Ƥ롥
cherité þet is luve
in desperaunce, þet is in unhope & in unbileave forte beon iboruwen
Understondeð þet two manere temptaciuns---two kunne vondunges---beoð
pacience, þet is þolemodnesse
lecherie, þet is golnesse
ignoraunce, þet is unwisdom & unwitenesse
Chaucer ϱʩפʸŪŪˡ뤤϶ĴŪǻѤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤ롥Jespersen (90) ϤΤȤʲΤ褦ڤƤ롥
In Chaucer we find similar double expressions, but they are now introduced for a totally different purpose; the reader is evidently supposed to be equally familiar with both, and the writer uses them to heighten or strengthen the effect of the style; for instance: He coude songes make and wel endyte (A 95) = Therto he coude endyte and make a thing (A 325) | faire and fetisly (A 124 and 273) | swinken with his handes and laboure (A 186) | Of studie took he most cure and most hede (A 303) | Poynaunt and sharp (A 352) | At sessiouns ther was he lord and sire (A 355).
ëȤҸ (174--75) ˤСChaucer ʸѤ word pairs ΤΤ73%ޤǤʩפʩʩפǤȤ졤Chaucer İɼԤ˵եοι⤵롥
Ѥ word pair μ˴ؤ Chaucer жˤ˶ᤤȤˤΤȤơҸ (174--75) ϡѱѥפΨŪ˹⤤ʸƤ롥ΥƥȤǤϡѱѥפ word pairs ΤȾ뤤ϤʾƤȤ Chaucer Ȱۤʤ餺ʸŪŪʤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ȤΤϡѱѥפ¿Ѥ뤳ȤǡֹӺǤϤ뤬϶ʸΡסҸp. 175ˤФȤ˹Ƥ뤫word pair μȸ̤ͤǤϡġκȤƥȤθɬפȤȤ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
Ҹ סɿԤλʸˤεˡס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ163--88ǡ
ë Chaucer λʸʤˤɥڥѡסؤȤФζѸեȸء١ʺ ¼ סԡˡˡʸҡ2008ǯ89--116ǡ
ѸҲѸȥեˤ diglossia ƤȤϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) #1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǸƤȤǤ롥2Ѿ֤ľܸڤ褦ʵҤõΤɬ⤿䤹ʤޤƤ䡤2ˤĤɾ褦ʥȤϸĤˤΤʤǤ⤳λ˸ڤͭ̾ʰ롥Robert of Gloucester (fl. 1260--1300) Chronicle ΰǡʲCorpus of Middle English Prose and Verse The metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester 곺սѤ褦
& þe normans ne couþe speke þo / bote hor owe speche (l. 7538)
& speke french as hii dude atom / & hor children dude also teche
So þat heiemen of þis lond / þat of hor blod come (l. 7540)
Holdeþ alle þulke speche / þat hii of hom nome
Vor bote a man conne frenss / me telþ of him lute
Ac lowe men holdeþ to engliss / & to hor owe speche ȝute
Ich wene þer ne beþ in al þe world / contreyes none
Þat ne holdeþ to hor owe speche / bote engelond one (l. 7545)
Ac wel me wot uor to conne / boþe wel it is
Vor þe more þat a mon can / þe more wurþe he is
ΥޥͤϥɤˤäƤȤˤϥեΤߤѤƤꡤλ¹ "heiemen" եݻƤȡΰ "lowe men" ϱѸΤߤѤƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϥޤ diglossia ˤ H (= High variety) L (= Low variety) ζ̤ؤľܤθڤǤ롥ޤեΤʤȼҲŪ㤯ȤȤƤ롥ˡѤνΤۤǤϡξΤäƤۤ褤ΤۤҲŪ˲ͤ⤤Ȥߤʤȡʩ bilingualism ʸ륳ȤդƤ롥
ºݤΤȤChronicle 줿13ˤϡ²λǤ⤢ƳؽʤХե˻ȤʤʤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ²λΥեϤοꤨϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ13ޤǤˤϤǤ˸ˤʤäƤ褦եμҲŪϰ̤ϰȤƹ⤫äᡤ;פ˥եؽ夵줿ȤȤˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤ Robert of Gloucester ϡξ뤳Ȥڤ⤤ΤǤ롥
16ˤϡƥѸϤȤƥޥʤɤμѸ줬ӤѸήʡ#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1]) #1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) ȡˡܸǤʹߡ̤δ줬졤°ʹߤ̵Υʸ줬ήʡ#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1]) ڤӡ#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]) ȡˡλγơˤơ (purism) Ω줫μѸȽʹ줿Ѹߤ䤿˻ѤΤϹơä¿Ȥ٤ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƤޤʹʤΤϡѸΤ褦˲եѸФȽǤ롥#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ǸȤꡤѸϥΥޥȸο֤ǡ˾ƿȤϤǤ̸üѤиƤΥեѸؤȽϤʤäΤ
Τ˥ͥΥȽۤɤΩʤѸˤեѸȽޤäʤä櫓ǤϤʤRanulph Higden (c. 1280--1364) ˤƥ Polychronicon 1387ǯ˱ John of Trevisa (1326--1402) ϡǡťΥɸȤȤ˥ե줫μѸ̵ʬ̤ʻѤˤĤƶ褷Ƥ롥Crystal (186) ΰѤƸ褦
by commyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys apeyred, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbittyng.
ƱͤˡRichard Rolle of Hampole (1290?--1349.) ˤ Psalter (a1350) Ǥ⡤"seke no strange Inglis" ʸΤ̱ѸϻȤʤˤȥեѸФưŤԲƤ뤷15 Polychronicon Osbern Bokenham (1393?--1447?) ⡤ե줬ѸڤˤƤ (Crystal 186) ȤơΤʤǡ줿եѸѤƤȤϤޤǤʤ
Τ褦ѸΥեѸؤνŪϤĤǧ뤬η㤷Ƚ٤ñȯŪǤꡤä礭Ĭήʤä褦Ѹ켫ΤޤθȤƤܤĤʤϰ̤ˤäơѸؤλѸηȤŪ٤ܤӤˤϡޤ夬ᤫäΤȻפ롥Ǥ⡤ѸϤʽŪȽϡβȽʳȤơΤ˱Ѹ˾˰֤ŤΤǤϤ
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Ѹθ츻Ūֻ˴ؤϡ̾ͥΥƥǮν껺ǤȤƸ롥Ĥ٤ܤϡͥǯʾƧ߸ǤƤƥֻǤꡤѸե줫줿ǤϤʤǤƥܲȤη˶Ť٤ȡƤߤȡѸϡľΤܤƤեɤĤɤۤȤΤʤǡʤߤˤƥΰҸܻؤƤȤȤˤʤ롥ǤϡեϤϤѸֻϤͿ褦¸ߤǤϤʤʤäƤȤȤ㤨СեѸʤɤˤƥեֻ˴Ť֤ʤȤݤϤʤäΤ
ƥ˴Ť츻ŪֻαƤΩʤΤ褦ϸѸ˸롥#594. ѸʹߤΥեѸħ ([2010-12-12-1]) ڤӡ#678. ƥ衼åŪ18ΥեѸ ([2011-03-06-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ17Ⱦ18ˤƤϡեͼեʸήԤǤ롥κѸؼѤ줿եñϡեֻȯΤޤޤǼ츽ߤ˻äƤΤ¿ȤħĤᤤʳ˱ѸؼѤƤեñ줬ƶե֤ʤȤ⤢ä
㤨СHorobin (134) ϡbisket biscuit ءblew blue ֤ʤ줿ΤϡΥեֻȤ줿ȤƤ롥ºݤˤϡbiscuit 19֤ʤblue 18֤ʤǤ롥ǵäȤƱΥեֻȤ֤ʤˤƥλˤʤäơָ츻ŪֻפȸƤ֤ΤɬΤǤϤʤषե줫κƼѤȾΤƤ٤Τ⤷ʤɽŪˤϡָ츻ŪֻפȻ¦̤궽̣ǽŪ˥ե켰ֻΤ夷Ȥơ#299. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ ([2010-02-20-1])#300. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ (2) ([2010-02-21-1]) Ǽ夲 <explain> ⤢ΤǡȤ줿
Ͼʤ褦˻פ롥ۤμʤĴ٤㤬äȽФƤ뤫⤷ʤΤĴ٤֤17Ⱦ19Ⱦ餤ޤǤδ֤ȤȤȤΤϡѸΥեѤήԴ18ԡǤꡤΥե̿ʸϡ²ΰҿή餬ƬƤˤäƥեͼήԤϲФˤʤä
츻ŪֻȤظˤ븶ưϤ1ĤϡήԤȰҿθˡǤ⤢䤫ꤿȻפƴεǤ롥ˤƤϡѸΥƥ١θ츻ŪֻѸΥե١Ρָ츻Ūֻפⶦ̤Ƥ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Ѹäع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) ʤɡ¿εǸڤƤ#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäλع¤椨˱Ѹ̱ŪʸǤȤ뤳Ȥ뤬ѸäΤħϸˤäƤȤȤʤतΤΤǤ롥
Jespersen (121--39) Ƥ롥ޤĹ꤫顥
(1) ʩͳ褹줬¿Ȥˤꡤ̣ "subtle shades" ɽ褦ˤʤä
(2) ʸŪŪɽǽˤʤä
(3) ѸˤĹñ줬¿ΤǡȤüԤϹθΤλ֤ݤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) ƥѸˤôݤ롥
ޤ (1) (2) ϴϢƤꡤɽϤ礭ȤϳΤȤ٤ܤܸäλع¤ӤСɽԤˤȤäƤΥåȤϼ´褦ʹؽԤˤȤäƤħȤ⤤ϤޤŪʤΤǤȤȤ˺ƤϤʤʤ(3) Ϥ⤷ŦǤ롥üԤȤƱѸäݤˤϡߥñ̡ʡˤΤϤʻֲԤǤΩĤȤ롥ĹñǻֲԤȤΤϡˤ뤬άȤƤϳΤˤΤǤϤʤ(4) ϥƥѸǤϤʤꥷѸˤĤƤϢơ#512. ̾ ([2010-09-21-1]) #1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ˡJespersen Ƥû롥
(5) ɬסŬڤʥƥѸλѤˤꡤ̣ξܤ䤱뤳Ȥ롥
(6) ȯֻʤɤˤĤƵô롥㤨С#859. gaseous ȯ ([2011-09-03-1]) γƼΥꥨ#573. ̾ȷƻбطʣǤ3Ĥλ ([2010-11-21-1]) Ǥߤ labyrinth ƻʤɤǤ롥
(7) ʳؤﲽˤꡤϢäˤϹǤˤʬ䤹褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥㤨 insomnia sleeplessness Τۤʬ䤹ͭѤǤȤ롥
(8) ͳǤƳˤꡤ֤ζ֤꤬ (ex. Cánada vs Canádian)
(9) ƥʣ (ex. phenomena, nuclei) Ѹؤ⤽ΤޤۤʤɤŪ줿
(10) ä̱Ūˤʤä
ȤϥɽδطˤꡤŪȽǤϲˤȤ狼ɤΤȤѸθù¤켫ΤȤϡѼԤ˻ȤȤʤΤѸθù¤ϡƻθܿʤɤ߽ФƤ͡ʸûŪʪˤ켫ΤɤⰭʤäơ̱Ū뤤̱ŪȤ褦ɾäȤȤϡɾԤѸä뼫Ω֤ɽƤȤȤǤ롥Jespersen (139) ϼɾƤ롥
While the composite character of the language gives variety and to some extent precision to the style of the greatest masters, on the other hand it encourages an inflated turgidity of style. . . . [W]e shall probably be near the truth if we recognize in the latest influence from the classical languages 'something between a hindrance and a help'.
ܸˤ̤줿ʥץ˴20ˤ⤿餵줿ʸˤ⡤褦ɾä뤳ȤǤʡ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) Ȥĥäȡˡ
ѸȤ̱̱ȤˤĤƤϡ#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1])#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1])#1845. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (2) ([2014-05-16-1]) Ǽ夲Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿ޤѸäΥޥ (romancisation) ˴ؤɾˤĤƤϡ#153. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset ([2009-09-27-1]) #395. ѸΥޥ첽ˤĤƤɾ ([2010-05-27-1]) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ε#2056. եȱѸˤ츻Ūֻδط (1) ([2014-12-13-1]) ǡեθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ʊ۵ɤ̤ΤäȤ˿줿եˤƸ츻ŪֻΤ褦ʵǽȤȤϡ̤δСեνηϤɽ (phonographic) ɽ (logographic) ؤȰŤȤɽǤ롥Τ褦ɽʸηϤؤܶѸǤѸ줫ѸˤƤΤƱͤˡեǤϸʩ줫ʩˤƤषեǤξѸ˿ʤǤcf. #1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1])#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1])
եξ˴ؤƤϡʤѸˤǤϤʤեˤΰʤΤǡե˳äƤߤʲPerret (138) Ѥ褦ޤϡʩνηϤɽŪǤȤ꤫顥
L'ancien français : une écriture phonétique
. . . . dans la mesure où l'on disposait de graphèmes pour rendre les son que l'on entendait, l'écriture était simplement phonétique (feré pour fairé, souvent kí pour quí) . . . .
Perret (138--39) ³ơʩνηϤɽˤĤƼΤ褦˳⤷Ƥ롥
Le moyen français : une écriture idéographique
À partir du XIIIe siècle, la transmission des textes cesse d'être uniquement orale, la prose commence à prendre de l'importance : on écrit aussi des textes juridiques et administratifs en français. Avec la prose apparaît une ponctuation très différente de celle que nous connaissons : les textes sont scandés par des lettrines de couleur, alternativement rouges et bleues, qui marquent le plus souvent des débuts de paragraphes, mais pas toujours, et des points qui correspondent à des pauses, généralement en fin de syntagme, mais pas forcément en fin de phrase. Les manuscrits deviennent moins rares et font l'objet d'un commerce, ils ne sont plus recopiés par des moines, mais des scribes séculiers qui utilisent une écriture rapide avec de nombreuses abréviations. On change d'écriture : à l'écriture caroline succèdent les écritures gothique et bâtarde dans lesquelles certains graphèmes (les u, n et m en particulier) sont réduits à des jambages. C'est à partir de ce moment qu'apparaissent les premières transformations de l'orthographe, les ajouts de lettres plus ou moins étymologiques qui ont parfois une fonction discriminante. C'est entre le XIVe et le XVIe siècle que s'imposent les orthographes hiver, pied, febve (où le b empêche la lecture ‘feue’), mais (qui se dintingue ainsi de mes); c'est alors aussi que se développent le y, le x et le z à la finale des mots. Mais si certains choix étymologiques ont une fonction discrminante réelle, beaucoup semblent n'avoir été ajoutés, pour le plaisir des savants, qu'afin de rapprocher le mot français de son étymon latin réel ou supposé (savoir s'est alors écrit sçavoir, parce qu'on le croyait issu de scire, alors que ce mot vient de sapere). C'est à ce moment que l'orthographe française devient de type idéographique, c'est-à-dire que chaque mot commence à avoir une physionomie particulière qui permet de l'identifier par appréhension globale. La lecture à haute voix n'est plus nécessaire pour déchiffrer un texte, les mots peuvent être reconnus en silence par la méthode globale.
ѤκǸˤ褦ˡɽʸηϤȯãɽȯãȴϢŤƤȤ¤˱ԤƶǤ롥˽Фɤ߾夲ݤˤϡȯľ˷ӤĤɽʸηϤΤۤդ路ɤεꡤɤ̾ɤˤʤäƤȡľ뤷䤹ȹͤɽɽաʸηϤդ路Ȥ⤤ (cf. #1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])) ɤɤؤžɽʸɽʸؤžȻŪˤ褽פȤȤˤʤСξԤδط虜ʤ
եˤѸˤ衤츻ŪֻϥͥΥƥǮȤδϢΤʸδߤСɽɽؤνηϤΥݥžȤȤʤ뤷ʪʸˤδߤСɤɤؤžȤȤʤ롥<doubt> <b> ظˤϡ¤˳غŪäƤΤǤ롥
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ε˰³ʩξˤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) δطˤĤơScragg (52--53) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Throughout the Middle Ages, French scribes were very much aware of the derivation of their language from Latin, and there were successive movements in France for the remodelling of spelling on etymological lines. A simple example is pauvre, which was written for earlier povre in imitation of Latin pauper. Such spellings were particularly favoured in legal language, because lawyers' clerks were paid for writing by the inch and superfluous letters provided a useful source of income. Since in France, as in England, conventional spelling grew out of the orthography of the chancery, at the heart of the legal system, many etymological spellings became permanently established. Latin was known and used in England throughout the Middle Ages, and there was a considerable amount of word-borrowing from it into English, particularly in certain registers such as that of theology, but since the greater part of English vocabulary was Germanic, and not Latin-derived, it is not surprising that English scribes were less affected by the etymologising movements than their French counterparts. Anglo-Norman, the dialect from which English derived much of its French vocabulary, was divorced from the mainstream of continental French orthographic developments, and any alteration in the spelling of Romance elements in the vocabulary which occurred in English in the fourteenth century was more likely to spring from attempts to associate Anglo-Norman borrowings with Parisian French words than from a concern with their Latin etymology. Etymologising by reference to Latin affected English only marginally until the Renaissance thrust the classical language much more positively into the centre of the linguistic arena.
פʥݥȤޤȤȡ
(1) եˤƥ츻ȤƤʸϡ̻ξԤΤä
(2) ե٤бѸˤϥޥϤθäʤŪˤгΤˤ̤ꡪˡƥ츻ضŤ٤оݤȤʤ⤽ʤäᡤ츻ŪֻβФˤä뤤ϷФΤ٤줿 (cf. #653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]))
(3) 14αѸθ츻ŪֻϡľܥƥȤ̤ǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Υ Parisian French ָ̤Ǥ롥
(4) ƥľܤαƶϡܳŪˤϥͥԤʤФʤʤä
ǤϡʤͥŪˤ16ˡƥ츻ľܻȤ츻ŪֻѸȤ䤤ФơScragg (53--54) ϥƥäμѤλäǤ롤üŪƤ롥
As a result both of the increase of Latinate vocabulary in English (and of Greek vocabulary transcribed in Latin orthography) and of the familiarity of all literate men with Latin, English spelling became as affected by the etymologising process as French had earlier been.
Τ˥ƥä̤ήϡƥ츻ռȤʤä츻Ūֻؤαƶ⤢äȤ롥츻ŪֻĬή¸ߤƤΤǤꡤñ16ΥƥѤεϤʤȥƥؤοƤߡˤΤߤ˸ڤơդƤޤΤϰ°פǤϤʤѸˤ츻Ūֻϡ礭Ūʸ̮֤뤳Ȥοʤ褦˻פ롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ѸѸˤƤαѸθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȯȳظˤϡбեǤθ츻ŪֻμäΤȤˤĤƤϡ#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#1156. admiral <d> ([2012-06-26-1])#1790. եǤ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ ([2014-03-22-1])#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰäơ ([2014-08-21-1]) ʤɤεǿƤȤǤ롥
äơѸˤ뤳ͤͤ褦ȤСեˤȤʤ14--16եθ츻ŪֻμˤĤơZink (24--25) Ѥ褦
Latinisation et surcharge graphique. --- L'idée de rapprocher les mots français de leurs étymons latins ne date pas de la Renaissance. Le mouvement de latinisation a pris naissance à la fin du XIIIe siécle avec les emprunts opérés par la langue juridique au droit romain sous forme de calques à peine francisés.... Parti du vocabulaire savant, il a gagné progressivement les mots courants de l'ancien fonds. Il ne pouvait s'agir dans ce dernier cas que de réfections purement graphiques, sans incidence sur la prononciation ; aussi est-ce moins le vocalisme qui a été retouché que le consonantisme par l'insertion de graphèmes dans les positions où on ne les prononçait plus : finale et surtout intérieure implosive.
Ainsi s'introduisent avec le flot des emprunts savants : adjuger, exception (XIIIe s.) ; abstraire, adjonction, adopter, exemption, subjectif, subséquent. . . (mfr., la prononciation actuelle datant le plus souvent du XVIe s.) et l'on rhabille à l'antique une foule de mots tels que conoistre, destre, doter, escrit, fait, nuit, oscur, saint, semaine, soissante, soz, tens en : cognoistre, dextre, doubter, escript, faict, nuict, obscur, sainct, sepmaine, soixante, soubz, temps d'après cognoscere, dextra, dubitare, scriptum, factum, noctem, obscurum, sanctum, septimana, sexaginta, subtus, tempus.
Le souci de différencier les homonymes, nombreux en ancien français, entre aussi dans les motivations et la langue a ratifié des graphies comme compter (qui prend le sens arithmétique au XVe s.), mets, sceau, sept, vingt, bien démarqués de conter, mais/mes, seau/sot, sait, vint.
Toutefois, ces correspondances supposent une connaissance étendue et précise de la filiation des mot qui manque encore aux clercs du Moyen Age, d'où des tâtonnements et des erreurs. Les rapprochements fautifs de abandon, abondant, oster, savoir (a + bandon, abundans, obstare, sapere) avec habere, hospitem (!), scire répandent les graphies habandon, habondant, hoster, sçavoir (à toutes les formes). . . .
ȤƤϡ(1) եǤϥͥΩ13ƥѤǤꡤȼäƥƥ˴Ť츻Ūֻ⸽Ƥȡ(2) ȸλҲæƤȤ˸츻ŪʻҲ褵ȡ(3) 츻ŪֻĤñ줬ʩξˤƶ̤뤳ȡ(4) եξˤϸ츻ŪֻƱ۵ɤ̤䤬äȡ(5) եǤ츻Ūֻ˴ŤĹ꽤ߤ줿ȡ롥Ϥ褽Ѹθ츻Ūֻˤ⤢ƤϤޤꡤʩξݤͿƤ뤳ȡäȸХե줬ѸرƶڤܤȤ롥(5) ˵꽤 (hypercorrection) αѸǤˤĤƤϡ#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
츻Ūֻ˴ؤƱʩǰۤʤȻפΤϡ嵭 (4) եǤϡ츻ŪֻƳϡƱ۵ (homonymy) ̤ΤäȤСˤƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) 뤿ˡ츻Ū§˴ŤƸߤ˰ۤʤֻƳȤȤǤ롥ƥ줫ޥػβѲη̡եǤñƱ۵줬̤˻äˤƲ褹Ȥơ츻ŪֻѤ줿ΤǤ롥ܸΤҤ餬ʤǡ֤פȽƤɤΡ֤פ̤դʤΤǡǡֹֻաסָספʤɤȽʬȻƤ롥ˤƥեνηϤϡɽŪʤΤ顤ɽŪʤΤؤȰŤȤ
ѸǤƱ۵ͤ뤿˸츻ŪֻƳȤϤʤä褦˻פ뤬ǽŪʸ츻ŪֻưդȤˤĤƤϡ⤦տͻͤꤽ
Zink, Gaston. ''Le moyen françis (XIVe et XV e siècles)''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990.[sic]
#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1])#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1])#1884. եѸʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) 褦ˡΥޥαѸ˾ΰյϼȤƴŪǼҲŪʤΤǤ롥äˤϳΤ˾ʤ̱ƶľܤͿʸˡ䲻ؤαƶϤäȤƤϤǤ (cf. #204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1])#1815. ̾ one ˡϥեαƶ ([2014-04-16-1]))
ΥޥκιϡҲѸνϤåꡤѸäդزäȤǤȻϹͤƤ롥ˤäơѸϼͳãŷ̵˥˸Ѳ뤲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäǤ[2012-07-11-1][2012-08-17-1]εǰѤƤȽʣ뤬֥륷 (42--43) ޤΥޥΤɾƤ롥
1066ǯ˵ä礭ʽɬŪ֤ȼäơαƶʬͿĤĤäϤ֥Υޥͤˤѹ (conquête normande) ΤȤǤꡤˤäĤθ졤Ѹȥե줬ܿŪҲŪư줿줫Ĺ֡Ȼ۳ϱѸäʤʤǤ롥11溢ޤǤ˴˻ϤޤäƤĤθ츽ݤ⡤ȤȤ礷ǤϤΡ֥ΥޥͤˤѹפѸξ˷ŪʱƶͿȤϴְ㤤ʤ1300ǯޤǤˤĤΡܤ٤㳰̤ˤơȾʸغʡ¿νʪϰȤƥΥޥ줢뤤ϥƥǽƤΤǤѸΰҿ㲼֥Υޥͤˤѹװʹ߱ѸμפΤäդˤʤäΤǤ롥äդϽդݼ˳ήưŪǡפ˱뤳ȤΤǤ֤Ǥ롥Ĺʲβ̤Ƥ˱Ѹ줬ʸήξdzȤƤΰҸ᤹ȤǤѤդϡ֤λäդãȯãʳȿǤƤȹͤ롥פˡݼŪʽϤλߤ̵ʤäΤǤ롥¿Ȳ̶ʬä˸ƤʤˤƤϿŤǤʤФʤʤʤʤ顤űѸʳǻѤǤϡλο¿ڤƤȤϸ¤ʤǤˡݼŪʽϤλߤ̵ʤäȤϡʸؤȻθѰ (registre) ͰŪ˴ѤȤ߹ޤƤ¿θ줬ǤȤ䡤ä˷ŪѲ (paradigme) (désinence) ΤʤŰ줷ƴά줿Ȥˤ⸽Ƥ롥
֥륷ϱѸˡˤˤȳ̻ˤޤߤŪʱѸˤɽȻפ
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
եؽγ顤ʼեǤ actif, effectif ʤɸ -if ĸŪ˷ƻˤ¿ꡤǤϸФΤȤ -if Ǥ -ive θե줫ѤѸǤ -ive §Ǥ롥ʤѸϥե줫餳θǼѤΤ
餤С -ive ϥեб -ive ľܤȿǤΤǤϤʤѸϼȤѸ˥ե줫餢ޤǸФˤ -if ηǼѤΤǤꡤ˱ѸǤβѲˤ̵ [f] [v] ͭȯ˹碌 -<ive> Ȥֻ̲ȤȤǤ롥
ѸǤϤΥեѸФֻͥ -<if> Ǥ롥Ǥͭ -<ive> 褷ƾʤʤġñˤäξԤδ֤ǤɤۤʤȻפ뤬Ūˤ -<if> ήǤȹͤ롥ˡ#1178. MED Spelling Search ([2012-07-18-1]) ǡ"if\b.*adj\." "ive\b.*adj\." ʤɤȸФ측ƤߤȡȤƤ -<if> äƤ롥Ѹ٤ι⤤ effective, positive, active, extensive, attractive, relative, massive, negative, alternative, conservative Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED Ǥ -<if> ФȤƺǽ˵äƤ롥
Ǥ˸ѸˤϤֻɽ蘆ȯ [ɪf] ˤơҲ [f] [v] ͭĤĤäˤ϶֤꤬Ϳ롥ޤեǤΤ˶ƤꡤѸǤƱͤ˶äȤѸǤ϶֤촴ذư뷹ä (cf. #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤ ([2009-11-13-1])#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1])#861. Ѹθ춯ΰ֤˴ؤ3ס ([2011-09-05-1])#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1])) ˶ʤʤȡ [f] Verner's Law ʤΰ̲ˤ˽ͭ [v] Ȥʤäverners_law ȻҲͭˤĤƤϡäˡ#104. hundred ͥˡ§ ([2009-08-09-1]) ȡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) Ȥ줿
嵭βĶˤ [f] ޤͭΤϡ (378) ˤС14ȾNǤϤˡפȤ롥褽Ʊˡ[s] > [z], [θ] > [ð] ͭⵯä (ex. is, was, has, washes; with)
˽Ҥ٤аޤǡեѸ -if ϸ˸¤ -ive ؤѲΤ㳰Ū -if ˤȤɤޤäΤ롥bailiff ʼ, caitiff ܶԡ, mastiff ʥޥա, plaintiff ʸˤʤɤϡŤ [f] [v] δ֤ɤƤǽŪ [f] βɸಽǤ롥
ʾJespersen (200--01) Ƥ餪
The F ending -if was in ME -if, but is in Mod -ive: active, captive, etc. Caxton still has pensyf, etc. The sound-change was here aided by the F fem. in -ive and by the Latin form, but these could not prevail after a strong vowel: brief. The law-term plaintiff has kept /f/, while the ordinary adj. has become plaintive. The earlier forms in -ive of bailiff, caitif, and mastiff, have now disappeared.
Ƭμ˲СѸ -ive ľܥեΡʤ뤤ϥƥͳ褹˽ -ive ڤꤿΤǤϤʤե줫Ѥ -if λҲѸβѲˤͭΤɽ魯αѸüԤեν -ive ˤٸƤȤαƶʬϤ뤫⤷ʤޤǤδͿϴŪȤߤʤƤΤ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
ε#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1]) ǡѸʪ˴ؤäˤϡŪ˥եѸ줬ƤȤǧطʤˤΤϡʤ1066ǯΥΥޥȤǤ롥ʹߡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ŵŪΤƤ褦ˡϤ¿ν̱ϲܤäɤ졤եϤξήϥեݤǤäɤˤƥեϡñˤǤʤҤξħȤƼҲŪʴްդäƤ
ưʪȤ˴ؤ sheep / mutton; ox / beef; pig / pork, bacon, gammon; calf / veal; boar / brawn; fowl / poultry αʩäΩϤ褯ΤƤ뤬ۤˤեѸ줬˴ؤ̣ƤڵϤ롥εǰѤ Hughes ϡ"The sociology of food" (117--20) ꤹạ̇̄Ƥ롥
ޤưʪβĿ̤Ǿ̤Ȳ̤ȤǸƤ̾ۤʤȤ¤롥haunch, joint, cutlet ϥեbrains, tongue, shank ϱѸٹڤʿɽ魯 dinner, supper, banquet ϥեǤ breakfast ϱѸʤʤlunch 16˽Ф뿩ΰդǤ19ˡФ̤Ĵˡϡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) COOK ۲˵ boil, broil, roast, grill, fry ʤ¿ư줬եסǥȡĴ̣ʤ̣Ǻ (ex. soup, potage, sauce, dessert, mustard, cream, ginger, liquorice, flan, pasty, claret, biscuit) οʸΤҤ⤸ᤷۤɤ
ΤѰդ뷸̾ˤե줬Ωġsteward ʵĹˤѸsty + ward ǡھÿ͡פȤΤˡmarshal Էˡsewer ˡpantler ʿ¢͡ˡbutler ʼˤϥեǤ롥Ư scullion ʻˡˡblackguard ʾȤˡpot-boy ʥܡˤϤѸǤ롥
Ǹˡ15Υ쥷ԤαʸƤߤ褦Hughes (118) κưѤåΤθ줬եѸǤ롥ΰ̣줬ե줫֤줷Ƥ뤫ʬ
Oystres in grauey
Take almondes, and blanche hem, and grinde hem and drawe þorgh a streynour with wyne, and with goode fressh broth into gode mylke, and sette hit on þe fire and lete boyle; and cast therto Maces, clowes, Sugur, pouder of Ginger, and faire parboyled oynons mynced; And þen take faire oystres, and parboile hem togidre in faire water; And then caste hem ther-to, And let hem boyle togidre til þey ben ynowe; and serve hem forth for gode potage.
ˤե줫֤줷Ƥ롥֤Ƥʤä顤Ǥɾ뤳ȤξʤɤοϡϤΤȤʤä˰㤤ʤͤΡʬˤ purism εϤʤ
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Hughes (119) ˡįƤǤʤäƤѸ "A historical menu" ǺܤƤ롥űѸ鸽ѸޤǤ˼ȱѸäƤʪɽ魯Ѹ줬¤Ǥ롥Hughes ϸ夫űѸؤ̤褦˰ƤꡤΤοʪѤäʤȤˤϤ褤ΤɤۤŪ˿ߤΤǡΤ褦ɤळȤᤷ
| Food | Drink | |
|---|---|---|
| pesto, salsa, sushi | ||
| tacos, quiche, schwarma | ||
| pizza, osso bucco | Chardonnay | |
| 1900 | paella, tuna, goulash | |
| hamburger, mousse, borscht | Coca Cola | |
| grapefruit, éclair, chips | soda water | |
| bouillabaisse, mayonnaise | ||
| ravioli, crêpes, consommé | riesling | |
| 1800 | spaghetti, soufflé, bechamel | tequila |
| ice cream | ||
| kipper, chowder | ||
| sandwich, jam | seltzer | |
| meringue, hors d'oeuvre, welsh rabbit | whisky | |
| 1700 | avocado, pâté | gin |
| muffin | port | |
| vanilla, mincemeat, pasta | champagne | |
| salmagundi | brandy | |
| yoghurt, kedgeree | sherbet | |
| 1600 | omelette, litchi, tomato, curry, chocolate | tea, sherry |
| banana, macaroni, caviar, pilav | coffee | |
| anchovy, maize | ||
| potato, turkey | ||
| artichoke, scone | sillabub | |
| 1500 | marchpane (marzipan) | |
| whiting, offal, melon | ||
| pineapple, mushroom | ||
| salmon, partridge | ||
| Middle English | venison, pheasant | muscatel |
| crisp, cream, bacon | rhenish (rhine wine) | |
| biscuit, oyster | claret | |
| toast, pastry, jelly | ||
| ham, veal, mustard | ||
| beef, mutton, brawn | ||
| sauce, potage | ||
| broth, herring | ||
| meat, cheese | ale | |
| Old English | cucumber, mussel | beer |
| butter, fish | wine | |
| bread | water |
ѸäħŪع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ʤɤεǤߤƤع¤ȤɽΤϡ岼طȳؤΤӥΤ褦ʷʪΥ⤷ʤӥȤϡĺԥߥåɤΤ褦ʷۤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ顤ι㳬ؤá䶹ޤä泬ؤΥեáⳬؤΥƥꥷäȤ
ԥߥåɤȤŬڤʤΤϡ1ĤˤϡⳬؤΥƥꥷäΤøŪϰ̤Ȱҿ褯Ƥ뤫ҲŪʸŪ¾ݤݥˤĤƤ뤳Ȥϡӥ뷿ԥߥåɷΤۤ褯ɽǤ롥
2ܤȤơ줾θä٤ԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤȤɽǤ뤫Ǥ롥ε#1959. ʸػˤʸػˤˤפԤѤäˤγ ([2014-09-07-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäդΤߤʤ餺դˤƤ⡤ä٤¾ݤƤʤʤʬۤϡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܸˤƤƱͤäˡоŪˡⳬؤθä٤㤤ġθˤĤƤȿ⤢ŪʷȤƤϡƳؤ٤ѤȤб롥äȤ⡤Ƴؤθ̡ʰۤʤˤȤȤǤСɬ⤽줬ԥߥåɤѤб櫓Ǥʤ100cf. #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ ([2010-03-02-1]) Ⱥ600cf. #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])ˤǸ¤ꡤ̤ѤϤ褽бƤ뤬10000Ȥ٥Ĵȡ#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤƤ3ؤξ岼ط롥
ԥߥåɤȤͭȹͤ3ܤͳϡԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤ٤Τߤʤ餺ΤỊ̇ˡιˤбƤ뤫ŪܶǤ٤⤤ФǤʤ¿Ǥꡤˡ¿ˤ錄롥ŪʸƱͿפǤ⡤ give Ūʸ¿ˤ¿ƥѸ donate ϸꤵƤ롥ޤgive ʸȤ SVOiOd SVOd to Oi 뤳ȤǤʤʤ dative shift ǽˤdonate ϸԤʸƤʤۤˤϡ#112. եƥѸȲˡߡ ([2009-08-17-1]) Ǽ褦ˡóؤŪʿ˴ͿƤȵ륱롥
3δ顤Hughes (43) ϡΤ褦ʥԥߥåɹ¤
![]()
嵭3Τۤˤ⡤ƳؤѤȸ䤹 (comprehensibility) طƤȤ⤢롥ɤΤȤóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤȤȤԥߥåɤȤϹߤǤ롥
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ε#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) ˰³etymological_respelling ꡥѸˤǤϸ츻Ūֻϼ16--17ȤǧƤcf. #1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1])ˡᤤ14--15ǧƤ뤷#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#1790. եǤ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ ([2014-03-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ٥եǤ褯ݤ13ȾƤºݤ˥եǤ츻Ūֻ16˥ԡޤΤǡθݤˤĤơʩϤ褽Ĵ碌ƤȤˤʤ롥
ե¦Ǥθ츻ŪֻˤĤƾܤĴƤʤMiller (211) 14꤫ȤƤ롥
Around the end of C14, French orthography began to be influenced by etymology. For instance, doute 'doubt' was written doubte. Around the same time, such etymologically adaptive spellings are found in English . . . ., especially by C16. ME doute [?a1200] was altered to doubt by confrontation with L dubitō and/or contemporaneous F doubte, and the spelling remained despite protests by orthoepists including John Hart (1551) that the word contains an unnecessary letter . . . .
եǤϰ <doubte> ³17ˤϺƤ <b> æǤ doute äƤ롥
ǤϡѸ¦ǤϤɤdoubt ؤ <b> Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED ʸˤС15¿㤬ۤ14 Gower 롥
ƱͤˡOED Ǥ <doubt> ȰʸƤߤȡ15㤬ʤ餺ۤ14ˤ1300ǯ Cursor Mundi 줿رѸ츻ŵ٤Ǥϡdoubt ˤ <b> αѸǤ15ȤʤäƤ뤬ºݤˤϤä㤬äȤˤʤ롥
a1300 Cursor M. (Edinb.) 22604 Saint peter sal be domb þat dai,.. For doubt of demsteris wrek [Cott. wreke].
1393 J. Gower Confessio Amantis I. 230 First ben enformed for to lere A craft, which cleped is facrere. For if facrere come about, Than afterward hem stant no doubt.
1398 J. Trevisa tr. Bartholomew de Glanville De Proprietatibus Rerum (1495) xvi. xlvii. 569 No man shal wene that it is doubt or fals that god hath sette vertue in precyous stones.
˽Ѹ쥳ѥ LAEME <b> ޤֻϸĤʤä
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1925. ɴ֤δطɥ衼åѸ²ηޡ ([2014-08-04-1]) ǿƤ褦ˡθޤμȤơܿ (language contact) Ūܴط˴Ť (linguistic area; cf. #1314. [2012-12-01-1]ˤޤɽǤʤȤ꤬äǡޤΤʤ¾줫αƶ˴ؤळȤԲǽǤϤʤMiller (3) Τ褦ʻߤԤäƤΤǡ䤹˺ޤΤ

οޤǤϡѸ줬Ū˷иƤܿŪʾ郎ޤɽƤ롥äˡפʸȤܿϡ褽狼褦Ƥ롥ޤƥ졤ե졤ꥷ줫αƶ٤κϤŪǤꡤŪʤΤ˸¤뤳Ȥ鸫Ƽ롥ťΥɸ (ENorse) ȤθܿˤĤƤƱͤΰ뤬ˤꡤ¤Ūʳˤƶ̹ξʤʤȤƤ롥ȸ (Brythonic) ȤδطˤĤƤϡǯȯƤƤ뤬ϰŪΥͥˤäƼƤ롥
οޤѸȽȤαƶδط˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨СǿƤΤϼ礿ܿΤߤǤμȿ䤷ƿޤ̲뤳ȤϤǤˡޤեȤܿˤĤơѸʹߤη³ŪʴͿϤޤƤʤǤ⡤οޤ̤ξޤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤѸˤγѤȤƤΩĤΤǤϤʤ
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow