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french - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-29 18:54

2015-04-28 Tue

#2192. La Francophonie (1) [french][history][linguistic_imperialism][francophonie][hfl]

#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) Υե󥹡ʸǤȸƤǤ褤ΤˡLa Francophonie ʥե󥹸Ϣˮˤ롥֤դ󤹡פ4ˡ˳Ȥե󥳥եˡLe Monde de la Francophonieפꤹ뵭ߤ30Ǥ˼Τ褦롥  *

֥ե󥹸οʸŪŪ¿οסʿ¡̱͸οʡסֶȸλٱסֻ³ŪȯŸ˷Ҥ붨Ϥγȯפ̿Ȥݥե󥳥ˡ (OIF: Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) 80˵ڤֹϰ5Φ٤Ƥʬۤ뤬Τ٤Ƥե󥹸ѸȤ֥ե󥹸פȤ櫓ǤϤʤ֥ե󥳥եˡפȤϡե󥹸̤βʹѤȤƾ嵭̿Τ2ǯȤ˥ߥåȤԤʤޤޤʳư˼ȤŪȿǤ롥


տȤ館褦ΰǡ֥ե󥹸̤βʹѤȤơפȤ꤬Ǥʤ̸˲餫βͤȤ̸ˤʹѤտ路ƤȤȤǤ롥ե󥹸餷Ǥ롤ŪʸǤ롤ʿ¤θǤβͤŤΤȤե󥹸Ф뤳βͤŤɤȤȤǤϤʤ̸ˤϱˤƤΤ褦ʲͤŤʤΤȤ̣ǡ˲ʹѤտ路Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ΰѤǤϡե󥹸˲ʹѤտ路ƤȽҤ٤ƤΤǤϤʤե󥹸Ȥ̸ֲʹѤȤפȤ롥⡤ֶ̤βʹѤȤפȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϰβ̣Τ̸ʹѤȤȤϡɽαDz򤹤꤫Ƥ褦ʵơ󤯤򴶤ʤThe Commonwealth of Nations La Francophonie ⡤εῴϤѤƴˤ䤫ʹݥ֤ȤݤȻפ뤬Ϳ褦ˤʤȡꥹե󥹤ˤ뿷̱ϼǤȤηǰ롥La Francophonie ˤȿѸδȤ¦̤⤢뤬С켫Ȥ (linguistic_imperialism) οԡԤȤʤӤӤƤ褦˻פ
ΤȤƤ La Francophonie ʥ1960ǯˤ뤬θ塤ĤʳФȯŸƤǽιݥߥåȤϡ1986ǯ˥ߥåƥΤθƤӤˤ륵dzŤ줿ʸ塤褽2ǯ1٤ΥڡǥߥåȤƤ롥La Francophonie OIF αפˤĤơPerret Υե󥹸ˤΥ (71) Ѥ褦

La Francophonie et la francophonie

La Francophonie (avec une majuscule), organisation plus politique que linguistique, est née au debut des années 1960 de la volonté de quelques dirigeants de nations francophones devenues indépendeantes, comme Hamani Diori, Habib Bourguiba, Norodom Shihanouk et Leopold Sédar Senghor, malgré les réticences de la France, alor peu désireuse de s'impliquer dans un «Commonwealth français». De Conférence des états francophones (1969) en Organisation commune africaine et malgache (1966) et en Agence de coopération culturelle et technique (1970), l'idée prit corps et le gouvernement canadien finit par accepter que le Québec et le Nouveau-Brunswick soient inclus dans l'organisation naissante. Les sommets francophones ont commencé à se réunir à partir de 1986; ils ne regroupent pas seulement des États dont l'une des langues officielle est le français, mais aussi des régions, des «États associés» et des «États observateur», si bien que cette Organisation internationale de la francophonie compte en son sein des pays non francophones comme l'Albanie, la Bulgarie, La Guinée-Bissau, la Guinée-Équatoriale, la Macédoine, la Moldavie, le Mozambique, la Pologne, la Roumanie, Saint-Thomas-et-Prince, la Serbie et l'Ukraine, pays qui ont choisi le français comme langue d'enseignement, première ou seconde, et/ou comme langue internationale. Aussi ne parle-t-on plus d'États francophones mais d'États ayant le français en partage.


ܤˤˤĤƤϡLa Francophonie θ Une histoire de la francophonie - Organisation internationale de la Francophonie ˾ܤ

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

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2015-04-20 Mon

#2184. ñȥեñ (2) [french][norman_french][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][norman_conquest][false_friend]

ε#2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥϡʩбη̣Υ򤯤٤(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݤܤϡ(2) ե󥹸äμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ2ĤλƳ롥
ޤ (2) ˤĤơѸȥե󥹸бӤȤ´κθϡֺǤ롥䤿ӤƤΤϡ̾Ѹȸե󥹸бǤ롥եñ줬ѸؼѤ줿Τϡ¿ѸˤƤǤ (cf. #117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])) Ĥޤꡤ6--8ۤΥե󥹸ä6--8ۤαѸήεǤߤ褦ˡμѲˤƤ model Ȥʤեñ loan ȤʤñΤ¿ΥåפΤ̤äΤǤ뤫顤ޤƤФˤξбɤ̣ˤƥԥäȰפʤΤ϶äȤǤϤʤ6--8Τˡθη̣ϡե󥹸¦ǤѸ¦ǤȼѲƤǽ⤤
㤨СѸ doubt ϥե󥹸 douter б뤬ֻϰۤʤ롥ñֻ <b> ƤΤϱѸˤ׿Ǥꡤֻϥե󥹸Ǥ夷ʤä (cf. #1187. etymological respelling ζ ([2012-07-27-1])) ޤե󥹸 journée ϡ1פΰ̣бѸ journey ϡιԡפǤ롥ѸǤѸˤϡ1פθäˡ1ΰưΥפФơιԡפθȯŸȤȤθѤ줿λ֤СäȤ줬ΤϤΤȡ鸫ǤϤбΤȵ虜ʤۤɡߤˤΥ줿ؤȯŸǽ롥
ˡ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ˽פǤ롥ǯǤϤʤäȤΥåפ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ե󥹸Ѥθɬե󥹸ɸե󥹸ˤǤϤʤȤ¤롥䤿ؽ븽ե󥹸Υե󥹸ͳ褷Ƥ뤬Ȥ櫓Ѹ˱Ѹ줬Ѥե󥹸ä¿ϼ¤ϥե˹ԤƤΥޥ󡦥ե (norman_french) Ǥ (cf. #1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])) פˡΡ¤äץեñ줬ñȤƼѤƸߤ˻äƤΤǤꡤȸɸե󥹸ȤӤȤˡ줬ΤǤ롥Υե󥹸üԤλ鸽Ѹбįȡ֤ʤѸΤΡ¤äեñѤƤΤפȼ򤫤ʤ롥ŪʻˤĤƤϡ#76. Norman French vs Central French ([2009-07-13-1])#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1])#388. äȤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2010-05-20-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ʾ塤2ˤ錄äƱñȥեñθˤĤƲ⤷ƤξԤΥåפϡ(1) ѲΤΤ˵Τ⤢С(2) Ѥ夬ΤȤǤꡤθξŪȯŸη̤ȤƤȤ館⤢뤷(3) μѥե󥹸ɸäȤ¤ˤΤ⤢롥ñȸեñȤʿŪįƤǤϸƤʤΩŪʱԤ򡤱Ѹˤ̤ƴƤ餤

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-07-1]

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2015-04-19 Sun

#2183. ñȥեñ (1) [french][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][norman_conquest][false_friend]

Ѹ˳μȤʤɤǡѸθäˤ¿Υեñ줬ޤޤƤ뤫ˤȡʹϰͤ˶ä绨ĤˤäƱѸä1/3ե󥹸줢뤤ϤοƸǤƥ줫μѸǤ롥Ϣ뤤ĤפˤĤƤϡ#110. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-15-1]) ӡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ƭĥä󥯤򻲾Ȥ줿
λ¤ʹȡѸȥե󥹸˶̤ä¿Τϡñ줬ե󥹸̤¿褦ߤαѸŪͥޤܸˤ¿αѸäήƤ¤ͤСե󥹸줬¿αñѤƤϤȤΤ̵Ϥʤ
Ѹˤ򻲾ȤмºݤˤϵդǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū˱Ѹ줬եñ̤˼ѤƤ椨ˡ̤Ȥξ˶̤θä¿ΤǤ롥üŪˤС1066ǯΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤꡤ󥰥ɤΰҿ줬Ѹ줫ե󥹸ذܤäˡ̤Υե󥹸줫̤αѸؤȸä̤ήȤȤǤ롥ʱѸ줬ե󥹸ͿƶȤλϡŪˤŪ˵Ǥ롥#1026. 18Ѹ줫ե󥹸äѸ ([2012-02-17-1])#1012. ˤѸ줫ե󥹸ؤαƶ ([2012-02-03-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ե󥹸򾯤Ǥ⤫äȤΤԤǤСʩǶ̤ϳΤ¿ɡ̣ߤˤƤȤ㤬ʤʤȤ˵ŤбäϤΤ̩ˡƱפǤ櫓ǤϤʤˤꡤfalse_friend (Fr. "faux amis") ꤬뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])) ե󥹸¦ model ȱѸ¦ loan Ȥδ֤ˡ̣Τ줬ƤޤΤϡäʤmodel loan ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
䤤ˤϡ(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݡ(2) ե󥹸äμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ3ˤĤ򤷤Ƥɬפ롥ϡ(1) ܤ褦äμѲ˵꤬ʸݤȤϡѸˤη̣¿ʤȤĤƼإԡΤ̤Ǥ뤳ȤޤܤСѸϡȤȯֻ¿쾯ʤηϤŬ礵ήΤ̾Ǥ롥㤨Сե󥹸α߿첻 /y/ Ÿɡ /ɲ/ ϡɬ⤽ΤޤޤηDZѸ˼줿ΤǤϤʤ¿ξ礽줾 /ɪʊ/, /nj/ ȤƼޤ줿 (cf. #1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])) ̯ʺۤǤϤ뤬μѤˤ model Τޤ˥ԡ櫓ǤϤʤȤ򼨤Ƥ롥Ѹ /ʃəːt/ (shirt) ܸ /shatsu/ ʥġˤȤƼޤʤɡäդäȤܤǤϡΤ褦ʥ줬Τ϶ˤ̤Ǥ롥
˰̣ܤƤ⡤model loan δ֤ˤϤФХåפѻ롥Ȥ櫓ѤˤƤ model θΰΤߤѤ뤳Ȥ¿̣ϰϤȤƤ model > loan δطΩĤȤ¿ͭ̾ưʪ󤲤ȡѸ beef ϸťե󥹸 boef, buefѤǤ롥model ˤϵȵξθޤޤ뤬loan ˤϵθޤޤʤǤϥեñ줬̣̾DZѸؼѤƤʤ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ⻲ȡˡƱͤˡѸ room ϡ֥롼פȤθˤܸäƤ뤬;Ϥθϡ֥롼פˤϤʤ
ǵ󤲤ƤǤϡñȥեñδ֤κۤϤäȤƤŪΤäե󥹸ؽˤƽвñαʩ֤ΥȰ´ϡФФä礭õˤϡ(2) (3) λȤɬפǤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-07-1] [2015-04-20-1]

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2015-04-01 Wed

#2165. 20ȾμѸ쥽 [loan_word][statistics][lexicology][french][japanese][borrowing]

ѸοƳˤƤϡʣ (compounding) (derivation) 礿ˡȤʤäƤƤꡤ (borrowing) ι׸٤Ū㤤1ۤɤοܤߤƤ⡤ѤγŪܸꤷƤ (cf. #873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡 ([2011-09-17-1]) #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]))
Ū˸äƤƤȤϤüѤϸѸǤ³Ƥ롥#874 Algeo ξܺ٤ʶʬΤʤǤ⼨Ƥ褦ˡѤ餺¿ͤǤ롥#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1]) ǤϡѸؤθ󶡼ԤȤưƳܸ줬ͭϤǤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ܸʤɤޤ᤿̤Τܤ礬ΤꤿȤ
Algeo (78) ϡGarland Cannon (Historical Change and English Word-Formation. New York: Peter Lang, 1987. pp. 69--97) Ĵ˴Ťơ20ȾäƤѸäΥ̳󼨤Ƥ롥Ūˤϡ褽1963--88ǯδ֤˱ѸäƤѸϿ4ĤμĴоݤȤ̤˼Ѹ夲줾γФ4ĤμȤϡ(1) The Barnhart Dictionary of New English since 1963 (1973), (2) The Second Barnhart Dictionary of New English (1980), (3) Webster's Third (1961), (4) The Barnhart Dictionary Companion Index (1987) Ǥ롥줾줫407, 332, 523, 166򽸤᤿1428ξýǤϤ뤬˴ŤưʲĴ̤줿

 (1) BDNE(2) BENE2(3) 81W3(4) BDCRank
French31.4%17.521.212.01
Spanish6.610.86.112.72
Russian3.45.42.124.13
Japanese7.99.36.39.04
African6.17.26.73.05
Italian4.74.510.72.46
German5.95.44.85.47
Greek6.94.88.01.28
Latin5.25.19.4 9
Yiddish5.72.75.03.610
Arabic2.03.91.76.011
Chinese1.74.23.66.012
Portuguese1.02.71.01.813
Hindi2.20.90.22.414
Hebrew0.71.50.41.215
Sanskrit1.71.20.8 16
Persian0.21.2 1.817
Afrikaans0.51.50.4 18
Dutch0.20.3 1.819
Indonesian0.20.30.81.220
Malayo-Polynesian 2.10.2 21
Norwegian0.2 1.50.622
Swedish1.00.31.0 23
Korean 0.60.80.624
Vietnamese1.00.30.6 25
Amerindian 1.20.6 26
Bengali0.50.90.2 27
Danish0.5 1.0 28
Eskimo0.50.30.20.629


ɽ˵Ƥʤ30--56̤θ췲Ϲ碌ƤΤȤ1%ˤʤǰΤ˼Τ褦ʸǤ롥Amharic, Annamese, Basque, Bhutanese, Catalan, Czech, Hawaiian, Hungarian, Irish, Khmer, Mongolian, Papuan, Pashto, Pidgin English, Pilipino, Polish, Provençal, Punjabi, Samoan, Scots (Gaelic), Serbo-Croatian, Tahitian, Thai (and Lao), Turkish, Urdu, Welsh, West Indian.
BDC ǥ줬̯˹⤤򼨤Ƥ뤬ԽФ˵ǽ롥Фβǽ򺹤ƹͤȡϽ̤ȤƤϥӥδ֤12դȻפ롥
15̤ޤǤθˤĤƥղΤޤǤ롥

Source Languages of New Loanwords from 1963 to 1988


Υդϡ#874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1]) Ǥߤ Bauer Ĵ˴ŤդξȥλۤʤΤǡӤˤȤ뤬ե󥹸졤ꥷ졤ƥ졤ɥĸʤɤ̤ǷƮƤͻҤϤΥդ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ롥ڥ䥤ꥢʤɤΥޥ󥹽ĴȤäƤ褤ΤʤǡȤɮƬΩäƤΤܸǤ롥եꥫ졤ӥ졤³ƤꡤѸ cosmopolitan vocabulary ϸˤƤߤȤ

Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.

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2015-03-29 Sun

#2162. OED ˤե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸο [oed][loan_word][statistics][french][latin][lexicology]

Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" ꤹ뵭ǤϡOED 򥽡ȤΨ̻ŪܤĴ𤬤롥űѸ줫鸽Ѹؤγˡ츻̤ˤɤο줬ä˲ä줿ȤȤ˥դǼƤ롥ʸˤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡФθ츻˴ؤ OED θ츻Ф줿ϡäĤƲᤷʤФʤʤȤΤϡ츻ˤ줬ڤƤȤƤ⡤줬Ѹθ츻ɽȤϸ¤ʤ褽λͤˤʤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤ̻ŪʳѤΤͭѤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ǤϡCSVEXCELǸƤ̤Ǹ츻̤οͤҼڤե󥹸ȥƥ줫Ѹäɲä줿Ѹοܤ򥰥ղ¤٤Ƥߤ

Historical Influx of French Loanwords by OED Historical Influx of Latin Loanwords by OED


줿ϡŪʳǽҤ٤ƤΤȰפ롥ե󥹸ΥԡϸѸ졤ƥΥԡϽѸǤ롥ӤȡƥεϤ褯狼롥ե󥹸ȥƥ줫μѸ˴ϢפˤĤƤϡǤ˰ʲΤ褦¿εǼ夲ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿

[2009-08-22-1]: #117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬ
[2009-11-15-1]: #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ
[2010-06-30-1]: #429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ
[2010-12-12-1]: #594. ѸʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħ
[2011-02-16-1]: #660. ѸΥե󥹼ѸηƻΨ
[2011-08-20-1]: #845. Ѹθäεȳ
[2011-09-18-1]: #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬ
[2012-08-11-1]: #1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2)
[2012-08-18-1]: #1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ
[2012-08-20-1]: #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ
[2012-09-03-1]: #1225. ե󥹼Ѹʬۤð
[2012-09-04-1]: #1226. Ѹˤäǯʬ
[2012-11-12-1]: #1295. ե󥹸ȥƥ2Ÿ
[2014-08-24-1]: #1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ

ޤOED Ѥ˺ݤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿

[2010-10-10-1] #:531. OED ΰѥǡ򥳡ѥȤƻȤ뤫
[2010-10-14-1] #:535. OED ΰѥǡ򥳡ѥȤƻȤ뤫 (2)
[2010-10-15-1] #:536. OED ΰѥǡ򥳡ѥȤƻȤ뤫 (3)
[2011-01-05-1] #:618. OED θ̤äȤʬह CGI
[2011-01-29-1] #:642. OED ΰѥǡ򥳡ѥȤƻȤ뤫 (4)

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2015-03-24 Tue

#2157. word pair μȸ [binomial][french][loan_word][chaucer][ancrene_wisse][bible]

binomial 2।ǥˤȸƤФ "A and B" ʤɤηɽˤĤơbinomial εǰäƤbinomials ϡword pair, paired word, doublets, collocated words ʤɤȤƤФ롥"A and B" ˸¤餺ȡ³ˤ礵줿Ʊ֤2סҸp. 170ˤȤʤʰʲǤϸƾΤ word pair ˡѸˤˤ word pair θϤȤʤŤѸǤ word pair ˭äǤ롥ä˶ѸλϤޤޤǤϡ̤˸줿
word pair ˤ⤤ʷ뤬츻Ūˤߤ줫ʼȤƥե󥹸줫Ρ˼Ѹ줫ȤȤ߹碌ˤäƱѱѥסʽƱǡ˱ʩסʩʩפʬ롥word pair θ̤ˤ⤤Ĥμब̤롥#820. ʩƱ ([2011-07-26-1]) ǤҤ٤ʸŪŪ⤢СߤΤʤθ¥ˡߤο⤦θźȤ⤢롥뤤ϡ#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡä˱ʩפˡΧѸˤơƤ줫򤹤ȤϫȤʤäȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤޤξˤ⡤̣ĴȤƯϤ٤ϴޤޤƤΤǤϤʤ
Ǥθ츻ܤʬȸ̤ܤʬबʤطˤΤȤ϶̣Ȥ櫓ʩפ˴ؤơե󥹼Ѹΰ̣򤵤뤿źȤܤ㤬¿Ȥ񤯤ʤJespersen (89--90) ϡAncrene Riwle ȤƼΤ褦 word pair 󤲤Ƥ롥

cherité þet is luve
in desperaunce, þet is in unhope & in unbileave forte beon iboruwen
Understondeð þet two manere temptaciuns---two kunne vondunges---beoð
pacience, þet is þolemodnesse
lecherie, þet is golnesse
ignoraunce, þet is unwisdom & unwitenesse


Chaucer ϱʩפʸŪŪˡ뤤϶ĴŪǻѤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤ롥Jespersen (90) ϤΤȤʲΤ褦ڤƤ롥

In Chaucer we find similar double expressions, but they are now introduced for a totally different purpose; the reader is evidently supposed to be equally familiar with both, and the writer uses them to heighten or strengthen the effect of the style; for instance: He coude songes make and wel endyte (A 95) = Therto he coude endyte and make a thing (A 325) | faire and fetisly (A 124 and 273) | swinken with his handes and laboure (A 186) | Of studie took he most cure and most hede (A 303) | Poynaunt and sharp (A 352) | At sessiouns ther was he lord and sire (A 355).


ë򻲾ȤҸ (174--75) ˤСChaucer ʸѤ word pairs ΤΤ73%ޤǤʩפʩʩפǤȤ졤Chaucer İɼԤ˵᤿ե󥹸οι⤵롥
Ѥ word pair μ˴ؤ Chaucer жˤ˶ᤤȤˤΤȤơҸ (174--75) ϡѱѥפΨŪ˹⤤ʸ󤲤Ƥ롥ΥƥȤǤϡѱѥפ word pairs ΤȾ᤯뤤ϤʾƤȤ Chaucer Ȱۤʤ餺ʸŪŪʤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ȤΤϡѱѥפ¿Ѥ뤳ȤǡֹӺǤϤ뤬϶ʸΡסҸp. 175ˤФȤ˹׸Ƥ뤫word pair μȸ̤ͤǤϡġκȤƥȤθɬפȤȤ

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
Ҹ ס󥰥ɿԤλʸˤεˡס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù԰١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ163--88ǡ
ë Chaucer λʸʤˤɥڥѡסؤȤФζѸեȸء١ʺ ¼ סԡˡˡʸҡ2008ǯ89--116ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2017-06-26-1] [2016-03-07-1]

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2015-03-15 Sun

#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ [bilingualism][french][diglossia][popular_passage]

ѸҲ񤬱Ѹȥե󥹸ˤ diglossia ƤȤϡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) #1203. 󥰥ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ񲽡 ([2012-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǸƤȤǤ롥2Ѿ֤ľܸڤ褦ʵҤõΤɬ⤿䤹ʤޤƤ䡤2ˤĤɾ򲼤褦ʥȤϸĤˤΤʤǤ⤳λ˸ڤͭ̾ʰ᤬롥Robert of Gloucester (fl. 1260--1300) Chronicle ΰǡʲCorpus of Middle English Prose and Verse The metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester 곺սѤ褦

& þe normans ne couþe speke þo / bote hor owe speche (l. 7538)
& speke french as hii dude atom / & hor children dude also teche
So þat heiemen of þis lond / þat of hor blod come (l. 7540)
Holdeþ alle þulke speche / þat hii of hom nome
Vor bote a man conne frenss / me telþ of him lute
Ac lowe men holdeþ to engliss / & to hor owe speche ȝute
Ich wene þer ne beþ in al þe world / contreyes none
Þat ne holdeþ to hor owe speche / bote engelond one (l. 7545)
Ac wel me wot uor to conne / boþe wel it is
Vor þe more þat a mon can / þe more wurþe he is


Υޥͤϥ󥰥ɤˤäƤȤˤϥե󥹸ΤߤѤƤꡤλ¹ "heiemen" ե󥹸ݻƤȡΰ "lowe men" ϱѸΤߤѤƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϥޤ diglossia ˤ H (= High variety) L (= Low variety) ζ̤ؤľܤθڤǤ롥ޤե󥹸ΤʤȼҲŪ㤯ȤȤƤ롥ˡѤνΤۤǤϡξΤäƤۤ褤ΤۤҲŪ˲ͤ⤤Ȥߤʤȡʩ bilingualism ʸ륳ȤդƤ롥
ºݤΤȤChronicle 񤫤줿13ˤϡ²λǤ⤢ƳؽʤХե󥹸˻ȤʤʤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ²λΥե󥹸Ϥοꤨϡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ13ޤǤˤϤǤ˸ˤʤäƤ褦ե󥹸μҲŪϰ̤ϰȤƹ⤫äᡤ;פ˥ե󥹸ؽ夵줿ȤȤˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤ Robert of Gloucester ϡξ뤳Ȥڤ⤤ΤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2017-02-25-1] [2015-09-28-1]

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2015-03-14 Sat

#2147. ѸΥե󥹼ѸȽ [purism][loan_word][french][inkhorn_term][me][lexicology]

16ˤϡƥѸϤȤƥޥ󥹽ʤɤμѸ줬ӤѸήʡ#1410. Ƚ󵢡 ([2013-03-07-1]) #1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡܸǤʹߡ̤δ줬졤°ʹߤ̵Υʸ줬ήʡ#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1]) ڤӡ#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]) 򻲾ȡˡλγơˤơ (purism) Ω줫μѸȽʹ줿Ѹߤ䤿˻ѤΤϹơä¿Ȥ٤ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƤޤʹʤΤϡѸ޹Τ褦˲󤻤ե󥹼ѸФȽǤ롥#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ǸȤꡤѸϥΥޥ󡦥󥯥ȸο֤ǡ˾ƿȤϤǤ̸üѤиƤΥե󥹼ѸؤȽϤʤäΤ
Τ˥ͥ󥹴ΥȽۤɤΩʤѸˤե󥹼ѸȽޤäʤä櫓ǤϤʤRanulph Higden (c. 1280--1364) ˤƥ Polychronicon 1387ǯ˱ John of Trevisa (1326--1402) ϡǡťΥɸȤȤ˥ե󥹸줫μѸ̵ʬ̤ʻѤˤĤƶ褷Ƥ롥Crystal (186) ΰѤƸ褦

by commyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys apeyred, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbittyng.


ƱͤˡRichard Rolle of Hampole (1290?--1349.) ˤ Psalter (a1350) Ǥ⡤"seke no strange Inglis" ʸΤ̱ѸϻȤʤˤȥե󥹼ѸФưŤԲ򼨤Ƥ뤷15 Polychronicon Osbern Bokenham (1393?--1447?) ⡤ե󥹸줬Ѹڤˤ񤷤Ƥ (Crystal 186) ȤơΤʤǡ줿ե󥹼ѸѤƤȤϤޤǤʤ
Τ褦ѸΥե󥹼ѸؤνŪϤĤǧ뤬η㤷Ƚ٤ñȯŪǤꡤä礭Ĭήʤä褦Ѹ켫ΤޤθȤƤܤĤʤϰ̤ˤäơѸؤλѸηȤŪ٤ܤӤˤϡޤ夬ᤫäΤȻפ롥Ǥ⡤ѸϤʽŪȽϡβȽʳȤơΤ˱Ѹ˾˰֤ŤΤǤϤ

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.

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2015-01-26 Mon

#2100. ե󥹸˴Ťָ츻Ūֻ [french][spelling][etymological_respelling][lmode]

Ѹθ츻Ūֻ˴ؤϡ̾ͥ󥹴ΥƥǮν껺ǤȤƸ롥Ĥ٤ܤϡͥǯʾƧ߸ǤƤƥֻǤꡤѸե󥹸줫줿׷ǤϤʤǤƥܲȤη˶Ť٤ȡƤߤȡѸϡľΤܤƤե󥹸ɤĤɤۤȤΤʤǡʤߤˤƥΰҸܻؤƤȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡե󥹸ϤϤѸֻϤͿ褦¸ߤǤϤʤʤäƤȤȤ㤨Сե󥹼Ѹʤɤˤƥե󥹸ֻ˴Ť֤ʤȤݤϤʤäΤ
ƥ˴Ť츻ŪֻαƤΩʤΤ褦ϸѸ˸롥#594. ѸʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħ ([2010-12-12-1]) ڤӡ#678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2011-03-06-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡ17Ⱦ18ˤƤϡեͼեʸήԤǤ롥κѸؼѤ줿եñϡե󥹸ֻȯΤޤޤǼ츽ߤ˻äƤΤ¿ȤħĤᤤʳ˱ѸؼѤƤեñ줬ƶե󥹸֤ʤȤ⤢ä
㤨СHorobin (134) ϡbisket biscuit ءblew blue ֤ʤ줿ΤϡΥե󥹸ֻȤ줿ȤƤ롥ºݤˤϡbiscuit 19֤ʤblue 18֤ʤǤ롥ǵäȤƱΥե󥹸ֻ򻲾Ȥ֤ʤˤƥλˤʤäơָ츻ŪֻפȸƤ֤ΤɬΤǤϤʤषե󥹸줫κƼѤȾΤƤ٤Τ⤷ʤɽŪˤϡָ츻ŪֻפȻ¦̤궽̣ǽŪ˥ե󥹸켰ֻΤ夷Ȥơ#299. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ ([2010-02-20-1])#300. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ (2) ([2010-02-21-1]) Ǽ夲 <explain> ⤢ΤǡȤ줿
󤻤Ͼʤ褦˻פ롥ۤμʤĴ٤㤬äȽФƤ뤫⤷ʤΤĴ٤֤17Ⱦ19Ⱦ餤ޤǤδ֤ȤȤȤΤϡѸΥե󥹸ѤήԴ18ԡǤꡤΥե󥹳̿ʸϡ²ΰҿή餬ƬƤˤäƥեͼήԤϲФˤʤä
츻ŪֻȤظˤ븶ưϤ1ĤϡήԤȰҿθˡǤ⤢䤫ꤿȻפƴεǤ롥ˤƤϡѸΥƥ١θ츻ŪֻѸΥե󥹸١Ρָ츻Ūֻפⶦ̤Ƥ롥

Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-10-07-1]

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2014-12-29 Mon

#2072. Ѹäλع¤ [lexicology][loan_word][latin][french][register][synonym][romancisation][lexical_stratification]

Ѹäع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) ʤɡ¿εǸڤƤ#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäλع¤椨˱Ѹ̱ŪʸǤȤ뤳Ȥ뤬ѸäΤħϸˤäƤȤȤʤतΤΤǤ롥
Jespersen (121--39) 󤷤Ƥ롥ޤĹ꤫顥

(1) ʩͳ褹줬¿Ȥˤꡤ̣ "subtle shades" ɽ褦ˤʤä
(2) ʸŪŪɽ򤬲ǽˤʤä
(3) ѸˤĹñ줬¿ΤǡȤüԤϹθΤλ֤ݤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) ƥѸˤôݤ롥

ޤ (1) (2) ϴϢƤꡤɽϤ礭ȤϳΤȤ٤ܤܸäλع¤ӤСɽԤˤȤäƤΥåȤϼ´褦ʹؽԤˤȤäƤħȤ⤤ϤޤŪʤΤǤȤȤ˺ƤϤʤʤ(3) Ϥ⤷ŦǤ롥üԤȤƱѸäݤˤϡߥñ̡ʡˤΤϤʻֲԤǤΩĤȤ롥ĹñǻֲԤȤΤϡˤ뤬άȤƤϳΤˤΤǤϤʤ(4) ϥƥѸǤϤʤꥷѸˤĤƤϢơ#512. ̾ ([2010-09-21-1]) #1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ˡJespersen 󤲤Ƥû󤹤롥

(5) ɬסŬڤʥƥѸλѤˤꡤ̣ξܤ䤱뤳Ȥ롥
(6) ȯֻʤɤˤĤƵô롥㤨С#859. gaseous ȯ ([2011-09-03-1]) γƼΥꥨ#573. ̾ȷƻбطʣǤ3Ĥλ ([2010-11-21-1]) Ǥߤ labyrinth ƻʤɤǤ롥
(7) ʳؤﲽˤꡤϢäˤϹǤˤʬ䤹褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥㤨 insomnia sleeplessness Τۤʬ䤹ͭѤǤȤ롥
(8) ͳǤƳˤꡤ֤ζ֤꤬ (ex. Cánada vs Canádian)
(9) ƥʣ (ex. phenomena, nuclei) Ѹؤ⤽Τޤ޻ۤʤɤŪ줿
(10) ä̱Ūˤʤä

Ȥϥɽ΢δطˤꡤŪȽǤϲˤȤ狼ɤΤȤѸθù¤켫ΤȤϡѼԤ˻ȤȤʤΤѸθù¤ϡƻθܿʤɤ߽ФƤ͡ʸû񸻤Ūʪˤ켫ΤɤⰭʤäơ̱Ū뤤̱ŪȤ褦ɾäȤȤϡɾԤѸä򸫤뼫Ω֤ɽƤȤȤǤ롥Jespersen (139) ϼɾ򤯤Ƥ롥

While the composite character of the language gives variety and to some extent precision to the style of the greatest masters, on the other hand it encourages an inflated turgidity of style. . . . [W]e shall probably be near the truth if we recognize in the latest influence from the classical languages 'something between a hindrance and a help'.


ܸˤ̤줿ʥץ˴20ˤ⤿餵줿ʸˤ⡤褦ɾä뤳ȤǤʡ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) Ȥĥä򻲾ȡˡ
ѸȤ̱̱ȤˤĤƤϡ#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1])#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1])#1845. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (2) ([2014-05-16-1]) Ǽ夲Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿ޤѸäΥޥ󥹲 (romancisation) ˴ؤɾˤĤƤϡ#153. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset ([2009-09-27-1]) #395. ѸΥޥ󥹸첽ˤĤƤɾ ([2010-05-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.

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2014-12-15 Mon

#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) [french][etymological_respelling][latin][grammatology][manuscript][scribe][silent_reading][renaissance][hfl]

ε#2056. ե󥹸ȱѸˤ츻Ūֻδط (1) ([2014-12-13-1]) ǡե󥹸θ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ʊ۵ɤ̤ΤäȤ˿줿ե󥹸ˤƸ츻ŪֻΤ褦ʵǽȤȤϡ̤δСե󥹸νηϤɽ (phonographic) ɽ (logographic) ؤȰŤȤɽǤ롥Τ褦ɽʸηϤؤܶ᤬ѸǤѸ줫ѸˤƤΤƱͤˡե󥹸Ǥϸʩ줫ʩˤƤषե󥹸ǤξѸ˿ʤǤcf. #1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1])#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1])
ե󥹸ξ˴ؤƤϡʤѸˤǤϤʤե󥹸ˤΰʤΤǡե󥹸˳äƤߤʲPerret (138) Ѥ褦ޤϡʩνηϤɽŪǤȤ꤫顥

L'ancien français : une écriture phonétique
. . . . dans la mesure où l'on disposait de graphèmes pour rendre les son que l'on entendait, l'écriture était simplement phonétique (feré pour fairé, souvent pour quí) . . . .


Perret (138--39) ³ơʩνηϤɽˤĤƼΤ褦˳⤷Ƥ롥

Le moyen français : une écriture idéographique
À partir du XIIIe siècle, la transmission des textes cesse d'être uniquement orale, la prose commence à prendre de l'importance : on écrit aussi des textes juridiques et administratifs en français. Avec la prose apparaît une ponctuation très différente de celle que nous connaissons : les textes sont scandés par des lettrines de couleur, alternativement rouges et bleues, qui marquent le plus souvent des débuts de paragraphes, mais pas toujours, et des points qui correspondent à des pauses, généralement en fin de syntagme, mais pas forcément en fin de phrase. Les manuscrits deviennent moins rares et font l'objet d'un commerce, ils ne sont plus recopiés par des moines, mais des scribes séculiers qui utilisent une écriture rapide avec de nombreuses abréviations. On change d'écriture : à l'écriture caroline succèdent les écritures gothique et bâtarde dans lesquelles certains graphèmes (les u, n et m en particulier) sont réduits à des jambages. C'est à partir de ce moment qu'apparaissent les premières transformations de l'orthographe, les ajouts de lettres plus ou moins étymologiques qui ont parfois une fonction discriminante. C'est entre le XIVe et le XVIe siècle que s'imposent les orthographes hiver, pied, febve (où le b empêche la lecture ‘feue’), mais (qui se dintingue ainsi de mes); c'est alors aussi que se développent le y, le x et le z à la finale des mots. Mais si certains choix étymologiques ont une fonction discrminante réelle, beaucoup semblent n'avoir été ajoutés, pour le plaisir des savants, qu'afin de rapprocher le mot français de son étymon latin réel ou supposé (savoir s'est alors écrit sçavoir, parce qu'on le croyait issu de scire, alors que ce mot vient de sapere). C'est à ce moment que l'orthographe française devient de type idéographique, c'est-à-dire que chaque mot commence à avoir une physionomie particulière qui permet de l'identifier par appréhension globale. La lecture à haute voix n'est plus nécessaire pour déchiffrer un texte, les mots peuvent être reconnus en silence par la méthode globale.


ѤκǸˤ褦ˡɽʸηϤȯãɽȯãȴϢŤƤȤ¤˱ԤƶǤ롥˽Фɤ߾夲ݤˤϡȯľ˷ӤĤɽʸηϤΤۤդ路ɤε񤬸ꡤɤ̾ɤˤʤäƤȡľ뤷䤹ȹͤɽɽաʸηϤդ路Ȥ⤤ (cf. #1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])) ɤɤؤžɽʸɽʸؤžȻŪˤ褽פȤȤˤʤСξԤδط򵿤虜ʤ
ե󥹸ˤѸˤ衤츻Ūֻϥͥ󥹴ΥƥǮȤδϢΤʸδߤСɽɽؤνηϤΥݥžȤȤʤ뤷ʪʸˤδߤСɤɤؤžȤȤʤ롥<doubt> <b> ظˤϡ¤˳غŪäƤΤǤ롥

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

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2014-12-14 Sun

#2057. ե󥹸ȱѸˤ츻Ūֻδط (2) [etymological_respelling][spelling][french][latin][scribe][anglo-norman][renaissance]

ε˰³ʩξˤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) δطˤĤơScragg (52--53) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Throughout the Middle Ages, French scribes were very much aware of the derivation of their language from Latin, and there were successive movements in France for the remodelling of spelling on etymological lines. A simple example is pauvre, which was written for earlier povre in imitation of Latin pauper. Such spellings were particularly favoured in legal language, because lawyers' clerks were paid for writing by the inch and superfluous letters provided a useful source of income. Since in France, as in England, conventional spelling grew out of the orthography of the chancery, at the heart of the legal system, many etymological spellings became permanently established. Latin was known and used in England throughout the Middle Ages, and there was a considerable amount of word-borrowing from it into English, particularly in certain registers such as that of theology, but since the greater part of English vocabulary was Germanic, and not Latin-derived, it is not surprising that English scribes were less affected by the etymologising movements than their French counterparts. Anglo-Norman, the dialect from which English derived much of its French vocabulary, was divorced from the mainstream of continental French orthographic developments, and any alteration in the spelling of Romance elements in the vocabulary which occurred in English in the fourteenth century was more likely to spring from attempts to associate Anglo-Norman borrowings with Parisian French words than from a concern with their Latin etymology. Etymologising by reference to Latin affected English only marginally until the Renaissance thrust the classical language much more positively into the centre of the linguistic arena.


פʥݥȤޤȤȡ

(1) ե󥹸ˤƥ츻򻲾ȤƤʸϡ̻ξԤΤä
(2) ե󥹸٤бѸˤϥޥ󥹷ϤθäʤŪˤгΤˤ̤ꡪˡƥ츻ضŤ٤оݤȤʤ⤽ʤäᡤ츻ŪֻβФˤä뤤ϷФΤ٤줿 (cf. #653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]))
(3) 14αѸθ츻Ūֻϡľܥƥ򻲾Ȥ̤ǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Υ Parisian French ָ̤Ǥ롥
(4) ƥľܤαƶϡܳŪˤϥͥ󥹤ԤʤФʤʤä

Ǥϡʤͥ󥹴Ūˤ16ˡƥ츻ľܻȤ츻ŪֻѸȤ䤤ФơScragg (53--54) ϥƥäμѤλäǤ롤üŪƤ롥

As a result both of the increase of Latinate vocabulary in English (and of Greek vocabulary transcribed in Latin orthography) and of the familiarity of all literate men with Latin, English spelling became as affected by the etymologising process as French had earlier been.


Τ˥ƥä̤ήϡƥ츻ռȤʤä츻Ūֻؤαƶ⤢äȤ롥츻ŪֻĬή¸ߤƤΤǤꡤñ16ΥƥѤεϤʤȥƥؤοƤߡˤΤߤ˸ڤơդƤޤΤϰ°פǤϤʤѸˤ츻Ūֻϡ礭Ūʸ̮֤򤹤뤳Ȥοʤ褦˻פ롥

Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.

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2014-12-13 Sat

#2056. ե󥹸ȱѸˤ츻Ūֻδط (1) [etymological_respelling][spelling][french][latin][hypercorrection][renaissance][hfl]

ѸѸˤƤαѸθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȯȳظˤϡбե󥹸Ǥθ츻ŪֻμäΤȤˤĤƤϡ#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#1156. admiral <d> ([2012-06-26-1])#1790. ե󥹤Ǥ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ ([2014-03-22-1])#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰäơ ([2014-08-21-1]) ʤɤεǿƤȤǤ롥
äơѸˤ뤳ͤͤ褦ȤСե󥹸ˤ򻲾Ȥ򤨤ʤ14--16ե󥹸θ츻ŪֻμˤĤơZink (24--25) Ѥ褦

   Latinisation et surcharge graphique. --- L'idée de rapprocher les mots français de leurs étymons latins ne date pas de la Renaissance. Le mouvement de latinisation a pris naissance à la fin du XIIIe siécle avec les emprunts opérés par la langue juridique au droit romain sous forme de calques à peine francisés.... Parti du vocabulaire savant, il a gagné progressivement les mots courants de l'ancien fonds. Il ne pouvait s'agir dans ce dernier cas que de réfections purement graphiques, sans incidence sur la prononciation ; aussi est-ce moins le vocalisme qui a été retouché que le consonantisme par l'insertion de graphèmes dans les positions où on ne les prononçait plus : finale et surtout intérieure implosive.
   Ainsi s'introduisent avec le flot des emprunts savants : adjuger, exception (XIIIe s.) ; abstraire, adjonction, adopter, exemption, subjectif, subséquent. . . (mfr., la prononciation actuelle datant le plus souvent du XVIe s.) et l'on rhabille à l'antique une foule de mots tels que conoistre, destre, doter, escrit, fait, nuit, oscur, saint, semaine, soissante, soz, tens en : cognoistre, dextre, doubter, escript, faict, nuict, obscur, sainct, sepmaine, soixante, soubz, temps d'après cognoscere, dextra, dubitare, scriptum, factum, noctem, obscurum, sanctum, septimana, sexaginta, subtus, tempus.
   Le souci de différencier les homonymes, nombreux en ancien français, entre aussi dans les motivations et la langue a ratifié des graphies comme compter (qui prend le sens arithmétique au XVe s.), mets, sceau, sept, vingt, bien démarqués de conter, mais/mes, seau/sot, sait, vint.
   Toutefois, ces correspondances supposent une connaissance étendue et précise de la filiation des mot qui manque encore aux clercs du Moyen Age, d'où des tâtonnements et des erreurs. Les rapprochements fautifs de abandon, abondant, oster, savoir (a + bandon, abundans, obstare, sapere) avec habere, hospitem (!), scire répandent les graphies habandon, habondant, hoster, sçavoir (à toutes les formes). . . .


ȤƤϡ(1) ե󥹸Ǥϥͥ󥹤Ω13ƥѤǤꡤȼäƥƥ˴Ť츻Ūֻ⸽Ƥȡ(2) ȸλҲæƤȤ˸츻ŪʻҲ褵ȡ(3) 츻Ūֻ򼨤Ĥñ줬ʩξˤƶ̤뤳ȡ(4) ե󥹸ξˤϸ츻ŪֻƱ۵ɤ̤䤬äȡ(5) ե󥹸Ǥ츻Ūֻ˴ŤĹ꽤ߤ줿ȡ󤲤롥Ϥ褽Ѹθ츻Ūֻˤ⤢ƤϤޤꡤʩξݤͿƤ뤳ȡäȸХե󥹸줬ѸرƶڤܤȤ롥(5) ˵󤲤꽤 (hypercorrection) αѸǤˤĤƤϡ#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
츻Ūֻ˴ؤƱʩǰۤʤȻפΤϡ嵭 (4) ե󥹸Ǥϡ츻ŪֻƳϡƱ۵ (homonymy) ̤ΤäȤС񵭤ˤƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) 򤱤뤿ˡ츻Ū§˴ŤƸߤ˰ۤʤֻƳȤȤǤ롥ƥ줫ޥ󥹽ػβѲη̡ե󥹸ǤñƱ۵줬̤˻ä񵭤ˤƲ褹Ȥơ츻ŪֻѤ줿ΤǤ롥ܸΤҤ餬ʤǡ֤פȽ񤤤ƤɤΡ֤פ̤դʤΤǡǡֹֻաסָספʤɤȽʬȻƤ롥ˤƥե󥹸νηϤϡɽŪʤΤ顤ɽŪʤΤؤȰŤȤ
ѸǤƱ۵ͤ򤱤뤿˸츻ŪֻƳȤϤʤä褦˻פ뤬ǽŪʸ츻ŪֻưդȤˤĤƤϡ⤦տͻͤꤽ

Zink, Gaston. ''Le moyen françis (XIVe et XV e siècles)''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990.[sic]

Referrer (Inside): [2014-12-15-1]

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2014-12-04 Thu

#2047. ΥޥαѸ˾ΰյ [norman_conquest][french][contact][speed_of_change]

#1171. ե󥹸Ȥθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1])#1208. ե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1])#1884. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) 褦ˡΥޥαѸ˾ΰյϼȤƴŪǼҲŪʤΤǤ롥ä񵭤ˤϳΤ˾ʤ̱ƶľܤͿʸˡ䲻ؤαƶϤäȤƤϤǤ (cf. #204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1])#1815. ̾ one ˡϥե󥹸αƶ ([2014-04-16-1]))
Υޥκι׸ϡ󥰥Ҳ񤫤Ѹν񵭵ϤåꡤѸäդزäȤǤȻϹͤƤ롥ˤäơѸϼͳãŷ̵˥˸Ѳ뤲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäǤ[2012-07-11-1][2012-08-17-1]εǰѤƤȽʣ뤬֥륷 (42--43) ޤΥޥΤɾƤ롥

1066ǯ˵ä礭ʽɬŪ֤ȼäơαƶʬͿĤĤäϤ֥Υޥͤˤѹ (conquête normande) ΤȤǤꡤˤäĤθ졤Ѹȥե󥹸줬ܿŪҲŪư줿줫Ĺ֡Ȼ۳ϱѸäʤʤǤ롥11溢ޤǤ˴˻ϤޤäƤĤθ츽ݤ⡤ȤȤ礷ǤϤΡ֥ΥޥͤˤѹפѸξ˷ŪʱƶͿȤϴְ㤤ʤ1300ǯޤǤˤĤΡܤ٤㳰̤ˤơȾʸغʡ¿νʪϰȤƥ󥰥Υޥ줢뤤ϥƥǽ񤫤ƤΤǤѸΰҿ㲼֥Υޥͤˤѹװʹ߱ѸμפΤäդˤʤäΤǤ롥äդϽ񤭸դݼ˳ήưŪǡפ˱뤳ȤΤǤ֤Ǥ롥Ĺʲβ̤Ƥ˱Ѹ줬ʸήξdzȤƤΰҸ᤹ȤǤѤ񤭸դϡ֤λäդãȯãʳȿǤƤȹͤ롥פˡݼŪʽ񵭵Ϥλߤ᤬̵ʤäΤǤ롥¿Ȳ̶ʬä˸ƤʤˤƤϿŤǤʤФʤʤʤʤ顤űѸʳǻѤǤϡλο¿ڤƤȤϸ¤ʤǤˡݼŪʽ񵭵Ϥλߤ᤬̵ʤäȤϡʸؤȻθѰ (registre) ͰŪ˴ѤȤ߹ޤƤ¿θ줬ǤȤ䡤ä˷ŪѲ (paradigme) ޸ (désinence) ΤʤŰ줷ƴά줿Ȥˤ⸽Ƥ롥


֥륷ϱѸˡˤˤȳ̻ˤޤߤŪʱѸˤɽȻפ

른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ

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2014-11-19 Wed

#2032. ƻ -ive [etymology][suffix][french][loan_word][spelling][pronunciation][verners_law][consonant][stress][gsr][adjective]

ե󥹸ؽγ顤ʼե󥹸Ǥ actif, effectif ʤɸ -if ĸŪ˷ƻˤ¿ꡤǤϸФΤȤ -if 򼨤Ǥ -ive 򼨤θե󥹸줫ѤѸǤ -ive §Ǥ롥ʤѸϥե󥹸줫餳θǼѤΤ
餤С -ive ϥե󥹸б -ive ľܤȿǤΤǤϤʤѸϼȤѸ˥ե󥹸줫餢ޤǸФˤ -if ηǼѤΤǤꡤ˱ѸǤβѲˤ̵ [f] [v] ͭȯ˹碌 -<ive> Ȥֻ̲ȤȤǤ롥
ѸǤϤΥե󥹼ѸФֻͥ -<if> Ǥ롥Ǥͭ -<ive> 褷ƾʤʤġñˤäξԤδ֤ǤɤۤʤȻפ뤬Ūˤ -<if> ήǤȹͤ롥ˡ#1178. MED Spelling Search ([2012-07-18-1]) ǡ"if\b.*adj\." "ive\b.*adj\." ʤɤȸФ측򤫤ƤߤȡȤƤ -<if> äƤ롥Ѹ٤ι⤤ effective, positive, active, extensive, attractive, relative, massive, negative, alternative, conservative Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED Ǥ -<if> ФȤƺǽ˵󤬤äƤ롥
Ǥ˸ѸˤϤֻɽ蘆ȯ [ɪf] ˤơҲ [f] [v] ͭĤĤäˤ϶֤꤬Ϳ롥ޤե󥹸ǤΤ˶ƤꡤѸǤƱͤ˶äȤѸǤ϶֤촴ذư뷹ä (cf. #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥ󥹷Ϥ ([2009-11-13-1])#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1])#861. Ѹθ춯ΰ֤˴ؤ3ס ([2011-09-05-1])#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1])) ˶ʤʤȡ [f] Verner's Law ʤΰ̲ˤ˽ͭ [v] Ȥʤäverners_law ȻҲͭˤĤƤϡäˡ#104. hundred ͥˡ§ ([2009-08-09-1]) ȡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
嵭βĶˤ [f] ޤ໤ͭΤϡ (378) ˤС14ȾNǤϤ᤯ˡפȤ롥褽Ʊˡ[s] > [z], [θ] > [ð] ͭⵯä (ex. is, was, has, washes; with)
˽Ҥ٤аޤǡե󥹼Ѹ -if ϸ˸¤ -ive ؤѲΤ㳰Ū -if ˤȤɤޤäΤ롥bailiff ʼ, caitiff ܶԡ, mastiff ʥޥա, plaintiff ʸˤʤɤϡŤ [f] [v] δ֤ɤ򼨤ƤǽŪ [f] βɸಽǤ롥
ʾJespersen (200--01) 󤷤Ƥ餪

The F ending -if was in ME -if, but is in Mod -ive: active, captive, etc. Caxton still has pensyf, etc. The sound-change was here aided by the F fem. in -ive and by the Latin form, but these could not prevail after a strong vowel: brief. The law-term plaintiff has kept /f/, while the ordinary adj. has become plaintive. The earlier forms in -ive of bailiff, caitif, and mastiff, have now disappeared.


Ƭμ˲СѸ -ive ľܥե󥹸Ρʤ뤤ϥƥͳ褹˽ -ive ڤꤿΤǤϤʤե󥹸줫Ѥ -if λҲѸβѲˤͭΤɽ魯αѸüԤե󥹸ν -ive ˤٸƤȤαƶʬϤ뤫⤷ʤޤǤδͿϴŪȤߤʤƤΤ

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-22-1]

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2014-09-15 Mon

#1967. ˴ؤե󥹼Ѹ [loan_word][french][lexicology][norman_conquest][semantic_field][recipe]

ε#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1]) ǡѸʪ˴ؤäˤϡŪ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ƤȤǧطʤˤΤϡʤ1066ǯΥΥޥ󡦥󥯥ȤǤ롥ʹߡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ŵŪΤƤ褦ˡ󥰥Ϥ¿ν̱ϲܤäɤ졤ե󥹷Ϥξήϥե󥹤ݤǤä󥰥ɤˤƥեϡñˤǤʤҤξħȤƼҲŪʴްդäƤ
ưʪȤ˴ؤ sheep / mutton; ox / beef; pig / pork, bacon, gammon; calf / veal; boar / brawn; fowl / poultry αʩäΩϤ褯ΤƤ뤬ۤˤե󥹼Ѹ줬˴ؤ̣򹭤ƤڵϤ󤢤롥εǰѤ Hughes ϡ"The sociology of food" (117--20) ꤹạ̇̄󤷤Ƥ롥
ޤưʪβĿ̤Ǿ̤Ȳ̤ȤǸƤ̾ۤʤȤ¤롥haunch, joint, cutlet ϥե󥹸brains, tongue, shank ϱѸٹڤʿɽ魯 dinner, supper, banquet ϥե󥹸Ǥ breakfast ϱѸʤʤlunch 16˽Ф뿩ΰդǤ19ˡФ̤Ĵˡϡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) COOK ۲˵󤲤 boil, broil, roast, grill, fry ʤ¿ư줬ե󥹸סǥȡĴ̣ʤ̣Ǻ (ex. soup, potage, sauce, dessert, mustard, cream, ginger, liquorice, flan, pasty, claret, biscuit) 󥰥οʸΤҤ⤸ᤷۤɤ
ΤѰդ뷸̾ˤե󥹸줬Ωġsteward ʵĹˤѸsty + ward ǡھÿ͡פȤΤˡmarshal Էˡsewer ˡpantler ʿ¢͡ˡbutler ʼˤϥե󥹸Ǥ롥Ư scullion ʻˡˡblackguard ʾȤˡpot-boy ʥܡˤϤѸǤ롥
Ǹˡ15Υ쥷ԤαʸƤߤ褦Hughes (118) κưѤåΤθ줬ե󥹼ѸǤ롥ΰ̣줬ե󥹸줫֤줷Ƥ뤫ʬ

Oystres in grauey

Take almondes, and blanche hem, and grinde hem and drawe þorgh a streynour with wyne, and with goode fressh broth into gode mylke, and sette hit on þe fire and lete boyle; and cast therto Maces, clowes, Sugur, pouder of Ginger, and faire parboyled oynons mynced; And þen take faire oystres, and parboile hem togidre in faire water; And then caste hem ther-to, And let hem boyle togidre til þey ben ynowe; and serve hem forth for gode potage.


ˤե󥹸줫֤줷Ƥ롥֤Ƥʤä顤Ǥɾ뤳Ȥξʤ󥰥ɤοϡϤΤȤʤä˰㤤ʤͤΡʬˤ purism εϤʤ

Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

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2014-09-14 Sun

#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 [loan_word][french][history][lexicology]

Hughes (119) ˡįƤǤʤäƤѸ "A historical menu" ǺܤƤ롥űѸ鸽ѸޤǤ˼ȱѸäƤʪɽ魯Ѹ줬¤Ǥ롥Hughes ϸ夫űѸؤ̤褦˰󼨤ƤꡤΤοʪѤäʤȤˤϤ褤ΤɤۤŪ˿ߤΤǡΤ褦ɤळȤ򤪴ᤷ

 FoodDrink
 pesto, salsa, sushi 
 tacos, quiche, schwarma 
 pizza, osso buccoChardonnay
1900paella, tuna, goulash 
 hamburger, mousse, borschtCoca Cola
 grapefruit, éclair, chipssoda water
 bouillabaisse, mayonnaise 
 ravioli, crêpes, consommériesling
1800spaghetti, soufflé, bechameltequila
 ice cream 
 kipper, chowder 
 sandwich, jamseltzer
 meringue, hors d'oeuvre, welsh rabbitwhisky
1700avocado, pâtégin
 muffinport
 vanilla, mincemeat, pastachampagne
 salmagundibrandy
 yoghurt, kedgereesherbet
1600omelette, litchi, tomato, curry, chocolatetea, sherry
 banana, macaroni, caviar, pilavcoffee
 anchovy, maize 
 potato, turkey 
 artichoke, sconesillabub
1500marchpane (marzipan) 
 whiting, offal, melon 
 pineapple, mushroom 
 salmon, partridge 
Middle Englishvenison, pheasantmuscatel
 crisp, cream, baconrhenish (rhine wine)
 biscuit, oysterclaret
 toast, pastry, jelly 
 ham, veal, mustard 
 beef, mutton, brawn 
 sauce, potage 
 broth, herring 
 meat, cheeseale
Old Englishcucumber, musselbeer
 butter, fishwine
 breadwater


ͽ̤ե󥹼Ѹ줬¿ΤΡŪˤϥХ饨ƥ˭¿Ǥ롥
ʬˤե󥹸ˤĤƤϡۤˤ#61. porridge ϰ򤳤Ƽѹ٤ ([2009-06-28-1])#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1])#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1])#678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2011-03-06-1])#1792. 18--20Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2014-03-24-1])#1667. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (1) ([2013-11-19-1])#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

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2014-09-08 Mon

#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ [register][lexicology][loan_word][latin][french][greek][semantics][polysemy][lexical_stratification]

ѸäħŪع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ʤɤεǤߤƤع¤ȤɽΤϡ岼طȳؤΤӥΤ褦ʷʪΥ᡼⤷ʤӥȤϡĺԥߥåɤΤ褦ʷۤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ顤ι㳬ؤá䶹ޤä泬ؤΥե󥹸áⳬؤΥƥ󡦥ꥷäȤ᡼
ԥߥåɤȤŬڤʤΤϡ1ĤˤϡⳬؤΥƥ󡦥ꥷäΤøŪϰ̤Ȱҿ褯Ƥ뤫ҲŪʸŪ¾ݤݥˤĤƤ뤳Ȥϡӥ뷿ԥߥåɷΤۤ褯ɽǤ롥
2ܤȤơ줾θä٤ԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤȤɽǤ뤫Ǥ롥ε#1959. ʸػˤʸػˤˤפԤѤäˤγ ([2014-09-07-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäդΤߤʤ餺񤭸դˤƤ⡤ä٤¾ݤƤʤʤʬۤϡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܸˤƤƱͤäˡоŪˡⳬؤθä٤㤤ġθˤĤƤȿ⤢ŪʷȤƤϡƳؤ٤ѤȤб롥äȤ⡤Ƴؤθ̡ʰۤʤˤȤȤǤСɬ⤽줬ԥߥåɤѤб櫓Ǥʤ100cf. #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ ([2010-03-02-1]) Ⱥ600cf. #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])ˤǸ¤ꡤ̤ѤϤ褽бƤ뤬10000Ȥ٥Ĵȡ#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤƤ3ؤξ岼ط롥
ԥߥåɤȤͭȹͤ3ܤͳϡԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤ٤Τߤʤ餺ΤỊ̇ˡιˤбƤ뤫ŪܶǤ٤⤤ФǤʤ¿Ǥꡤˡ¿ˤ錄롥ŪʸƱͿפǤ⡤ give Ūʸ¿ˤ¿ƥѸ donate ϸꤵƤ롥ޤgive ʸȤ SVOiOd SVOd to Oi 뤳ȤǤʤʤ dative shift ǽˤdonate ϸԤʸƤʤۤˤϡ#112. ե󥹡ƥѸȲˡߡ ([2009-08-17-1]) Ǽ褦ˡóؤŪʿ񤤤˴ͿƤȵ륱롥
3δ顤Hughes (43) ϡΤ褦ʥԥߥåɹ¤

Pyramid of English Lexicon

嵭3Τۤˤ⡤ƳؤѤȸ򤷤䤹 (comprehensibility) طƤȤ⤢롥ɤΤȤóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤȤȤԥߥåɤȤϹߤǤ롥

Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.

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2014-08-21 Thu

#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰä [etymological_respelling][spelling][french][latin][hart]

ε#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) ˰³etymological_respelling ꡥѸˤǤϸ츻Ūֻϼ16--17ȤǧƤcf. #1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1])ˡᤤ14--15ǧƤ뤷#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#1790. ե󥹤Ǥ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ ([2014-03-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ٥ե󥹤Ǥ褯ݤ13ȾƤºݤ˥ե󥹤Ǥ츻Ūֻ16˥ԡޤΤǡθݤˤĤơʩϤ褽Ĵ碌ƤȤˤʤ롥
ե󥹸¦Ǥθ츻ŪֻˤĤƾܤĴƤʤMiller (211) 14꤫ȤƤ롥

Around the end of C14, French orthography began to be influenced by etymology. For instance, doute 'doubt' was written doubte. Around the same time, such etymologically adaptive spellings are found in English . . . ., especially by C16. ME doute [?a1200] was altered to doubt by confrontation with L dubitō and/or contemporaneous F doubte, and the spelling remained despite protests by orthoepists including John Hart (1551) that the word contains an unnecessary letter . . . .


ե󥹸Ǥϰ <doubte> ³17ˤϺƤ <b> æǤ doute äƤ롥
ǤϡѸ¦ǤϤɤdoubt ؤ <b> Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED ʸˤС15¿㤬󤬤ۤ14 Gower ⻶롥
ƱͤˡOED Ǥ <doubt> ȰʸƤߤȡ15㤬ʤ餺ۤ14ˤ1300ǯ Cursor Mundi ⻶줿رѸ츻ŵ٤Ǥϡdoubt ˤ <b> αѸǤ15ȤʤäƤ뤬ºݤˤϤä᤯㤬äȤˤʤ롥

a1300 Cursor M. (Edinb.) 22604 Saint peter sal be domb þat dai,.. For doubt of demsteris wrek [Cott. wreke].
1393 J. Gower Confessio Amantis I. 230 First ben enformed for to lere A craft, which cleped is facrere. For if facrere come about, Than afterward hem stant no doubt.
1398 J. Trevisa tr. Bartholomew de Glanville De Proprietatibus Rerum (1495) xvi. xlvii. 569 No man shal wene that it is doubt or fals that god hath sette vertue in precyous stones.


˽Ѹ쥳ѥ LAEME <b> ޤֻϸĤʤä

߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-09 Sat

#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δط [indo-european][family_tree][contact][loan_word][borrowing][geolinguistics][linguistic_area][historiography][french][latin][greek][old_norse]

#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1925. ɴ֤δط򼨤ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡ ([2014-08-04-1]) ǿƤ褦ˡθޤμȤơܿ (language contact) Ūܴط˴Ť (linguistic area; cf. #1314. [2012-12-01-1]ˤޤɽǤʤȤ꤬ä׼ǡޤΤʤ¾줫αƶ˴ؤळȤԲǽǤϤʤMiller (3) Τ褦ʻߤԤäƤΤǡ䤹˺ޤΤ򼨤

Family Tree with Interactive Contact of Western Indo-European and English

οޤǤϡѸ줬Ū˷иƤܿŪʾ郎ޤɽƤ롥äˡפʸȤܿϡ褽狼褦Ƥ롥ޤƥ졤ե󥹸졤ꥷ줫αƶ٤κϤŪǤꡤŪʤΤ˸¤뤳Ȥ鸫Ƽ롥ťΥɸ (ENorse) ȤθܿˤĤƤƱͤΰ뤬ˤꡤ¤Ūʳ׿ˤƶ̹ξʤʤȤƤ롥ȸ (Brythonic) ȤδطˤĤƤϡǯȯƤƤ뤬ϰŪΥͥˤäƼƤ롥
󡤤οޤѸȽȤαƶδط˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨Сǿ޼ƤΤϼ礿ܿΤߤǤμȿ䤷ƿޤ̲뤳ȤϤǤˡޤե󥹸ȤܿˤĤơѸʹߤη³ŪʴͿϤޤ޼ƤʤǤ⡤οޤ̤ξޤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤѸˤγѤȤƤΩĤΤǤϤʤ

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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