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french - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2014-07-06 Sun

#1896. ܸäθ [loan_word][borrowing][japanese][lexicology][borrowing][portuguese][spanish][dutch][italian][russian][german][french]

ܸθ줬ƻޤ줿Τϡ16ȾФǤ롥#1879. ܸˤ޻ˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) Ǥ⿨줿褦ˡݥȥͤ褬äꥹȶѸȤȤ˰ŪѸ⤿餵줿Ԥϸ˶ضȤʤäȤ⤢ä夷ʤäԤǤϡإȥͭʿ(alfeloa) ƥ (Castella)å (capa)ܥCambodia)륵ʷסcalsãnˡ륿 (carta)ڥȥʶʿconfeitosˡ饵ʹӡsaraçaˡܥ (zamboa)ܥ (sabão)ХۡgibãoˡХʱtabacoˡ (charamela)ȥ (tutanaga)ѥ (pão)ӥɥ (vidro)ӥåȡʥӥåȡbiscoitoˡӥ (veludo)ե饹 (frasco)֥ (blanço)ܥ (bolo)ܥ (botão) ʤɤĤä16ˤϥڥäƤ夷Τϥ䥹 (medias) 餤ä
ؤȡμѸ줬ήǤ롥ʳؤθä¿˷طθääޤءؤǤϡƥ (ether) (extract)֥顼 (oblaat)륷 (calcium)ե (kamfer, kampher) (cholera)ꥹ (digitalis)ݥ (spuit)ڥ (pest)᥹ (mes)ҥ (morphine)ءʪŷʸǤϡ륫 (alkali)륳 (alcohol)쥭ƥ (electriciteit)ѥ (kompas) (soda)ƥ쥹 (telescoop)ԥ (brandpunt) (lenz)طǤϡ르 (orgel)ޥ (diamant) (koffij)å (kok)åסkop; cf. #1027. åפȥåס ([2012-02-18-1])ˡ (gom)å (siroop)å (schop)å (doek)åסʥסsoepˡå (jak)ӡ (bier)֥ꥭ (blik)ڥ (pen)ڥ (pek), ݥ (pomp)ۥå (hoek)ۥå (hop) (lamp)طǤϡ٥ (sabel)ԥȥ (pistool)ɥ (ransel)
ˤθΤʤǤϱѸ줬ͥȤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤޤ֥åסס֥ɥȥפʤɥѸλѤƤʹߤϱѸϤȾ褦ˤʤꡤΡ֥åספѸΡ֥ספִ줿褦ˡȯѸؤ줵Ƥ롥ѸʳθȤƤϡ龼¤ˤƥɥĸʼ˰ءлůشطˡե󥹸ʼ˷ݽѡطˡꥢʼ˲ڴطˡ⸫褦ˤʤä줾󤲤Ƥߤ褦

ɥĸ졧ΥNeuroseˡơKarteˡGazeˡץKapselˡ說VakzinˡǥIdeologieˡߥʡSeminarˡơޡThemaˡơTheseˡååRucksackˡSeilˡҥåơHütteˡ֥顼 (Oblate), 쥪 (Kreosot)
ե󥹸졧ǥådessinˡ󥯡concoursˡ󥽥chansonˡޥromanˡץespritˡgenreˡȥꥨatelierˡcrayonˡ롼rougeˡͥꥸnégligeˡġomeletteˡ˥åcognacˡѥchampagneˡޥ͡mayonnaise
ꥢ졧ڥoperaˡʥsonataˡƥݡtempoˡեʡfinaleˡޥˡmacaroniˡѥåƥspaghetti
졧åvodkaˡѡkampaniyaˡڥpechkaˡΥޡnorma

θ8䤬ѸϤǤꡤѤоݤȤʤѸѼȤƤʿϤDZѤƤؤڤؤä
ʾ塤ƣ (179--80, 185--86) Ӳƣ¾ (74) 򻲾ȤƼɮϢơ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1])#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿

ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ
ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ

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2014-06-24 Tue

#1884. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ [personal_pronoun][gender][prescriptive_grammar][norman_french][norman_conquest][bilingualism][french][contact][inflection][singular_they]

ε#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ˴ϢơѸǤ generic 'he' ꡤƤβȤƻ̱ƤƤ#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) ꤬פФ롥singular they ˤĤơǶᥦ־ A Linguist On the Story of Gendered Pronouns Ȥ򸫤ĤΤǾҲ𤷤singular they 㤬 Chaucer ʤѸߤ뤳ȡgeneric 'he' 18ȾεʸˡȤˤФ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥʤɡ˱ѸŪʴäƤꡤɤβͤ롥
θȾˤǡե󥹸줬ѸʸˡξüʬŪ˴ͿƤȼƤսˤĤƵ䤬ɮԤˤСΥ󥰥ɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤäȤ޸μ礿븶ȹͤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʵϰŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥ե󥹸αƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) 䡤Ѹ줬űѸȥե󥹸κǤȤ륯쥪첾ε ##1223,1249,1250,1251 򻲾Ȥ줿ˡ

So what you really have is an extended period of several centuries in which many people were more-or-less proficient in both Norman French and Anglo Saxon, which in actual fact meant speaking the highly intermingled versions known as Anglo-Norman and Middle English. But words that belong to one gender in one language don't necessarily belong to the same gender in the other. To use a modern example, the word for "bridge" in French, pont, is masculine, but the word for "bridge" in German, ''Brücke, is feminine. If you couple this with the fact that people had begun to stop pronouncing altogether the endings that indicate a word gender and case, you can see how these features became irrelevant for the language in general.


ޤΥ󥰥ɤ¿οͤ٤κϤ2üԤäȤȤɤٻ¤ȹäƤΤȤ䤬롥²Υե󥹷ϥ󥰥ɿͤμο͡¿쾯ʤХ󥬥äǽϹ⤤¿ν̱ϱѸΥΥ󥬥äʡ#338. Norman Conquest Υ󥰥ɤΥե󥹸üԤγ ([2010-03-31-1]) ӡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) ε򻲾ȡˡѸθѲĬή褷ΤϤ¿ΥΥ󥬥ѸüԤä˰㤤ʤҲŪʸϤϤˤ辯ΥХ󥬥뤬˸ŪƶڤܤΤϤʤϤǤ롥
ˡ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤˥ե󥹸αѸؤľŪʸŪƶϺ٤ǤȤϤΤ롥äֻСե󥹸줬ѸηŪ˱ƶͿܤϿʤŪʱƶҲŪʱƶϿäɾƤ롥ϡ#1171. ե󥹸Ȥθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) #1208. ե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ξüȤФˤϡե󥹸ˤ뤳δŪʸ̡޸ξüŪ¥Ȥ̤ŦǽʬǤϤʤ

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2014-06-22 Sun

#1882. move prove ˤĤƸ줿첻Ȥαƶ [french][loan_word][vowel][spelling][conjugation][paradigm][analogy]

ѸˤϡѸ move prove Ф <meven> <preven> Τ褦˸촴첻 <e> θֻŪ˹ԤƤ줬 <o> ˼ä뤳ȤˤʤΤطʤ򾯡õäƤߤ
move prove ϥե󥹼ѸǤꡤե󥹸ǤϤ줾 mouvoir prouver б롥prouver ľˡߤο;Ѳ̤Ƹ촴첻Ѥʤmouvoir Ͽ;Τ˱첻 <eu> ȸ첻 <ou> δ֤Ѱۤ롥ƱѰۤ򼨤 mourir, vouloir ȤȤ˳ɽǤ褦

 mouvoir ưmourir ʻ̡vouloir ˾
1st sg.je meusje meursje veux
2nd sg.tu meustu meurstu veux
3rd sg.il meutil meurtil veut
1st pl.nous mouvonsnous mouronsnous voulons
2nd pl.vous mouvezvous mourezvous voulez
3rd pl.ils meuventils meurentils veulent


ʣ12;ΤǤϸ첻 <ou> 졤¾ο;ΤǤ첻 <eu> Ƥ뤳Ȥ狼롥ե󥹸ˤǤϡ촴˶ʤˤŪʸ첻ݤ졤촴˶ˤ첻롥Ѹؤϡ2ˤĤƸԤ첻촴Ѥ졤Ѹ̤ͥȤʤä褦Ǥ롥Ϣơpeople popular θ촴첻ʻˤоȤ줿
θ첻򼨤֤¤ǹԤƤꡤ줬Ѹʹߤ˰̲뤳ȤˤʤäβϼƤ褦ܤ餫ˤʤΤǤΩ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ѸǤ첻򼨤֤ѤȤʤäƵפĤƤ첻ȸ첻Ѱۤ󤯱ƶڤܤƤǽΤ븽ݤ1Ĥ롥prove βʬȤƵ§Ū proved Ե§Ū proven 뤬Ԥ16ƬˤФϤĤƤ첻򼨤 preve ȴؤ꤬뤫⤷ʤΤ褳ưγѤϡѸ餷§ŪʼѲˤäȤԵ§ʶѲˤʳѤ򼨤 cleave -- clove -- cloven weave -- wove -- woven ˤꡤ preve ФƲʬ proven 줿Ȥ롥䤬ǽȤʤСϸ preve cleave weave Ʊ첻򼨤Ǥȹͤ졤첻Ѱ۷ʬγ׿ proven ߽ФäȤʤäȤȤǤ롥
ߡʬ proven ä˥ꥫѸ䥹åȥɱѸǹȤƤꡤȤ櫓ư֤ιʸ¾ѼؤѤȤäƤȤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-20-1]

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2014-06-20 Fri

#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) [suffix][loan_word][french][register][anglo-norman][law_french][etymology][-ate][agentive_suffix][french_influence_on_grammar]

emplóyer ʸۤˤФ employée ʸۤƤ͡ˤȤڥϤ褯ΤƤ롥appóinter/appointée, exáminer/examinée, páyer/payée, tráiner/trainée ʤɤΥڥƱͤǡ줾Ȥ -er ԤǽưŪư-ee ĸԤưŪưɽ魯
absentee ʷʼԡ, escapee æԡ, patentee õͭԡ, refugee ̱, standee Ωҡˤʤɡ̣Ū˼ȤȤϲǤʤ¸ߤ롥ºݡstandee stander ƱǤϤʤȤƤ⡤ʤȤǤϤ롥-ee ȤƬƯϤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
-er ŪʸűѸ -ereˤ-ee ϥե󥹸줫ѤǤ롥ե󥹸 -é(e) ưβʬǤꡤ¾ư³мȤΰ̣Ȥʤä켫Τϥƥ1Ѥưβʬܼ -ātus ̤Τǡcommunicatee, dedicatee, educatee, legatee, relocatee ʤɤǤƱ2ĤղäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ-ate ˤĤƤϡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
-ee δŪʵǽϡư촴ͤͭʪɽ魯ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥¾ħȤƤϡ -ee /ˈiː/ ˶뤳ȡջηǡȤ̣󤬤뤳ȡˡΧѸȤѤ뷹ȡʤɤ󤲤롥ˡΧȤѰ (register) ˤĤƤСAnglo-Norman ˡΧѸ apelour/apelé Ѹä appellor/appellee ʾʿ͡ʿ͡ˤʤɤΥڥȤʤꡤѸʹߡΤθ츻ˤ餺 -or (or -er) -ee ˤˡΧѸڥ³ޤ줿
ưȤҤȤˤäƤ⡤ŪˤϴΤưľŪ졤Ū졤ֻŪΡ˼Τ䡤ưȤľܤ˴ϢʤΤޤơ͡ʼब (Isozaki 5--6)examinee "someone who one examines" ľŪpayee "someone to whom one pays something" ǴŪlaughee "someone who one laughs at" ֻŪ standee attendee "someone who stands" "someone who attends something" Ǽ롥¾§ŪʼȤơamputee "someone whose limb was amputated" ʣط򼨤patentee, redundantee, biographee ̾ƻΤȤƤġ
ˤĤƸѸ줫鸽ѸؤƤ̻Ūܤߤȡޥ󥹷ϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡstandee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȤŦ롥ĬήˤĤƤϡεǡ

Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.

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2014-04-29 Tue

#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ [phonetics][french][latin][italian][spelling][pronunciation][consonant][j][grapheme]

#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) εκǸǡ<j> (= <i>) = /ʤ/ бطޤ줿طʤˤĤƿ줿ƥ줫ťե󥹸ؤȯŸˡͭŸܶ᲻ [j] ͭ˻ [ʤ] ѲȤβѲȡ#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1]) εƤ˴Ϣơ (138--39) ˤ褯ޤȤޤäҤäΤǡѤOED εҤۤƱơˡ

6ˡƥˤơҤ [j] ϤФȯ尵̤졤̤ [j] ΰ֤ꤵ˹뤳ȤˤäƤ d ȯ iūstus > d-iūstus, māior > mā-d-ior, [dj] Ф [ʤ] assibilate 줿 g θŤ첻Ǹ [ʤ] ѤäƤǡconsonantal i 'soft' g ϥޥ󥹽ǤƱβĤ褦ˤʤä
ꥢǤϡconsonantal i ȯŸ [ʤ] e, i ˤ g a, o, u ˤ gi- ˤäƽѤ뤳Ȥˤʤäơj ֤ϼΤƤ줿ά
ե󥹸Ǥ i ʸȯŸäƤΤޤ¸졤ä consonantal i 'soft' g ͵ǤꡤκۤϸεˤǤ롥
LOFIt.ModE
iūstusiustegiustojust
iūdic-cemiugegiudicejudge
IēsusIesuGesùJesus
māiormairemaggioremajor
gestagestegestogest (jest)

Norman Conquest 塤consonantal i Ϥθե󥹸β [ʤ] äƱѸ͢줿ե󥹸ǤϤθ [ʤ] ϤǤ򼺤ä [ʒ] ñ㲽줿ѸϺ˻ޤǥե󥹵θˤƤθ¸Ƥ롥


äơե٥å <J> θƾ /ʤeɪ/ ˤĤơ (141) εҤѤƤ

J ϸŤ jy [ʤai] ȸƤФƺɤʤƱ²ʸ I [ai] Ȳƥե̾ ji ȸƱθƤ̾ϺǤ⥹åȥɤ¾ˤ̤Ǥ롥奤ꥹ̾17ja 뤤 jay [ʤei] ϡ a [ei] 򱦤ɤʤ k 餦 (O. Jespersen, B. L. Ullman) ɥ̾ jot [jɔt] ϡ16 j i ʬ̾ yōd 줿


סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ

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2014-04-22 Tue

#1821. ե󥹸ȱѸ [french][latin][reestablishment_of_english][me][history][hfl]

ѸΡե󥹸ФѸˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵˤƤƱ٤Υե󥹤ǤϡƥФե󥹸äƤĤޤꡤ󥰥ɤȥե󥹤ξʤΤߤʤ餺ºݤˤϥ衼åѳƹˤǡˤ줳ۤʤ졤罰θ (vernacular) ƬƤΤǤ롥
Υե󥹤ǡե󥹸줬˻̱ƤˡѤȤ鳵⤷褦ե󥹤ǤϡˡθȤƥƥ줬ŪǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤ13椫ե󥹸λѤϤޤäƤä Charles IV μ (1322--28) ˤƹˡˤե󥹸λѤϡꤷΤȤϤʤʤäΤΡŸθ14ϡե󥹲ΥǥƥƥȷӤĤȤơե󥹸¸ߴΤǧ褦ˤʤäƤ椯ơĤ1539ǯ815ˡˤե󥹸ˡŪʤդͿ뤳ȤȤʤäե󥹸˾̾⤤졦ȥļ (l'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts) Ǥ롥#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡޤˡ⳦ϥƥȥե󥹸2DzäƤե󥽥1 (Francis I; 1494--1547) ˡǤΥƥѤѻߤΤǤ롥Perret (47) ꡤļδطս

L'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539) Articles 110 et 111
«Et afain qu'il n'y ait cause de douter sur l'intelligence desdits arrests, nous voulons et ordonnons qu'ils soient faits et escrits si clairement, qu'il n'y ait ne puisse avoir aucune ambiguïté ou incertitude, ne lieu à demander interprétation.
Et pour ce que de telles choses sont souvent advenues sur l'intelligence des mots latins contenus esdits arrests, ensemble toutes autres procédures, [...] soient prononcez, enregistrez et delivrez aux parties en langaige maternel françois et non autrement.»


ļϡƥ򰷤ʤζ̳ô򸺤餹ȤºŪŪ⤢äե󥹸ե󥹤ιȤꤹȤ̣礤äθˤˤơե󥹤¾ɸऱɸե󥹸ڤȳͤʤǤ椯κǽηŪʰ⤬1539ǯͿ줿Ȥˤʤ롥ºݤˡ17ˤļƤϳ礷ե󥹳̿줿ȤϤޤǤʤ
󥰥ɤˤѸϡ#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) #706. 14ѸϽˡ ([2011-04-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡޤǽ˿ʤǤäΤˡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) Ǥ1362ǯΤ褦ʡѸħϤˤϤ뤬졦ȥļΤ褦1ĤηŪʽΤϤʤ
Ǥϥ󥰥ɡե󥹤ȤɸꡤϤε夬äؤнˡξ֤礭ۤʤäƤκۤεϡǤˤλΤΤˤä褦˻פ롥

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-16-1] [2015-07-02-1]

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2014-04-16 Wed

#1815. ̾ one ˡϥե󥹸αƶ [french][borrowing][personal_pronoun][numeral][contact][french_influence_on_grammar]

ե󥹸ϱѸθäֻˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʸˡ˵ڤܤľܤαƶϤۤȤɤʤȤ롥#1208. ե󥹸αʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) 褦ˡŪʱƶȤȤǤС#1171. ե󥹸Ȥθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) Ǽ夲Ϥ˵ͤ뤬֤ؤΥե󥹸αƶϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤ʤ1ĤȤơ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡѸ;ư줪;ιʸäϥե󥹸äƤ뤳ȤŦ뤬줯餤ΤΤ
⤦1ġȤ˥ե󥹸줫ʸˡŪʱƶȤƻŦܤ롥One should always listen to what other people say. Τ褦Ѥ롤̾ one Ǥ롥줬бե󥹸̾ on (< L homo) μѤǤϤʤȤǶǤϡMillar (126) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥

What is noteworthy about these large-scale French-induced changes is that they are dependent upon the massive lexical borrowing. Other structural changes not connected to this are limited (and also contested), such as the origin of the Modern English impersonal pronoun one in the ancestor of Modern French on.


OED one, adj., n., and pron. ˤȡե󥹸ƶɬǤϤʤ⤷ʤݤƤ롥

The use as an indefinite generic pronoun (sense C. 17), which replaced ME pron.2, MEN pron. in late Middle English, may have been influenced by Anglo-Norman hom, on, un, Old French, Middle French on (12th cent.; mid 9th cent. in form om ; French on; ultimately < classical Latin homō: see HOMO n.1), though this is not regarded as a necessary influence by some scholars.


C. 17 ˵󤲤ƤϡMED ōn (pron) θ2νäΤǤ롥

a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) 1023 (MED), Of an [a1400 Gött. ane; a1400 Trin. Cambr. oon] qua siþen ete at þe last, he suld in eild be ai stedfast.


Mustanoja (223--24) Ѹˤ one ΤˡȯˤĤơޤȤޤäŸƤ롥Ĺ٤ưѤ褦

   'ONE.' --- The origin of the one used for the indefinite person has been the subject of some scholarly dispute. Some grammarians believe that it developed from the indefinite one (originally a numeral . . .) meaning 'a person,' just as man expressing the indefinite person developed from man meaning 'a human being.' It has also been suggested that the one used for the indefinite person is in reality French on (from Latin homo), though influenced by the native indefinite one. This view, first expressed by R. G. Latham (The English Language, Vol. II, London 1855), has been more recently advocated by G. L. Trager and H. Marchand . . . . The case of those who maintain that one is a direct loan from French is, however, somewhat weakened by the fact that in the two earliest known instances of this use one occurs as an object of the verb and as an attributive genitive ('possessive dative'); one of these is doo thus fro be to be; thus wol thai lede oon to thaire dwelliyng place (Pall. Husb. v 181). The earliest examples of one as an indefinite subject are recorded in works of the late 15th century: --- he herde a man say that one was surer in keping his tunge than in moche speking, for in moche langage one may lightly erre (Earl Rivers Dicts 57); --- every chambre was walled and closed rounde aboute, and yet myghte one goo from one to another (Caxton En. 117). It is not until the second half of the 16th century that the use of one in this sense becomes common.
   From all we know about the first appearance and the subsequent development of one expressing the indefinite person it seems that this use arose as a synthesis of native one and French on. This view is further supported by the fact that in Anglo-Norman the spelling un is used not only for the numeral un but also for the indefinite person, as in the proverb un vout pendre par compaignie.

    
    ɸϡޤ夬ĤƤʤ
    
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2014-03-25 Tue

#1793. -<ce> 꽤 [spelling][french][etymology][hypercorrection][spelling_pronunciation_gap]

#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1]) εǡonce, twice -<ce> ϸ츻Ūˤ°ʸ -s ɽ魯ե󥹸ֻƤ֤ΤǤȽҤ٤¾ hence, thence Ʊͤ츻Ūʣ -s ɽ路 pence Τ褦⤢롥ޤice, mice ʤɤθ캬ΰɽ魯 /s/ Ǥ顤ȴɤΤե󥹸Ū -<ce> ֤褦ˤʤäȤƤ /s/ <ce> ɽ路ȤפζäƤ褦οǤ롥
Horobin (88) ŦƤ褦ˡ -<ce> ̯ʬۤ򼨤Ƥ롥嵭̤긽Ѹʣ mice -<ce> 򼨤ñ mouse ǤŪ -<se> ֻݻƤ롥louse -- lice ƱͤñʣΤˤֻͭƤʤȤΤˤʤȤǤ롥Ȥ櫓 -<ice> ȤֻϢޤȤȤΤ褦
Ǥϡ-<ice> ĸ餤Ĵ٤Ƥߤ褦OALD8 곺ʣϽˤ򽦤Ф62줬줿嵭 ice, lice, mice ۤȤɤե󥹸쵯Τ츻ˤλҲ <s> ֤ƤΤϰʲ22Ǥ롥

advice, apprentice, choice, coppice, cowardice, device, dice, juice, lattice, liquorice, poultice, price, pumice, rejoice, rice, service, sluice, splice, suffice, surplice, vice, voice


㤨Сadvice ϥե󥹸 avis бΤǡѸ¦ -<is> -<ice> Ȥˤʤadvice ˤĤƤϡ#1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1]) 򻲾ȡˡƱͤˡrice ϸťե󥹸 ris ʸե󥹸Ǥ rizˤбΤǡϤѸ¦ -<is> -<ice> Ⱥե󥹸ɸŪֻȰۤʤΤ⤢ꡤե󥹸¦ǤֻѲθɬפϤ뤬ǤѸȤơˤեŪʳ򼨤 -<ice> 夷ƤȤ̣
αѸ¦ιưϡ (hypercorrection) ȸƤǤʤ餳β꽤ϰӤƵä櫓ǤϤʤᡤѸֻηϤˤ⤦1Ĥκ𤬤⤿餵뤳ȤȤʤä-<ce> /z/ ǤϤʤ /s/ դɽ魯ȤǤȤǡξɽ路 -<se> ⵡǽŪȤϸ롥

Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2014-03-24 Mon

#1792. 18--20Υե󥹼Ѹ [french][loan_word][lexicology]

#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ǸȤꡤѸˤǤϡΥޥ󡦥󥯥Ȱʹߡե󥹼Ѹή䤨Ϥʤ14162ĤΥԡȤƶʹߤŪήϾʤߤ˻ޤǥե󥹼ѸϱѸθä¤˹׸ƤƤ롥
头ȤΥե󥹼ѸħˤĤƤϡ#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1291. ե󥹼Ѹμѻκ ([2012-11-08-1])#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2011-03-06-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħ ([2010-12-12-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ Crystal (460) ˷ǺܤƤ18--20Υե󥹼Ѹȴ򼨤

[18th century loanwords]

bouquet, canteen, clique, connoisseur, coterie, cuisine, debut, espionage, etiquette, glacier, liqueur, migraine, nuance, protégé, roulette, salon, silhouette, souvenir, toupee, vignette


[19th century loanwords]

acrobat, baroque, beige, blouse, bonhomie, café, camaraderie, can-can, chauffeur, chef, chic, cinematography, cliché, communism, croquet, debutant, dossier, en masse, flair, foyer, genre, gourmet, impasse, lingerie, matinée, menu, morgue, mousse, nocturne, parquet, physique, pince-nez, première, raison d'être, renaissance, repertoire, restaurant, risqué, sorbet, soufflé, surveillance, vol-au-vent, volte-face


[20th century loanwords]

art deco, art nouveau, u pair, auteur, blasé, brassiere, chassis, cinéma-vérité, cinematic, coulis, courgette, crime passionnel, détente, disco, fromage frais, fuselage, garage, hangar, limousine, microfiche, montage, nouvelle cuisine, nouvelle vague, questionnaire, tranche, visagiste, voyeurism


ѸʬȤƤϡ18ϼҲ١19Ϸݽѡʪࡤ20ϿݽѡѤħŪǤСˤե󥹼ѸΥԡ19ˤȤߤƤ褤
ʤ21Υե󥹼ѸˤĤ OED 򸡺Ȥparkour, traceur 2ҥåȤԤ2002ǯФǡ"The discipline or activity of moving rapidly and freely over or around the obstacles presented by an (esp. urban) environment by running, jumping, climbing, etc." 롥Ԥ2003ǯФǡ"A person who participates in parkour" ȤΤȡѸˤȤäƤȤ⤤ե󥹸줫μѤϡ21³Ƥ椯

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-08-1] [2014-09-14-1]

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2014-03-22 Sat

#1790. ե󥹤Ǥ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ [etymological_respelling][spelling][latin][history_of_french][french][hfl]

츻ֻ֤ (etymological_respelling) ˤĤơ#116. 츻֤֤ --- etymological respelling ([2009-08-21-1]) #192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) ϤȤ¿εǼ夲ƤѸѸˤơ¿αñֻȤƥƥͳֻαƶơľäƤƥؤοˤȤŤηϡФбѹͥ󥹤16ȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤĴ٤16ĺޤ봶Ϥ뤬ºݤˤѸ黶ȯŪ㤬뤳ȤդƤ٤Ǥ롥ޤƱϤ٤Υե󥹤ǡ餯󥰥ɤ¿᤯ȯƤȤõƤΤȤˤĤƤϡ#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) εǾ줿
ե󥹤Ǥϡ13Ⱦդˡƥθ츻ŪֻδĤϤ᤿褦֥å (77) ˤСΥԡϤϤ16Ȥ

ե󥹸ñ򤽤θ츻ޤϤμθ츻˶Ť褦Ȥؿ16ĺã롥㤨СΥե󥹸ñˤˤơr a e 򤹤ꡤλϡºݤˤϡ1517ˤޤdzȤäƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥첻줿ΤϸŤե󥹸ηˤäƤǤϤʤ츻ǤƥˤäƤǤ뤳Ȥǧ롥armes ͤϤ a arma ˡsemon ⶵͤϤ e sermo гʤǤsermonem äƤ롥ˤϡ16ƬˤƼƤͣηǤ erres ôݡݾڡͤϥκʤˤƤ arres ֤夨졤Τˤʤä arrhes ˤȤä뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬꼡Ĥ֤夨Ϥޤ˸츻Ǥ arrha ˴ŤƤʤ줿


ե󥹸ˤȱѸˤȤǡƥˤȤŤ츻ֻ֤ήԤʿԤƤ뤳ȤϡۤɶäȤǤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ˸Ǹ츻ֻ֤Ȥˤϡʤ츻ȤʤäƥֻΤۤ˶ؿ󤻤졤ե󥹸ǤʿŪʸݤˤդ뤳ȤʤξηΤˤɤ٤ľܡܤδطΤ̤ĴɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ졤饢ץ뤳ȤǡαѸ˾ζ̣꤬ޤޤ̣ΤˤʤǽΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥

롦֥å ⳤ ϯ ظ츻ء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1997ǯ

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2014-02-14 Fri

#1754. queue [bre][ame_bre][etymology][semantic_change][french][loan_word]

ꥹͤνȤơˤȤȤФи롥㤨СNTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings ˤȡGeorge Mikes How to Be an Alien (1946) Τʤǡ"Queueing is the national pastime of an otherwise dispassionate race. The English are rather shy about it, and deny that they adore it" ɾƤ롥
ꥹͤΤνȿǤˤ⥤ꥹѸŪȸ٤줬ˤФֹʤˡפ̣ queue Ǥ롥ꥫѸǤϤΰ̣Ǥ line ѤΤ̤Ǥ롥ȥꥢ˽ФƤǤͽ̤ꥤꥹŪ queue ѤƤ롥queue ꥹѸŪǤ뤳ȤŪ˳ǧ٤#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]) #1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-30-1]) ˡ^queu(e[sd]?|ing)$ ƸƤߤȡŪ˸ꤹޤǤʤ餫ʬۤϥꥹѸؤФ򼨤AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ˤ븡̤ʲ˷ǤƤ

IDWORDFREQTEXTSRANK
AME_2006BRE_2006AME_2006BRE_2006AME_2006BRE_2006
1queue219212263485149
2queued0101039987
3queues090908971
4queuing090908972


츫ȤꥹѸŪ queue ΤۤŤͳֹפǤꡤline ϥꥫѸǤλʸŪʳ׿ǤϤʤȵ뤫⤷ʤ¤ϵդǤ롥line ϸűѸ֤Ҥפΰ̣ʸڤŤǡޥĸ *līnjōn ̤롥ƱΥƥ līnea ȯŸťե󥹸 ligne ѸꡤξԤ line Ȥƹήline Ρפΰ̣ a1500 ȯƤꡤʤѸΥꥹǤ̤ѤƤλѤΤޤޥꥫѸ˻ۤ줿Ȥˤʤ롥
Ȥθ塤ꥹ¦dz׿1837ǯ Carlyle, French Revolution Ȥơqueue ʤ줬פθ line åäƤäΤǤ롥 queue Ѹˡְ٤Ҥפۤɤΰ̣ǽФƤꡤťե󥹸 co(u)e μѸǤ롥켫Τϥƥ cauda (tail) ̤롥äơѸǤΰ̣ϡֽäפǤꡤcaudal Ρ, cue ͤȱˤƱǤ롥ѸǤϡ18ˡȱפθϤä塤19˥ե󥹸ƤӻȤơפθCarlyle ޤ᤿ѸνǤϥե󥹡ʸŪʸ̮Ǹ뤳Ȥ¿ѸθäƱˤϤФ餯֤ä褦Ǥ롥ηаޤͤȡ19ΤϤषե󥹤ħäȤȤˤʤꤽ
֥ꥹ͡򰦤͡פȤƥ쥪פθȤƤ queue ϡƳȿΤäȤˤʤ롥ǤϡAre you in the queue?, How long were you in the queue? ʤɤϡꥹˤɬܤɽȤäƤ
ꥹѸȥꥫѸݼȳ׿ȤˤĤƤϡ#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1])#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ ([2011-01-14-1])#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ෿ (2) ([2011-01-15-1])#1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) ۤ colonial_lag γƵ򻲾ȡޤϢơ#880. ˤ⥤ꥹѸ졤ˤ⥢ꥫѸñ ([2011-09-24-1]) ⻲ȡ

Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-05-1]

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2014-01-18 Sat

#1727. /ju:/ ε [phonetics][diphthong][vowel][french][yod-dropping]

#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) ڤӡ#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]) εǡ/juː/ /uː/ ѲƤ벻ߤβϤǤ /juː/ ϤĤɤΤ褦ȯΤ
Ĵ٤ƤߤȡȤƤϽѸΤȤ餷/juː/ ϡΩ /ɪʊ/ ܤ򵯤ƾ徺2첻 (rising diphthong) ȤʤäΤȹͤ뤬 /ɪʊ/ ΤϡѸˤ (1) /ɛʊ/ 1Ǥξ夲ͳ褹Τȡ(2) ե󥹸 /yː/ ִΤޤ /ɪʊ/ η³ˤΤȤ˶̤롥 (171, 291) ꡤñ򼨤

(1) beauty, dew, deuce, ewe, ewer, few, fewter (the rest for a lance), feud, hew, lewd, mew, neuter, newt, Newton, pew, pewter, sewer, shew, strew, spew, sleuth, shrew, sew (juice), shrewd, thew (custom)
(2) allude, accuse, ague, adieu, allusion, brew, blue, blew (pt.), bruise, brute, clew, chew, cube, conclude, confuse, cruel, confusion, crew, due, drew, duke, excuse, eschew, fruit, flute, fume, funeral, fluid, fuel, grew, glue, humor, hue, humility, issue, Jew, jewel, juice, June, July, jute, knew, lunatic, lute, leeward, lieu, luminous, minute, Mathew, mutilate, new, newel, pseudonym, puny, prune, prudent, plume, rude, rule, refute, refuse, ruin, rumour, refuse (n.), rue, ruth, resolution, ModE shugar (sugar), ModE shue (sue), ModE shure (sure), sinew, ModE shute (suit), salute, solution, tulip, truce, threw, true, truth, Tuesday, tunic, tune, u, use, union, usage, usuary, usurer, view, yew, youth; ModE aventure, aventurous, creature, measure, nature, virtue, fortune, rescue, nephew, multitude, Hebrew, eschew, deluge, curfew, Andrew, absolute, ambiguous, Bartholomew

/ɪʊ/ /juː/ ؤѲϡָƬǤ1560ǯϤޤ1640ǯˤϤʤ̤Ȥʤסp. 290ˡθɤ³18ˤϳΩ褦
ʤ/r/ ³ /juːr/ ϡƱͤѸ /ɪʊr/, /ɛʊr/ ͳ褷Τ褦ʸޤࡥcure, curate, curio, curious, curiosity, conjure, dure, endure, Europe, ewer, fury, figure, immure, jury, lure, luxurious, mature, measure, nature, natural, obscure, pure, purity, procure, plural, premature, secure, sure, surety sewer, your.
Ϣơ#199. <U> Ϥʤ /ju:/ ȯ뤫 ([2009-11-12-1]) ε⻲ȡȤ櫓 shew βֻȯãˤĤƤϡ#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1]) 򻲾ȡ

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

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2013-11-29 Fri

#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν [h][spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation][french][anglo-norman][scribe]

ѸˤˤƬ <h> ϡ켫ΤˤäƤ롥ѸˤˤƸƬ <h> ϼºݤȯƤΤȤȯƤʤäΤȯʤäȤȡɤλˡɤѼȯʤäΤơĤɤΤ褦ˤɸѼǤ <h> ȯ [h] ȤơפΤβŪ֤ŤϤɤʤäƤΤե󥹼ѸʤɤˤƶϤäΤʤäΤ褷Ƥʤ꤬ѤߤǤ롥
Ƭ <h> θ˾塤ǤŤϡǤϡ֥󥰥Υޥ̻οáפȸƤФƤ벾Ǥʡ#1238. 󥰥Υޥ̻οá ([2012-09-16-1]) 򻲾ȡˡˤСƬ <h> Ͼȯ [h] ȤƼ¸ƤŪˤ <h> = [h] δطϡѸޤѸˤˤ錄äưݻƤѸˤ褯 <h> ˴ؤֻθϡѸ򤷤ʤ󥰥Υޥ̻ˤƳ줿ΤˤѸˤˤ [h] üȤ򼨤ڵȤϤʤꤨʤȤ롥˴ؤơCrisma (Were 51) 󤷤ƤΤǡѤ롥

[T]he traditional view . . . is that [h]- was preserved before vowels throughout ME, though it could be dropped in words bearing weak stress, such as pronouns and forms of auxiliary have. Spelling errors involving <h>- are noted, but they are not considered sufficient evidence for [h]- loss, being dismissed by attributing them to '(Anglo-)Norman' scribes. The general validity of this treatment of errors, however, has been very convincingly questioned by Clark . . ., who labels it as a 'myth'.


ߤǤϡ֥󥰥Υޥ̻οáϼƤʤǡ⤬줿Ѹ˸Ƭ <h> ֻȤƤϵ̤˻ĤäƤȯȤƤϾüȤΤǤ롥Ƭ <h> ֻ꤬ˤǤ뤳ȡPearl-poet ʤɤ <h> ǻϤޤ첻ǻϤޤ줬ƬƧ㤬뤳ȡChaucer ʤɤǸ <e> æ˴ؤơ³Ƭ <h> 첻Ʊ񤤤򼨤Ȥʤɤ顤Ƭ [h] ȯȤƤϼƤȲ᤹٤ȤǤ롥ߤǤϤǤŪȤʤäƤ벾#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1]) ǤȤƼ夲Ȥꡤ⤷ѸǤξüꤹȡѸǤΤܴۤʤפɤΤ褦뤫Ȥ䤬롥Crisma (Were 52) ⤳ŦƤ롥

Assuming an early and widespread loss of word-initial [h]- poses the problem of how to account for its eventual restoration. It seems dubious that this might have happened 'mainly via spelling and the influence of the schools' (Lass, 1992: 62), first because [h], if it was really generally lost at some point, was re-established without errors in all native words, which would be a spectacular success indeed.


Ƭ [h] ϾüΤʤäΤǡäŪʲ⤬줿Milroy, J. ("On the Sociolinguistic History of /h/-Dropping in English." Current Topics in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. M. Devenport, E. Hansen, and H. -F. Nielsen. Odense: Odense UP, 1983. 37--53) ϡƬ [h] üѼȾüʤäѼ郎ꡤξѼ郎ʸŪѰۤȤüԸĿͤΤʤ˶¸ƤȹͤˤСѸθƬ [h] 礭ȤϤʤʤ
ߡϩϡۤʤäǤϤ뤬Paola Crisma Julia Schlüter ʤɤθԤʤƤ롥

Crisma, Paola. "Were They 'Dropping their Aitches'? A Quantitative Study of h-Loss in Middle English." English Language and Linguistics 11 (2007): 51--80.
Crisma, Paola. "Word-Initial h- in Middle and Early Modern English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 130--67.
Schlüter, Julia. "Consonant or 'Vowel'? A Diachronic Study of Initial <h> from Early Middle English to Nineteenth-Century English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 168--96.

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2013-11-27 Wed

#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) [h][spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation][french][ot]

Ѹˤˤ /h/ ԰ˤĤ h γƵǰäƤϸƬ /h/ ˤˤĤơCrisma ʸɤǤߤ
ˤĤƽ辧Ƥ1Ĥ˼Τ褦ʤΤ롥Ƭ /h/ ϲȤƤѸ˴˾äѸɸѼ̤ȤΤCrisma (136--37) ϰʲ3ŦĤġȽƤ롥

(1) ˤȡ /h/ ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θˤΤȤȤˤʤ뤬ʤȤ⤹٤Ƥˤ褷¤ͤСδŰ֤ϿۤɤǤʡ#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ̾ֻȯϤޤηŪˤϺѤñ줴Ȥñȯ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ֻȯθκѤꤵƤ븽ݤϡե󥹼ѸˤƤϡϤ٤äʤˤϸܤ줺˸ɸѼ˻Ĥä heir, honest, honour, hour ʤɤθ⻶롥üȤǤϡե󥹼Ѹο񤤤ΰ㤤Ǥʤ
(3) Ѹ /h/ δ /h/ ݤäƤαƶǤȹͤ⤢뤬⤽ʤɸѼ˱ƶͿΤʬʤ

ƤȤ Crisma ƤΤϡŪʵϹäƤ뤬ǼΤ褦ˤޤȤѸˤơƬ /h/ Ͼä櫓ǤϤʤ˳ΤΤȤ¸ߤƤ /h/ ʣߤΤȤǡͽ [h] ǤϤʤ [] ȤƼ¸줿ȤȤǤ롥Crisma ϡѸȶѸΥѥȤơh ǻϤޤԤ괧 a vs an ʬۤӽͭƻ my/thy vs myn(e)/thyn(e) ʬۤܺ٤ĴĴ̤Ŭ (Optimality Theory) ʬϤŬϡʥʸˡλۤꡤءϡˤɽءʽϡˤ̤Ǥ롥ñ /h/ üȤߤΤǤϤʤϤˤ /h/ äɤϤȤƤ [] ȤʤΤäȵΤǤ롥Crisma (158) ηѤơȤ褦

To sum up, I propose that the distribution of the different forms of the indefinite article and of the 1st and 2nd person singular possessive pronouns can be captured in its diachronic development in Middle and Early Modern English assuming that the phonetic realization of the phoneme /h/- became at some point `disliked' in the grammar of the language. This dislike results in its inability to surface in a series of contexts, which vary along time because of the slight differences in the interaction with other constraints on the well-formedness of the phonetic output. This proposal is empirically superior to theories failing to distinguish between true /h/-loss and a (sic) the coexistence of a lexical /h/-ful underlying representation with a contextually-bound [h]-less phonetic output, and therefore unable to account for the complex and apparently contradictory evidence.


Crisma, Paola. "Word-Initial h- in Middle and Early Modern English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 130--67.

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2013-11-20 Wed

#1668. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (2) [adjective][syntax][french][latin][word_order][implicational_scale]

ε#1667. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (1) ([2013-11-19-1]) ³ԡѸˤˤơƻθֽϸűѸ줫鸫줿ֽѸǤϷ褷ƵǤϤʤäѸδֽ֤ͥȤʤä (Rissanen 209) Fischer (214) ˤȡLightfoot (205--09) ϡŪаޤƧޤ Greenberg ήθ෿˴Ťްռ (implicational scale) δ顤ƻ (Noun-Adjective) θοϡSOV (Subject-Object-Verb) θοϢưƤĤޤꡤSVO 夷ĤĤäѸǤƱ˷ƻ֤ȯãƤΤȤΤǤ롥SVOθȯãˤĤƤϡ#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ѸηƻθεҸߤ¤ꡤLightfoot ٤¤Ϥʤ㤨СSir Gawain and the Green Knight Ǥϡ8䤬ƻ֤Ǥꡤ֤򼨤Ĥ2Τ2/3㤬ΧˤȤޤͽۤȤꡤʸ걤ʸΤۤŪ¿ֽ򼨤ˡֽηƻϡե󥹸 "learned adjectives" (Fischer 214) Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ä (ex. oure othere goodes temporels, the service dyvyne) Ĥޤꡤ̾Ȥ碌ơɽ¿ϥե󥹸δɽäȹͤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥
Ѹˤ뤳ηϡѸˤ³Rissanen (208) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The order of the elements of the noun phrase is freer in the sixteenth century than in late Modern English. The adjective is placed after the nominal head more readily than today . . . . This is probably largely due to French or Latin influence: most noun + adjective combinations contain a borrowed adjective and the whole expression is often a term going back to French or Latin.


λȤƤϡa tonge vulgare and barbarous, the next heire male, life eternall ʤɤ󤲤Ƥ롥Ѹδ֤ˤθ礬षƤȤ礭ήϤĤθ (Rissanen 209 򻲾ȡˤǻŦƤ뤬ƥȥפġ̤˾ܺ٤ĴƤ椯ɬפ뤫⤷ʤεǤ⿨줿褦ˡե󥹸줬θͿƶϡ¤줿ϰϤˤƤǤϤ뤬ѸǤŪǤ롥ƻ֤ϡѸ˾塤̣ơޤȤʤΤǤϤʤ

Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.
Lightfoot, D. W. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-01-05-1]

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2013-11-19 Tue

#1667. ե󥹸αƶˤƻθֽ (1) [adjective][word_order][syntax][french][law_french]

ѸǤϡ̾ˡηƻ֤̾뤬̾θ֤ճ¿롥ƻθֽˤϰʲΤ褦͡ʼबǧ롥

(1) ̾ -thing, -body, -one: ex. something strange, nobody else, everything possible; cf. all things English
(2) all, any, every, Ǿȼ -able, -ible: ex. every means imaginable, the latest information available
(3) ե󥹸ʤɤαƶŪˡ: ex. the sum total, from time immemorial, the devil incarnate, bloody royal
(4) ̤ͭ̾ˡ: ex. Elizabeth the Second, Asia Minor, Hotel Majestic
(5) ȼäĹʤ: ex. a friend worthy of confidence, a meal typical of Japan
(6) ˡ˶ᤤ: ex. all the people present, the authorities concerned, the person opposite
(7) ưŪʬƻ: ex. the people arrested, the best car going
(8) Ĵоȡꥺδط: ex. America, past and present
(9) ¾δŪˡ: ex. on Monday next, for ten years past, me included, Poet Laureate, B flat/sharp/major/minor, Longman Group Limited/Ltd (UK), Hartcourt Brace Jovanovich, Incorporated/Inc (US)

ܤΤ (3) Υե󥹸αƶŪɽǤ롥Quirk et al. (Section 7.21) ˤС"institutionalized expressions (mostly in official designations)" ȤƼΤ褦㤬󤲤Ƥ롥

attorney general
body politic
court martial
from time immemorial
heir apparent
notary public
postmaster general
the president elect ['soon to take office']
vice-chancellor designate


ɽϴɽǤ뤫顤̾ʬϤ줺ʣΤ褦ˤߤʤƤ롥Ȥ櫓ˡΧѸˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) 򻲾ȡ
Ѹˤδä˽פʤΤϡQuirk et al. (Section 7.21) μǤ롥ꥶ٥īήԤˡȤ϶̣ŦǧĴɬפ

The postpositive adjective, as in the president elect and vice-chancellor designate, reflects a neoclassical style based on Latin participles and much in vogue in Elizabethan times.


ե󥹸αƶˤƻ֤ȤƤϥꥶ٥ī⤺äȿΤȻפ뤬ʬͭ "postposed 'mode' qualifier" ȸƤФ⤢ (Section 17.60)

Postposed 'mode' qualifier: Lobster Newburg
There is another French model of postposition in English that we may call postposed 'mode' qualifier, as in Lobster Newburg. Though virtually confined to cuisine (rather than mere cooking), it is moderately productive within these limits, perhaps especially in AmE. In BrE one finds veal paprika and many others, but there is some resistance to this type of postposition with other than French lexical items, as in páté maison, sole bonne femme. Nevertheless (perhaps partly because, in examples like the latter, the French and English head nouns are identical), the language has become receptive to hybrids like poached salmon mayonnaise, English scallops provencal.


Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2013-10-21 Mon

#1638. ե󥹸ȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥ󥰤ζ [french][latin][renaissance][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][reestablishment_of_english][language_shift]

ե󥹸Ѥȯϡ#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) Ǹ褦14Ǥ롥Υߥ󥰤ˤĤƤϡ#1205. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) #1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1]) εˤ褦ˡ󥰥ɤˤƱѸ줬ƤȽŤʤ롥ޤǥե󥹸줬ôäƤҲŪʵǽѸ줬ꤹ뤳ȤˤʤꡤǡȤ̤θäɬפȤʤäȤ롥ե󥹸äƤ󥰥ɤβ²ˤȤäƤϡѸؤθ (language shift) äƤȤ⤤ʡ#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ƥѤȯϡ#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1]) #1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ16Ⱦ濴ȤǤ롥Υߥ󥰤ϡޤǥƥ줬ôäƤҲŪʵǽȤ櫓⾰ʽʪθˤդ路ȤƤϰ̤򡤱Ѹ줬˸ꤷϤ᤿ȽŤʤ롥ͥ󥹤ˤ뿷μȯΤǡȤ̤θäɬפˤʤꡤѸɤĤɤۤɸǤƥ줫餽Τޤ޸äѤΤäΤ褦˥ƥǮޤ˹ޤä΢֤СΤȤޤǤ˿͡ΰŪʥƥѤǤȤ򼨺롥󥰥μͤδ֤ˡ̣ǥƥ줫ѸؤθؤäƤȤͤ롥
Ĥޤꡤե󥹸ȥƥ줫̸üѤκϰۤʤäƤϤΤΡ̹ȤơֱѸؤθءפ褦˻פ롥ǤΡָءפʸ̤ξ괹ǤϤʤޤ줬äƤҲŪʵǽ򡤱Ѹ줬ꤹ褦ˤʤäȤۤɤΰ̣ѤƤ롥Ŧ Fennell (148) ƶαԤɾ

As is often the case when use of a language ceases (as French did at the end of the Middle English period), the demise of Latin coincides with the borrowing of huge numbers of Latin words into English in order to fill perceived gaps in the language.


Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

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2013-09-27 Fri

#1614. Ѹ title Фƥե󥹸 titre ǤΤϤʤ [etymology][reduplication][consonant][phonetics][dissimilation][doublet][metathesis][french][sobokunagimon]

912ˡѤʵץʡǼΤ褦ʼ򤤤#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1]) ơƱ [r] [l] θؤ˴ؤǤ롥

uca 2013-09-12 02:50:55
ΥȥԥåstellaȱstarδطˤĤƿƤޤ˵˴ȤޤϡʩtitreȱtitleδطǤˤϤɤаޤäΤǤ礦ƥǤtitulusʤΤǡѲϤޤǥե󥹸ǤѲʤΤǤ礦йǤ


Ѹ title Фƥե󥹸ϳΤ titre Ǥ롥츻ҤȤȡĸ *tel- (ground, floor, board) ̤롥θ캬βýŷ (reduplication) Ȥ˰ĸ *titel- ƷƤꡤ줬ʸڤƥ titulus (inscription, label) ȯŸȤ롥ʿ̤Ĥ˹ΡפۤɤθáʸˡʸɽפʤɤθǤ˥ƥȯãƤΥƥϡťե󥹸 title ȤȯŸ줬ѸؼѤ줿Ф14νẢǤ롥űѸƱƥѤ titul ѤƤȤ顤Ѹ tītle ϡθűѸȯãΤȲ᤹ OED Τ褦Ω⤢롥ˤ衤ѸǤϰӤƸ츻Ū [l] ѤƤȤϳΤǤ롥
ȡե󥹸 titre [r] ϡե󥹸ˤʤФʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹե󥹸θ츻ŵʤɤˤĤäƤߤ¿ñ [l] > [r] ȵҤΤߤǡʾϤʤäͣ Klein ϡ"OF. title (in French dissimilated into titre)" ۲ (dissimilation) κѤη̤Ǥ뤳ȤŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ
Klein ʤ餺Ȥ⡤[r] [l] θؤȤСפĤϰ۲Ǥ롥#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1]) ǤȤꡤ۲ϡ̾ƱǶܤƤΤǤꡤΥ۲Ȥˤ񹳤롥㤨Сե󥹸ǤŵŪʰ۲ϡcouroir > couloir ϭ murtrir > multrir ʽĤˤΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ƱζܤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ĴŪưŤϡˤϤ롥[t] [l] ǤĴ֤ʷԡˤǤۤܰפƤΤǡĴ֤η֤äȤͤ뤫⤷ʤ[r] Ȥơե󥹸ȰۤʤĴ֤ [t] [l] ȤۤɰۤʤʤäϤǤꡤϤĴŪʰŪϤĤˤ۲ΤΤԵ§ñȯβtitle > titre ϡΤʤǤȤ櫓Ե§ñȯΥäȹͤʤ롥
㤬롥ƥ -tulus/-tulum θĸǡ[l] [r] ظؤ⤦1Ĥˡcapitulum > chapitle > chapitre 롥Ūˤϡե󥹸ˤϱѸ -tle ϻ¾ʤΤǡƯƤΤŪ -tle ͽۤȤˡ-tre бƤȤȤ⤷ʤդ̻ŪʲӶŪʬۤϥե󥹸ʻˡˤǤꡤǰʤ餳ʾˤɵǤʤ
ȤդäСѸ title 뤤ϥե󥹸 titre ˤ [l] [r] ʬۤߤƤߤȤ⤷ե󥹸Ǥϡ titulaire, titulariser Ǥϡƥ줫Ū [l] ݤäƤ롥󡤱Ѹ titular [l] Ǥ롥ѸαѸ titrate ũ, titration, titrable, titrant ϡե󥹸̾ titre äư titrer μѤǤꡤ[r] ɽ路Ƥ롥ޤѸ title Ʊ tittle ʾˤˤĤƤ⿨Ƥ22ŸǤꡤ־첻Ĺûκۤ򼨤ˤʤڥʸ ñ ȷε tilde ȸƤФ뤬ϥƥ titulus 2Ҳ3Ҳž (metathesis) ڥȤˤʤäƤ롥äơtitle, tittle, tilde ϡŪˤ̣Ūˤˤ䤫˷ӤĤ3ŸȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ

Klein, Ernest. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Dealing with the Origin of Words and Their Sense Development, Thus Illustrating the History of Civilization and Culture. 2 vols. Amsterdam/London/New York: Elsevier, 1966--67. Unabridged, one-volume ed. 1971.

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2013-09-17 Tue

#1604. ưʪȤɽñפ򼡤˻Ŧͤ [french][lexicology][loan_word][wallis][animal]

ε#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1]) ǡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ԥɤϻϼԤ17οؼԡʸˡ John Wallis äȤˤĤˤк۰ƤäҥȤ Wallis Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae ƲǤäƤߤȤ Wallis -> Scott -> Bradley ȹޤäƤä餷
βͿƤˤȡBradley Scott ɾˤϰդä٤ȤȤp. 362, note 20ˡ

δѻ Bradley 'acute remark' ȤۤƤ뤬ѸŪˤʤWamba θ򤫤 Scott 碌ƤΤǤ뤬ϻŪˤ1᤹ۤˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥cf. A. C. Baugh, A History of the English Language, p. 223 (note 1).


ΤȤäƤ뤫򤹤뤿ˤϡȤƤ Baugh ȡBradley ɬפ롥줾μǤǤбսäƤߤ

Readers of Ivanhoe will remember the acute remark which Scott puts into the mouth of Wamba the jester, that while the living animals---ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer---continued to bear their native names, the flesh of those animals as used for food was denoted by French words, beef, mutton, veal, pork, bacon, venison. The point of the thing is, of course, that 'Saxon' serf had the care of the animals when alive, but when killed they were eaten by his 'French' superiors. (Baugh and Cable 62--63)


The well-known passage in Scott's Ivanhoe in which this distinction is entertainingly introduced into a conversation between Wamba and Gurth (chap. 1) is open to criticism only because the episode occurs about a century too early. Beef is first found in English at about 1300. (Bradley 181, fn. 25)


Ivanhoe 12Υ󥰥ɤȤ뵳ʪǤ롥̩˸ŪˤС12ˤϤޤ beef ϱñȤƵϿƤ餺ΥԥɤϻǤ롤ȤŦΤ OED MED ˤȡ beef νФ1300ǯΤȤǤꡤλȥ줬Ƥ롥

The English Grammar / Ben Jonson; with explanatory remarks by Kotaro Ishibashi, Of the Orthographie and Congruitie of the Britan Tongue / Alexander Hume; with explanatory remarks by Tokuji Kusakabe, and Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae / John Wallis; with explanatory remarks by Shoichi Watanabe. A Reprint Series of Books Relating to the English Language. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Nan'un Do, 1968.
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2013-09-16 Mon

#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ [french][lexicology][loan_word][wallis][sound_symbolism][animal]

Ѹ˾ͭ̾ʡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) νŵˤĤˤ#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1]) εФơк۰鵮ŤʥȤ򤤤ʤ꤬ȤޤˡƤưʪϸαѸԤǤΥޥͤΤȤФˤʤäȤ W. Scott Ivanhoe ˰Ѥ졤ޤ H. Bradley The Making of Englishp.88ˤˤڤͭ̾ˤʤޤФ϶餯 J. Wallis Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae 裴ǡ1674ǯˤνʸȤƤ褦Ǥ͡
ȤȤǡWallis 1674ǯǤ򻲾ȤƤߤPrefatio ʽʸˤˡθڲս򸫤Ĥ뤳ȤǤ

Nec quidem temerè contigisse puto, quod Animalia viva, nominibus Germanicæ originis vocemus, quorum tamen Carnem in cibum paratam, originis Gallicæ nominibus appellamus, putà, Bovem, Vaccam, Vitulum, Ovem, Porcum, Aprum, Feram, &c, an Ox, a Cow, a Calf, a Sheep, a Hog, a Boar, a Deer, &c; sed Carnem Bubulam, Vitulinam, Ovinam, Porcinam, Aprugnam, Ferinam; Beef, Veal, Mutton, Pork, Brawn, Venison, &c . . . . (Wallis, Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae)


켣 (17) ƱβˤֱѸ˾ҾƤλŦǡʸ帽ޤǹ졤ꥹ˾ΰˤĤƤΡʷˤƼ˭ʥԥɤȤͭ̾ǤפȤäޤǤפ1699ǯ5Ǥ¾ץȤ1765ǯ6Ǥ˴ŤƲǤDzܤƤβɬɤǤ (p. 352)
ơWallis ˤĤƤϡ#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rules ([2010-07-22-1]) Ƿڤ줿ˤʤΤǡ17˳Ūͤȡ路ʸˡħñ˾Ҳ𤷤褦John Wallis (1616--1703) ϡ16Ф Cambridge ؤˤǤ˥ƥ졤ꥷ졤إ֥饤줬褯Ǥ1649ǯˤ Oxford ؤδؤζȤʤꡤʬ߽ФꡤʣǿδŪ󵯤ʤɡ¿ʱƶͿذʳνˤ褯̤ƤꡤˤĴؤʬ󤷤ΤǤ롥ޤ1662ǯ Charles II ˤǧĤ줿 The Royal Society ߥСǤ⤢ä
Wallis ͡ʬˤǽϡ˴ؤƤϡGrammatica Linguae Anglicanae (Oxford: Leon. Lichfield, 1653) ҤȤƸ줿ʸˡ˾塤𤲤Ǥꡤ1653ǯνǰʸ塤βǤ˽Ф뤳ȤȤʤä16ʸ塤Wallis ޤǤαʸˡϡͤ˱Ѹ򶵤ȤŪ뤤ϥƥʸˡγؽδäȤƤ䤬ǻǤꡤȯۤκˤϾ˥ƥʸˡäWallis 踫äơʸˡ򵭽ҤΤ˥ƥʸˡϤդ路ʤȤǧäƤѸʬŪʤȥƥŪʤȤΤ˶̤ƤΤǤ롥
αʸˡ˱ƶͿܤ⾯ʤʤ1ϤĴεҤϡ岻ؤλȤäƤ褤ʸΤ˶̤ΤΤδѻҤŰ٤ϡ H. C. Wyld ι⤤ɾޤʸˡ̤Ǥ⡤Ҥ shall will λȤʬΤۤˤ⡤ưʬࡤ䡤ط̾ˡʤʻ˰Ĺ롥ߤ˻ޤǸԤĤƤޤʤħ (sound symbolism) ˺ǽ˼ȤΤ⡤Wallis ä
餷ƥǽ񤫤줿ʸˡʤΤǸŵɤˤϼ궯ĩ路Ƥߤ

ʸ嵭2013/10/26(Sat)Wallis ˤĤơJean-Pierre Niceron (Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des hommes illustres dans la république des lettres. Vol. 43. Genève: Slatkine Reprints, 1971. 247--51.) 򻲾ȡ

켣 ԡˡʸˡI١ұѸʸꡡ4ҡ2010ǯ
The English Grammar / Ben Jonson; with explanatory remarks by Kotaro Ishibashi, Of the Orthographie and Congruitie of the Britan Tongue / Alexander Hume; with explanatory remarks by Tokuji Kusakabe, and Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae / John Wallis; with explanatory remarks by Shoichi Watanabe. A Reprint Series of Books Relating to the English Language. Vol. 3. Tokyo: Nan'un Do, 1968.

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