ե줬ѸͿŪƶȤСäǤΤǤ롥¾ɽֻˤ⾯ʤ餺ƶڤܤˤ¿ʤ˴ؤƤϡФХե줫μѤȤƸڤ벻Ǥ롥Görlach (337--38) ˤȡˤ5बǧ롥
(1) /v/ βDz (phonemicisation) űѸǤ [v] ϲ /f/ ΰ۲ˤޤΩǤǤϤʤäȤ(a) very Τ褦 [v] ĥեѸή(b) vixen Τ褦 [v] μѡ(c) over : offer ˸ñҲȽŻҲΩξü(d) of ˸̵ˤͭȤäŪװˤꡤ/v/ ǤȤΩƱȤ [z] ˤĤƤ롥(a) װ˴ؤƤХեαƶ뤳ȤǤ뤬/v/ /z/ ۲ȤƤϸűѸ¸ߤƤĺ˵ǽƤ̵ͭΩؤ礷ȤȤ館СηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡGörlach ϡѸηװ뤷Ƥ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפȡˡ
(2) /ʒ/ βDzβűѸǤΩǤǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Ѹ joy gentle θƬ /ʤ/ ȤƼ¸줿ΤǡѸǤ鵩ʲä/ʒ/ βDzϡmeasure ʤɤθǤ [-zj-] ͻ餦Ȥ礭βDzˤꡤηϤ /ʤ : ʒ ? ʧ : ʃ/ оȴطϤꡤǤեαƶŪǤʤ
(3) եѸ˴ޤޤ첻αƶǡ첻 /ɔɪ, ʊɪ/ ѸDzDz2Ĥä뤳ȤǡѸ첻ηϤϤμ줿ΤȤʤä
| -- | ɛɪ | aɪ | ɔɪ | ʊɪ |
| ɪʊ | ɛʊ | aʊ | ɔʊ | -- |
. . . it is significant that phonemes said to be derived from French survive only where they fill obvious gaps in the English system --- and some of these were stabilized by loans from English dialect . . . . (337)
¦פʤΤζפʤΤ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפεפ롥
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
[2012-08-15-1]ε³ԡѸɿͤδ֤ǥեαƶϤꤨ˱Ѹ줬Ƥ13ʹߡեο˻ߤ٤եñ콸ʸˡǤ褦ˤʤäդ鸫ȡեθضबФ褦ˤʤäȤȤϡ͡ΥեϤषƤڵǤȤ⤤롥
Rothwell ϡ13ȾФ Walter of Bibbesworth ˤñ콸 Tretiz de Langage ƱȾ T. H. Parisii Studentis ˤʸˡ Tractatus Orthographiae ޤࡤ15ޤǤΥե춵Ĵη̡ǤᤤʳǤ Tretiz ⡤͡ΥեϤοꤨɤȤRothwell ϡ13ޤǤˤǤ˥ե줬оݤθȤʤäƤƤ롥
Rothwell δäƤȡ[2012-08-15-1] Trevisa Polychronicon Ѥ¤ήԸΡֶספ˴ؤ뵭ҤɾѤäƤ롥ƱѤϡ14Ⱦ˥ƥΤ줬ե줫Ѹڤؤ줿¤ҤƤ뤬Rothwell ܤˤϡѸؤڤؤۤ٤äȤԼ˱Ǥ롥1ˤǤ˥եϤοꤨ餫äˤ⤫餺Ѹ줬ˤʤäΤ褦䤯λäȤΤ̯Ǥ롥John Cornwall Pencrich ʤɤ Oxford դȤϡѶŪʡֶספȤƥե줫ѸڤؤȤϡǤ˳δ̢֤䤷ƤǤѸȤƥμˡöŪ˵ĤФȤȤǤϤʤΰѤ˴ؤƤϡĤʶפɤ߹٤ǤϤʤ1ʾˤ錄äѤƤϡѸή¨Ʋ᤹٤Ǥ롤ȤΤ Rothwell (45) ν긫Ǥ롥
Rothwell ϡɤˤȤƤαѸȥեοबƳäӤƼĥƤ롥Ѹʸ˸Ѥ˴ؤ뵭ҤͤˤݤˤϡٿդɬפǤȤȤ⡤Ť˼ĥƤ롥ʸηѤ褦 (45--46)
After some two centuries of this dilution of Norman blood, it would indeed be strange if English (the language of the mother being the dominant factor in a child's early linguistic training) had not by this time established itself as the true vernacular of this country. In all probability the peasants in country districts had never used anything else. The claim that French remained in current vernacular use in England for centuries after the Conquest is based largely on the emphasis placed by historians --- literary, political, and legal --- on the great number of extant works in Anglo-Norman. Mere numbers of themselves, however, prove very little. Moreover, the fact that written documents of this nature survive in French does not guarantee that the majority of people used this language in speech and everyday life. The teaching manuals examined here would seem to indicate that French in later thirteenth-century England was on the contrary an acquired language.
Rothwell, William. "The Teaching of French in Medieval England." Modern Language Review 63 (1968): 37--46.
Ѹ˥ե줫Ѥ줿ñꥹȤϤɤαѸ˳ˤǺܤƤ뤬ܥ֥Ǥؤ˻ȤǤ褦˰ġäƤߤ
եѸδʰץǡ١Baugh and Cable (169--74, 177) ˴Ťƺ̣¾δ9ĤΥƥʬ (Miscellany; Fashion, Meals, and Social Life; Art, Learning, Medicine; Government and Administration; Law; Army and Navy; Christian Church; 15th-Century Literary Words; Phrases) 954Ĥθ礫ʤǡǼƥȥե顤ƥȤ10˼ФΤʲΥꥹȤǤ롥ΥꥹȤ˰ʤС
please, curious, scandal, approach, faggot, push, fierce, double, purify, carpenter
train, pullet, mustard, sugar, enamel, mackerel, sole, fashion, jollity, russet
pulse, color, cloister, pen, pillar, ceiling, base, lattice, cellar, sulphur
rebel, retinue, reign, duchess, allegiance, treaty, nobility, court, tax, statute
mainpernor, arson, judge, property, culpable, amerce, convict, bounds, innocent, legacy
arm, array, arms, soldier, chieftain, portcullis, havoc, brandish, stratagem, combat
incense, faith, abbey, passion, immortality, cardinal, friar, legate, virtue, convent
ingenious, appellation, destitution, harangue, prolongation, furtive, sumptuous, combustion, diversify, representation
according to, to hold one's peace, without fail, in vain, on the point of, subject to, to make believe, by heart, at large, to draw near
ѸˤեѸϡfrench loan_word ʤɤ¿εǰäƤäѸ˥եѸ줬̤˼Ѥ줿аޤȤμѤ®٤ˤĤơ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ڤӡ#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) ǵҤѤ®٤Ǥߤȡ13Ӥեѻˤ1ĤžȤʤäƤ뤬ǤϥեѤˤĤƲɤۤʤäƤΤBaugh and Cable (168--69) ˤꡤ줾λħ⤷褦
ΥޥȤ1250ǯޤǤΥեѸϡ(1) 褽900ȿʤ(2) Anglo-Norman βħ(3) ήο͡²Ȥ̤ܿΤ褦ˤʤäáȤ櫓̳ʸء˴Ϣä¿ȤƤϡbaron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel, juggler, largess; story, rime, lay, douzepers ʤɡ
1250ǯʹߤΥեѸħϼ̤ꡥ(1) 1250--1400ǯȯޤ1ȾΤ˱ѸˤˤեѸ4䤬ήʤѸ˸¤1Ķ줬ѸήߡΤ75%ߤˤޤǻĤ (Baugh and Cable 178) (2) ե¿ʤȤⴷƤή餬Ѹڤؤ (language shift) ݤ˻Ȥܤθä¿ϡѸθäǤɽǤʤǰФƥեѤȤ⤢äѸν٤㤤˥եѤȤȤ⤢äƤեˤѸȤ³ȤȤ⤢ä(3) ŪˤˡΧήԡʪҲ衤ݽѡ䡤ؤʬθä¿Τ褦ʶʬޤʤۤɤ˰Ūܶʸä¿ѤƤ롥
С1250ǯȤλϡïɤΤ褦ưǥեѤȤˤоŪǤȤȤBaugh and Cable (169) ϡ䤫Ƥ롥
In general we may say that in the earlier Middle English period the French words introduced into English were such as people speaking one language often learn from those speaking another; in the century and a half following 1250, when all classes were speaking or learning to speak English, they were also such words as people who had been accustomed to speak French would carry over with them into the language of their adoption. Only in this way can we understand the nature and extent of the French importations in this period.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸեϱѸθäƶڤܤޤֻˤƤαƶڤܤ֤ʤʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ礭ʤ
Ѹ˵äʸˡѲΤΤϡƿä̾졤ƻ졤̾졤ưζηϤϡξüʿѤˤάʤ줿ʸˡϤʤʤä礬SVOظ경ƤäΤ褦ʸˡѲ˥ե줬ľܤ˴ͿȤȤϤʤ
ˡɽ (idiom) ˡȤạ̈ǤǡեαƶʤβǽˤĤŦ뤳ȤϤǤ (Baugh and Cable, p. 167 15ȡˡե줬Ѹäʬ˵ڤܤƶȤ٤٤ʤΤȤơեαѸؤľŪʱƶ϶ϾǤ롥
ŪʱƶȤȤǤС[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפǼ夲եĴʤФʤʤեαʸˡؤαƶϡޤפȸθĤĬή߳˿ʹԤ뤿μҲŪˤ롥Baugh and Cable (167) ɾѤ롥
It is important to emphasize that . . . changes which affected the grammatical structure of English after the Norman Conquest were not the result of contact with the French language. Certain idioms and syntactic usages that appear in Middle English are clearly the result of such contact. But the decay of inflections and the confusion of forms that constitute the truly significant development in Middle English grammar are the result of the Norman Conquest only insofar as that event brought about conditions favorable to such changes. By removing the authority that a standard variety of English would have, the Norman Conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked. Beyond this it is not considered a factor in syntactic changes.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
[2009-08-22-1]ε#117. եѸǯʬۡפǡJespersen Koszal ˤ롤եѸήΨ̻ŪѲեѸ1314ȯޤ뤬λϤ礦ɱѸ줬ե줫뤲Ƥ椯Ǥ[2009-09-05-1]ε#131. Ѹפȡˡ츫ȡ̷⤹褦˻פ롥ˤĤơεǤϡ֥եȤƤ²Ѹ˾괹ݤˡ줫̤θäĤľ괹ȹͤйפȽҤ٤
⤦ܤҤ٤뤿ˡSchmitt and Marsden (84) Ѥ褦
Our records for the 11th and early 12th centuries are sparse, but it appears that the words entered quite slowly at first, came at a greater rate later in the 12th century, and then flooded in during the 13th and 14th centuries. One reason for this is that it was not until the 13th century that English was finally becoming established again as the language of administration and creative literature (replacing French), and many specialist terms and words to express new social structures and new ideas, unavailable in the native language, were now needed.
³ơBaugh and Cable (135) ꡥ
Instead of being a mother tongue inherited from Norman ancestors, French became, as the century wore on, a cultivated tongue supported by social custom and by business and administrative convention. Meanwhile English made steady advances. A number of considerations make it clear that by the middle of the century, when the separation of the English nobles from their interests in France had been about completed, English was becoming a matter of general use among the upper classes. It is at this time . . . that the adoption of French words into the English language assumes large proportions. The transference of words occurs when those who know French and have been accustomed to use it try to express themselves in English. It is at this time also that the literature intended for polite circles begins to be made over from French into English . . . .
Ѹե줫Ѹ˾괹 (language shift) äơ͡ϡƤǤ¿ΥեñȤƾ괹ȤȤǤ롥
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
1066ǯΥΥޥȤ餪褽1ȾλϡΥޥīӸ³Υץͥåī (Plantagenet) ν롥λϡΤϥե²Ǥ륤ɤβɤषեڤݻȳ忴äλ奤ɲȵ²θѤȡθѤǤФŪưϡѸˤͤݤˤյѸϥե٤ǤȤѤϡѸνդʤ뤤³ˤͶǼͳãʸѲ¥Ȥˤʤä[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפȡˡ
ǡθϼԤ˥եʸˤŻ뤷Ū˥ɡʱѸˤڻ뤷Ƥڵߤʤ롥12ΥɲΥեʸˤؤλľܡܤ˼¤Baugh and Cable (116--22) ˽äơ4ۤ褦
Henry I ϡ1100--35ǯ֤Τ17ǯ;եDzᤴΤȤ顤եŻλ餫Ǥ롥ϱѸǽϤϤäȤ롥
Henry II ϡ1154--89ǯĹ֤3ʬ2եDzᤴʤʤ Eleanor of Aquitaine ϡʥ˥եʸؤΥѥȥǤꡤѸϲʤä
Richard I ϡ1189--99ǯ֤ΤۤοɤںߤʤäѸѤȤϤʤȤߤʤƤ褤
1087--1100ǯ William II1135--54ǯ Stephen1199--1216ǯ John ˤĤƤϡѸäǽϤäϤ狼ʤ
Henry I 15Ⱦ Edward IV ˻ޤǤΥɲϡïͤȤƥɤǺʤʤä
12ΥɲˤϡơֱѸϡפϤʤäȸβȤϥɤˤƤäȤŪʽĤǤäȤդ٤Ǥ (Baugh and Cable 118, fn. 21) ̤㤱㤤ۤɡֱѸϡפʿŪ˾徺ȹͤ롥ѸΥɷαѸѤˤĤƤϡ#131. Ѹפε ([2009-09-05-1]) ǤƤΤǡȡ
ʤ13ˤʤäơ߰1216--72ǯ Henry III Ϥ餯ѸǤȻפ졤λ Edward I ʺ߰1272--1307ǯˤ̾Ū˱ѸȤäƤȸ (Baugh and Cable 137) Edward III Richard II ʤ14β⡤Ѹ (Baugh and Cable 148)
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ΥޥȰʸ塤ɤˤʩ2 (bilingualism) ȤʤäȤϡѸˤˤƼפǤʺϥƥѤˤĤƤϿʤˡѸΤߤñ (monolingualism) äȤˡǡȤƥեѤδȤȤϤɤȤ¿ѤȤˤޤߤΤʤԤˤȤäƤϡΤ⤷ʤѸˤμȤǤդФȡҲ𤷤ΤǤϤʤȤȿʹ롥θ̱²۸ˤΤ顤Τ褦˻פΤ
伫ȡ2Ѥ˴ؤϤ˳ΤǡΥɤθŪ˻פ⤫٤Τ˺롥̱²Ȥδؤ⡤ҲδؤˤƸȤ館ȡɤˤʩδط褯Ǥ褦˻פ롥
ΥޥȤλȤľλˤϡԤΥޥ͡ե vs Ԥ륤ɿ͡ѸפȤΩιޤäȤϴְ㤤ʤǤϡ̱²ȸ줬ʬӤĤƤ롥Фξ̱²κήʤˤĤ졤ʩѤ̤뼴̱²пϤȤ顤ҲؤȤؤȰܤäƤ12̤ơɤθϡˡ־ήե vs ֲήѸפȤΩιޤؤȰܹԤƤäΤǤ롥ܹԤͻҤʶ٤ˡñ㲽ƿСΤ褦ˤʤ֤եѤɽ魯ˡ

ήȤϤ12Ǥ֥Υޥϡήס֥ɷϡήפȤ褽ƤϤޤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥ʩλȤʬμ̱²пϤַϡפ顤ؤȤƤΡ־岼פ˰ܤä뤤ϡּҲפȹͤȡ䤹ˤĤơBaugh and Cable (114--15) Ѥ褦
For 200 years after the Norman Conquest, French remained the language of ordinary intercourse among the upper classes in England. At first those who spoke French were those of Norman origin, but soon through intermarriage and association with the ruling class numerous people of English extraction must have found it to their advantage to learn the new language, and before long the distinction between those who spoke French and those who spoke English was not ethnic but largely social. The language of the masses remained English, and it is reasonable to assume that a French soldier settled on a manor with a few hundred English peasants would soon learn the language of the people among whom his lot was cast.
Baugh and Cable ϳ̻ˤɾΤѸˤȤ櫓ΥޥȰʸѸμҲŪ˴ؤơҤϤäƤ롥
Ϣơ[2011-02-17-1]ε#661. 12ɿͤäդȽաפ⻲ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸˡեαƶǡѸŪʸǤ줿ꡤ֤줿ꡤѲ;ʤ줿ˤȤޤʤΥ٥ǤϤäȤ⸲ǤꡤեѸή椨˸űѸä¿Ѥؤɤޤ줿̾ˤĤƤƱȤ뤷ֻ¿ʬˤĤƤꡤΰ̣ˤƤ⤽ ([2009-09-01-1]ε#127. deer, beast, and animalפʤɤȡˡ
ޤΩʤȤǤϡˤĤƤƱȤȤŦ롥ʸ (238) ˤСѸǤϡǤǤ̾ -ness "action of A", "quality of A", "thing that is A", "place of being A" ʤɤι̣äƤꡤбեǤǤ -ity "quality of being A" ΤߤäȤѸˤʤȡ-ness "quality of being A" ΤߤؤỌ̇̄ꤷդ -ity "quality of being A" "aggregate of being A" ΰ̣碌Ĥ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤ̣ιȤ餹ȡ-ness -ity Ω줬žȤˤʤ롥оݸΰ̣ܤƤϡɬ⤳γäƤ餺ѸξȤ¿ǤäΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϤ-ness Ѹʹߤ˰̣ñ㲽ͭΰ̣ʤ顤Ĥˤ̾ȤŪĤΤߤȤʤä¡ʡʸˡ "grammaticalisation"ˤߤСʤȤ̣ϰϤȤǤϡˤ錄äơ˥ե -ity ˶ƤΤ褦
ˤѸȥեз褪ӵžݤȤɤߤʤͤƤΤϡ[2012-05-01-1]ε#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤פǽҤ٤ƻΰ̣ϰϤθˤ뺹ˤĤƤβǤ롥β֤
űѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
-ness -ity ΰ̣ϰϤΩ deer, beast, animal ΰ̣ξ붥ϡθΰ̣˴ؤñȯŪ礭ʸäȤ٥Ǥ⡤ʩϤ絬ϤʵžݤäƤΤǤϤʤ
忡ָѸˤ-ity-nessξ硽סؤȤФΡʸؤȸؤλߡ ԡҡ2012ǯ213--48ǡ
715ˤ俷ʹī6̤Ρ֥ɥӥ塼פɸεäEU ϱʩȤ3ȸ˻ꤷƤ뤬Ϥޤǽ˱ѸǽǤΤ֤ȤʤäƤ롥
2粤ˤ֤СϡѸȴϤˡʩλŪϰ̤ФäѸε®ȼʩŪϰ̤ϡȾ˸Ƥää2004ǯEUǤϡʩѸդ첤ʤ10쵤˲ȤˤꡤʩĬ֤äѰˤȡ1997ǯ˵𤵤줿ʸΤʸʩäΤ40.5%ǤꡤѸ45%äȤ2010ǯˤϡ7%77%ȤʤꡤѸΰŪͥ줿
ǶβͻƻǤ⡤ѸǥͥΩäƤ롥ԾؤαƶϤ礭θEUνѸǥ˾ήƤȤΤͳΤ褦
줬ФۤɡϤδĶ岡뤿ˡѥʹԤ롥ǸǤС2004ǯEU丽ߤEUƻʬŪ˱Ѹ岡ҲŪװȤʤäƤ롥
ۤ ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) פ˴ؤƤϡstatistics elf γƵȡ
Ѹäع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) ϤȤ뵭Ǽ夲ƤȥޥϼѸȤκϡ̣ˡ̯ʺȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿㤨Сư beat "to defeat, to win against sb" ǤΤФơեư vanquish "to defeat sb completely" Ǥ롥ޤư wet "to make sth wet" ǤΤФơեƻ줫ư moisten "to make sth slightly wet" Ǥ롥ưˤĤƤС֤κۤϡ¿ξ硤Ū˸ˤκ̵ۤͭǤ뤳Ȥ¿
ΤȤդߤСޥư줬ѤλʸűѸѸˤˤϡϼǤꡤɽϤΤǤСˤˤ걪ŪɽʤäȤȤˤʤ롥äʸؤʸΤˤ礭ä˰㤤ʤDonner (2) ϡΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
In a period of the language antecedent to the influx of Latin verbs that allow modern authors so readily both to designate an act and to characterize its quality within a single word, modal qualifiers are likely to play rather a more important role than they currently do in literary rhetoric, which largely avoids them . . . .
Ѹʹߡˡ (mood) ްդ䤬礭ʤäƤ뤳ȤϡKillie (127) ʤɤθڤƤ "adverbialization process" Ȥǧ뤬λˤ⡤Ȥϰۤʤ̣ˤƤǤϤ뤬嵭ưäϼ夵ȤδϢˤơϽפäȹͤ롥
ǻפФΤϡܸˤưϼ夵ȵ˭٤¸ưŪʤ¿ϴư֤פղäŪưǤ롥줬ѤܸǤϡҤνѸξƱͤˡɽϤ뤫ꡤŪĸ˰¸ʤäܸξ硤ŪĸȤơ줬۾ȯãƤȤϹΤƤ롥Ρ֥ס֥䥹ס֥ꥸס֥ץץס֥ȥȡס֥٥٥ư줬줿⤳εϰ仺ȤưѤ졤礹餷ưɽϤ䤦ȤƤϡŪ˸ƤΤ⤷ʤƱͤˡѸϥޥư̼Ѹ仺ȤưѤ졤礹餷ưɽϤ䤦ȤƤϡŪ˸ƤΤǤϤʤ
ϡDonner ƤȤꡤ"literary rhetoric" Ȥ쥸ˤƤΤͭʵ⤷ʤ䡤줹Ѹܸε¿ѤդʰݤͿͤʤǡˤɽ϶äۤɰŪʽ߽ФȤ⤢뤫ϡѸˤˤȤäƤ⡤ѸӤˤȤäƤ⡤ƥʥơޤȤʤ˰㤤ʤ
Killie, Kristin. "The Spread of -ly to Present Participles." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Mouton de Gruyter: Berlin and New York: 1998. 119--34.
Donner, Morton. "Adverb Form in Middle English." English Studies 72 (1991): 1--11.
ε#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1]) ǤϡѸʸˡ˾塤ťΥɸβ̤䤬礭⤷ޤοȡ̩ܤ˴ؤθ경ֻλѤγϡŪŪʣװΤǤꡤťΥɸȤθܿϡפǤϤ뤬Τ1ĤˤʤȤƤɬפ롥
쳰ŪװȤƤ⤦1Ĺͤ٤ϡեȤθܿǤ롥1066ǯΥΥޥʹߡɤˤѸϰ̤ϲűѸˤ¸ߤѸɸϼ졤դۤå줿ѸϡüԿǤߤХեⰵŪ¿äȤϳΤ ([2010-03-31-1])ҲŪˤϲäɽƤ褤θ塤Ѹˤ2Ķ֤ɬפäΤǤreestablishment_of_english) ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶȤƤϡäֻʤɸŪʤΤ¿ʾˡѸ줬ҲŪ˴뤳ȤˤʤäפǤ롥
̣ȤˡҲŪ˴졤ϲäȤˤꡤѸϤषȯŸ뤳Ȥˤʤä[2010-11-25-1]ε#577. Ѹ̩ʤ˱ɡפȡˡҲŪϰ̤ȤäƤ⡤ե¦θ쵬Ȥä褦ʼϹԻȤϤʤषͳ˱ˤ줿ɽۤŬڤʾäΤ褦ʾǡΥޥλޤǤˤǤ¾θˤꤢ٤ޤǿʤǤޤοϡڤʤʹԤ³뤳Ȥ줿ΤǤ롥رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ435֥Υޥͤȥե (74) ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤
ѸϤϲäλ¤ϱѸθѲʹԤƤ椯Τ乥ξͿξͤǤդɸबꡤ˼ҲŪʸҤտ路Ƥ¤ꡤϤñˤѤʤդɸϸ경ƯѲФϤȤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ޤѸϽ̱θȤƼ֤֤졤åǽԺߤΤʤ뤯ޤޤѲ뤲뤳Ȥ줿ɤˤɤѲƤïʸʤ䡤⤽ïؿ뤳ȤΤʤμ微ؤžΤ顤ѤѤޤޤʤȤʤäΤǤ롥
ơ54֤ʤޤष (99--100) ǡΤ褦ä
űѸθťΥɸȤܿȤʤäƸѸζϡѸ˥եˤäƱѸ줬ͤȤ줿椨ˡï˳뤳Ȥʤ߳˿ʹԤΤǤ롥ŪʥޥŪɺήťΥɸüԤȤܿեͥʼҲΤDZѸβͤ㲼ȡνװؤäƱѸ˾ΰѲΤǤ롥
##626,1077,1078 ˰³Rivarol Υեͥꡥε[2012-04-09-1] (3) ǡRivarol ˤȡեΡפȤϡޤηǡȴϢSVOθꤷ礽ΤΤǤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤ޤκ˵ΤǤСषѸΤۤǤȤȤŦϤδ顤Rivarol ɾ
ޤޤȤȤǤС̾졤̾졤ư졤ƻΤθˤƤ⡤ѸեΤۤޤμ¿եȸƤ֤ˤ뤫⤷ʤѸ٤жŪǤȤϤäƤ褤Ϣơ˥եñ줬ѤƤŪ褯ݤƤȤŦˤĤƤϡñ줬˼ѤˤϳƤϤޤ뤳ȤǤꡤե˸¤ääǤϤʤ
ˡSVOθꤷ硤Ȥ櫓1ΰ֤ˤĤƤ⡤ϥեõǤϤʤषѸˤ褯ƤϤޤ쵬§Ǥ롥ºݡ Rivarol ΰʬߤƤ⡤Lodge (24) λŦ褦, "C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté" que Ǥϼư줬֤Ƥ롥ƱͤˡĥäʸΤǤϡ"aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles" ˸褦ˡư֤Ϥ̤˸ (Lodge 26--27) ϡ"on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe" ֺǤѲ٤ư䤢ˡμʤѤƤθȤƤ̵̤ǤꡤθϾ¸ߤʤΤǤפȤ Rivarol μĥȤϴȿ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦 Rivarol ŪȽ뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݤȽϤʤƤ褦ǤöŤƤޤȡäȤ䤽äȤȿǤϤĤʤΤäȤΤǤ롥ԻĤʤΤϡեȤư͡ΤߤοäƤȤȤǤФޤǤΤѸüԤǤƱäƤԤʤʤˤäƤϸؼԤǤäݤޤƤޤäƤȤȤ (Lodge 25--26) Rivarol οäθŪȽϤ䤹Ȥ⡤ʤοä褦ˤʤäΤȤ䤤ˤϡӡȹȤȤҲŪʥץɬפˤʤäƤθȤƤϡΤ褦ޤǤɬפȻפ
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
Lodge, Anthony. "French is a Logical Language." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 23--31.
ε[2012-04-08-1]ʵڤ[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤáסˤ˰³Rivarol ̾¡ʸ Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français ʤ餶Υեˤ餺פطʤˤĤƤꡥRivarol ϡ¾ʼ˱Ѹƥˤ¾٤ơեΤɤΤ褦ʸħͥƤȹͤƤΤȯꤽ줾1ļ夲褦
(1) եȯϡե첻¿Ǥ褯Ĥ̥ե餫Ǥ롥̵ e ϡӤκǸοưӤ졤鷺Ĵ¤߽Ф (119)
(2) νƥθϱˤƤꡤ뤳Ȥ˼ѤƤեθϡʤȤֻϤ褯Ƚ̤Ǥ (102) Rivarol ϡä˱Ѹ˼ѤƤʤֻμΧäƤʤեñǰƬƤ롥˭٤äƥθޤȤȤƤäΤФơե϶ޤ˰¸Ƥ餺촴ȤʴطݤäƤ뤫ȤͤΤ褦Ǥ롥ƥ˸褦ʷ㤷ޤκѤϤष»ʤȤϡ (3) ˤطƤ롥
(3) եϡSVOθθˤäƳݤƤ롥SVOθϡľŪɬŪǡפꡤּפˤʤäƤꡤʹ֤Ρ־QפȡפˤäƤȤŪ֤ˡǤϤʤǮͥ褵ʤǤꡤեʳ¿θ줬ΰ˴٤äƤ롥ޤȯãƥʤɤϡ礬ꤷƤʤˡषΰ˴٤䤹
ʸɤǽΤäΤ̾ʸˤ "clair" Ȥϼ¤ΤȤSVOθΤȤˤۤʤʤΤǤ롥(2) ˤ (3) ˤϢޤηǡȸθȤȤǤСˤ⡤ѸΤۤեǤ롥䡤ѸϤ̤Ǥϰ²桤üäƤ[2011-02-12-1]ε#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language."פȡˡRivarol Ѹη˴̵ΤäȤϻפʤˡȯˤϼʤ
³뤬 Rivarol ̾ʸʸ̮碌ưѤƤʸ̮ΤλѤΤǤ롥
Ce qui distingue notre langue des langues anciennes et modernes, c'est l'ordre de la construction de la phrase. Cet ordre doit toujours être direct et nécessairement clair. Le français nomme d'abord le sujet du discours, ensuite le verbe qui est l'action, et enfin l'objet de cette action : voilà la logique naturelle à tous les hommes; voilà ce qui constitue le sens commun. Or cet ordre, si favorable, si nécessaire au raisonnement, est presque toujours contraire aux sensations, qui nomment le premier l'objet qui frappe le premier. C'est pourquoi tous les peuples, abandonnant l'ordre direct, ont eu recours aux tournures plus ou moins hardies, selon que leurs sensations ou l'harmonie des mots l'exigeaient; et l'inversion a prévalu sur la terre, parce que l'homme est plus impérieusement gouverné par les passions que par la raison.
Le français, par un privilège unique, est seul resté fidèle à l'ordre direct, comme s'il était tout raison, et on a beau, par les mouvements les plus variés et toutes les ressources du style, déguiser cet ordre, il faut toujours qu'il existe; et c'est en vain que les passions nous bouleversent et nous sollicitent de suivre l'ordre des sensations : la syntaxe française est incorruptible. C'est de là que résulte cette admirable clarté, base éternelle de notre langue. Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français; ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin. Pour apprendre les langues à inversion, il suffit de connaître les mots et leurs régimes; pour apprendre la langue française, il faut encore retenir l'arrangement des mots. On dirait que c'est d'une géométrie tout élémentaire, de la simple ligne droite, que s'est formée la langue française, et que ce sont les courbes et leurs variétés infinies qui ont présidé aux langues grecque et latine. La nôtre règle et conduit la pensée; celles-là se précipitent et s'égarent avec elle dans le labyrinthe des sensations et suivent tous les caprices de l'harmonie : aussi furent-elles merveilleuses pour les oracles, et la nôtre les eût absolument décriés. (112--13)
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
[2011-01-13-1]ε#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤáפǡRivarol (1753--1801) Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française (1784) ǽҤ٤ͭ̾ Ce qui n'est pas clair n'est pas français ʤ餶Υեˤ餺פŪطʤ⤷ϡؤδؿ餤СΥեȥե괬衼åѤξȤꡤѸȤΥ饤Хطꡤ̱²ȤȤҲŪꡤˤޤĤäεήۤꡤ̵ͥͭʤɤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤʤȤƤΤ⤷äƤʤ
Rivarol ϡߤºݤˤեνɲ©ҤȤޤ줿Ȥ롥ɸեƥѥ˾ʸɮϤΤǥ٥ǥߡηʸ˱礷ΤȤΤ Discours äեüԤäԤɸեδȤΩ夬äȤ̣
Rivarol θʸɤǤߤΤȤĥΤۤȤɤϸŪˤäƻΥǤ롥Rivarol ˤȡˤüԤȤεʬӤĤ (la génie) ꡤˤˤäƷƤΤǤϤ뤬αƶƤ뤫⤷ʤ (89--90) եˤ "la politesse et la grâce" (94) äƤꡤեˤ⤳줬äƤʤѸˤäƤʤˡΤ褦ʸѤϸŪˤϼ줬ȤƤʤäߤǤ⤳μθˤޤĤäϲäƤȤϸ
Rivarol ΥեʤȥեˤξȤλϡ¾Υ衼åѤμӤʤե줬ĥȤˡǤ롥ƥ졤ꥷ졤Ѹ졤ꥢ졤ɥĸ졤ڥʤɤоݤ˻ФƤ뤬ͽۤȤꡤǤ饤Х뤷ƤΤϱѸȥƥǤ롥˰Ѥ̾ʸˤϡߥǤĤʤäȾʬ롥Ce qui n'est pas clair est encore anglais, italien, grec ou latin. ʤ餶ΤȤСѸ졤ꥢ졤ꥷ졤뤤ϥƥǤ (113) ʤߤˡ˥ɥĸ줬ޤޤƤʤΤϡ (99) Τ褦ˡʸα褬٥ǥߡǤ뤳ȤθȻפ뤬⤦1ĤͳϥɥĸƼ夲ɬפǧʤäȤȤǤϤʤRivarol ϥɥĸʤȥڥˤˤĤƤʸκǽǴñ˸ڤƤ뤯餤ǡ⤽եФ饤ХȤϤߤʤƤʤä롥
ǤϡRivarol ϱѸƥӤƥեΤɤΤ褦ͥƤȤߤʤΤƸħ̱ʸءʸΤ˰ĤƵƤս꤬ʤʤ줽ΤΤܤս⤢ꡤκϸäοĺȤ⤤롥Ūˤϡεǡ
Rivarol. Discours sur l'universalité de la langue française. Ed. Hubert Juin. Paris: P. Belfond, 1966.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
ѲϤ˹äƤ椯ͻҤˤĤơȾ (the wave theory; Wellentheorie) ̾ΤȤˡĤλƤʡ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])ˡѲζǤϤʤζۤƱͤ˹äƤ椯ǧƤ롥褯ΤƤΤϡեȯͤ uvular r ʸ r; IPA [ʀ]ˤγǤ롥
ȥåɥ (189--99) ˤС16ޤǤϥ衼åѤθǤ r ȯϡꥢ졤졤åȥαѸŵŪ˹ԤʤƤ褦Τդ뤨ƤäȤ17ˤʤäƥѥξήΥեˤ uvular r Ϥ衼åѤΰ⤽θ¤줿Ҳ餫ȯήԤϡ줫300ǯδ֤衼åѤιΰعäߤǤϡեȥɥĸǤ϶ܤۤȤɤο͡ˤäơޤΰǥޡΤۤ衤ǥȥΥ륦ΰǡuvular r ԤʤƤ롥ɥĸؤϹäƤʤȥåɥ (189) ϿޤǺܤ褦

ȾäɤȽȤʤ̳Хȳ̤Ϥ礦褦˿ʤߡä˽ФгϩǥǥʥȾüŤΤȤȤưפ˿¬Ǥ롥
ʤɸŪʱѸ r ϡIPA Ǥ [ɹ] ɽܶ (post-alveolar approximant) 뤤̵³ (post-alveolar frictionless continuant) Northumberland Durham ʤɤΥǤ uvular r ʹ롥
P. ȥåɥ ظȼҲ١ȽŹ1975ǯ
221դ Le Monde ε ˤȡFillion ϡƱդǡʸˤ̤ηɾ mademoiselle ά Mlle ˤǤ뤫Ѥʤ褦ģ伫ΤãηɾΤԻѤˤĤƤϡǯ9˳ưΤ Osez le féminisme ! les Chiennes de garde ܤ˿Ƥꡤ줬¸ˤʤ롥ϡ衤ŵŪ˴դƤɾΤǤ madame ΤѤηɾΤȤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǤϡMrs. Miss ˺ݤ Ms. ʤ뿷ɾΤѤ褦ˤʤäѸȤϻ𤬰ۤʤ롥
Ѹ Ms. ˤĤƤϡ[2011-10-09-1]ε#895. Miss ϲξάפƬ˾줿̤ꡤǯǤϸʸǤΤ褦˸褦ˤʤäοɾΤȯȼƤάˤаʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥Ms. ϡ1960--70ǯΥꥫǤνưκݤǮ˿侩줿Ѹ˽Ƹ줿Τϡ¤ΤȤưΩ1950ǯνǤ롥ӥͥʸʤɤǡͤνδ̤äդ٤ΤˡŪ¤줵졤Ѥ줿Τ餷줬˱ưȤˤäô夲줿줿ϼҲŪФŨդäƸ줿ܵؤǼҤ˽ʿˤǤФƤ椯˽äơ˼Ƥä
ꥫȯ줿 Ms. λѤϡϢǤ1973ǯѤ줿ꥹǤϽ٤줿Romaine (53--54) ˤȡ1998ǯλǡThe New York Times Mrs Miss λѤƤThe London Times Ǥä˻𤬤ʤФޤѤ³ƤޤThe Linguistic Society of America ϥɥ饤Committee on the Status of Women in Linguistics ΩʤɤThe Linguistic Association of Great Britain ˽ʿˡؤβƤݤ˴ؤPCɽ˴ؤ뤫ꡤŪˡƤϳŪǤꡤꥹ䤽¾αѸϰ٤ƤꡤݼŪȤޤŪˡԽˤѹϤޤǽȤФξ˱ƶڤܤˤMs. PCɽäȤФؤοƩ٤
Ѹ (Miss) ɥĸ (Fräulein) ̤ηɾΤԻѤȤʤ뷹ꡤϢ¾θŪؤ⤽ˤٻƤȤŪʾ餹Сե mademoiselle ԻѤϤ1960--70ǯ˥ꥫ Ms. ȿȯȤȤϡ㤦
Ms. ˤĤ The American Heritage Dictionary Usage Note ǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡ"Some women prefer Miss or Mrs., however, and courtesy requires that their wishes be respected." Ȥոˤ⼪ɬפϤȹͤ롥ԶɽˤߤС衼åѽǤܸǤ⡤зɸ줫зɸء뤤 power Ż뤫 solidarity ŻؤήƤ롥ν̤ȤơΤΤ㤷ɾΤ˸ǼɬפϤʤνɤƤФ줿Ƥ¦ɤƤӤȤξԤ negotiation ˷ޤäƤɾΤʤСMs. Ǥ Mrs. Ǥ Miss Ǥ⤫ޤʤȻפޤˤҤ٤ȤФäդȤΤΰ㤤 formality ΰ㤤ˤäƤ⡤ѡԻѤ٤ΰۤʤΤ¤Τ褦
Ϣơ[2009-10-16-1]ε#172. ƤӤȤƤ Mr, *Mrs, Missפȡ
Romaine, Suzan. "Introduction." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
ܸδȤʸηϤġˤðۤ1Ĥˡɤߤȷɤߤζ¸롥¿δȷȤޤäۤʤȯбƤꡤˤäƤϲɤߤˤϸⲻײȤơӵܡԵӡˤ̤졤ɤߤˤϻʤɤޤʣɤߤб뤳Ȥ롥1Ĥʸ˸ߤ˴ϢʤʣβƤƤ褦ʸηϤϡȤɤ⡤Ǥܸδ餤ʤˤ̤С (Sumerian) ܸʸˤβȷ2ɤߤǧ줿ˤʸηϤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
δðϡȷηŪäƤȤˤΤǤäơȯŪˤǤбѸˤ褦ֻȯδطߤ롥ϡƥθΤޤޤֻ뤤Ͼά줿ֻǼѤǡ(1) ƥȤȯ뤫Ƭ (acronym) ȤȯʳͲɤߤˡ뤤 (2) Ѹɤ߲ơơȯ뤫ʷɤߤˤɤ줬ǧ뤳Ȥ롥Τᤤʲ (146--48) 롥
| ɽֻ | ƥʲɤߡ | Ѹɤ߲ʷɤߡ |
| cf. | confer, /siː ˈɛf/ | (compare) |
| e.g. | exempli gratia, /iː ˈʤiː/ | for example |
| etc. | et cetera, /ˌɛt ˈsɛtərə/ | and so on |
| i.e. | id est, /ˌaɪ ˈiː/ | that is |
| viz. | videlicet, /vɪz/ | namely |
| vs. | versus, /ˈvɜːsəs/ | against |
| ɽֻ | ƥʲɤߡ | ʩɤ߲ʷɤߡ |
| 1o | primo /primo/ | premièrement |
| 2o | secundo /səgɔ̃do/ | deuxièmement |
| 3o | tertio /tɛrsjo/ | troisièmement |
| id. | idem /idɛm/ | la même |
| N.B. | nota bene /nɔta bene/ | note bien |
| op. cit. | opere citato | à l'ouvrage cité |
[2011-11-30-1]ε#947. Ѹֻפǡmarginal preposition ȤƵѸֻ1Ĥ save 롥Υ졼٥ȤƤʸ줢뤤Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿?ơפΰդǡʸϤȵ롥
They knew nothing about her save her name.
Answer the last question save one.
Every man she had ever loved, save her father, was now dead.
No one, save perhaps his wife, knows where he is.
All that remained to England in France, save Calais, was lost.
ֻϡָ̱츻Ūư save ȴϢŤ뤳Ȥ뤬ºݤˤϸťե sauf, sauve 1300ǯμѤǤʤäȤ⡤ư save ȸ츻Ū˴Ϣ뤳ȤϳΤǤˡθťեñ "keeping safe or intact" ۤɤΰդηƻǡ켫Ȥϥƥƻ salvus ñåʷ salvō 뤤 salvā ؤΤܤ롥salvus "unharmed, sound; safe, saved" ΰդǤꡤ㤨 salvo iure ȤС"law being unharmed" ˡ˰ȿˤۤɤɽ路åʹʸǤꡤѸǤΩʬ칽ʸ롥
ֻ save ϤΤ褦ͳǤ뤫顤衤³̾Ϸƻ save ƱʤǤ롥ΤȤ顤̾礬гʤǤϤʤʤǸ뤳ȤǤٹ (270--71) ˤСShakespeare ޤǤϼʸ³Τ̤ۤä褦 (ex. I do entreat you, not a man depart, / Save I alone, till Antony have spoke. (Julius Cæsar, III. ii. 65--66.) ʹߤϡŪʤֻ᤹̾Ȥưռ褦ˤʤꡤߤ˻äƤ롥
save ˤϡ餫³ȤƤˡ⤢ꡤߤǤ save that Ȥ Little is known about his early life, save that he had a brother. Τ褦㤬롥ɬ that ȼʤŤˡǤϡľ˸֤;̾줬ʤгʤˤäơ³줫ֻ줫̤줿櫓ǤꡤξʻǤ as, but, except, than ʤɤ롥ٹ (271) ϡֺǤ save ϤμгʤȼʤФʤʤĥκϤʤפȤƤ롥
ѸˤĤƤ MED "sauf (prep.)" ڤ "sauf (adj.)", 7 ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
[2012-02-03-1]ε#1012. ˤѸ줫եؤαƶפǿ줿褦ˡե줬ñѸȤƼϤΤϡβǽȴˤС18ˤʤäƤǤ롥ߤǤեǤϱѸήؤȿȯФʤɤƤ뤬18ˤϤषꥹؤο줬ä
18ȤСեϰ̤ϥ衼åѤιݼҲΤʤǺǹĬãƤꡤ[2011-03-06-1]ε#678. ƥ衼åŪ18ΥեѸפǤߤ褦ˡѸؤŪʥեñ줬ήǤΥեαɸפСեΥꥹؤοȤ̷⤷ɽΤ褦ʹ뤬1ĤȿưȤƤϳΤ¸ߤΤǤ롥ꥹ衤۹̣ȡ͢ΰʤɤǼѸ줬롥ۡॺå (147ˤꡤĤ褦
bill, budget, comité (< committee), corporation, excise; jockey, punch, redingote (< riding coat), rosbif (< roast beef), whist; albatros, antilope, chimpanzee, tomahawk; bushel, chelin (< shilling), drawback, dumping, macadam, whiskey
ѸˤǤϡ֡줫ѸؤμѸפΤǮƤܥ֥Ǥ loan_word ε¿ꤢƤ#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) #201. ѸμѸεȳ (2) ([2009-11-14-1]) εɽƤ롥ä˱Ѹ줬ŪʱƶϤĤ褦ˤʤäʹߤˤĤƤϡֱѸ줫ؤμѸפȤѸ˼Ȥ¦ˤɬפȻפѸ줫ŪʱƶθˤǤϡ㤨СܸˤʤɤǤϡѸ줫μѸˤĤƸ椵ƤΤǤ̤⤦ٱѸ¦ᤷƤäơѸˤȤ礹뤳ȤǤФ褤ȹͤ롥ϱѸûˤˤϤʤꤨʤѸιŪʱƶϤȤˤϤʤ롥äȤ⡤夫鸽ؤȻ夬ˤĤ졤ġθظ̤˸ŪƶͿȤϡŪ˰礷ƱƶͿȤޤ顤ѸˤȤƤ绨ĤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ܸäñˤĤƤϡ塤ˤƤ椭
U. T. ۡॺA. H. å إեˡ١罤ۡ1974ǯ
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