hellog 饸20ȤʤޤѤʵȤ⡤äȶä⤷츻Ǥֵҿ͡פ̣ guest ȡּ͡פ̣ host ϡʤȿո (antonym) ǤʤƱ츻ʤΤǤ2Ÿ (doublet) ȤޤˡԻĤˤĤơ4ǯȤѸεˤΤͤǤĸ (Proto-Indo-European) λˤޤ̤äƲ⤷ޤʲβɤ
2Ĥαñ夲ˤޤظˤϤ褽5ǯˤ錄ˤäΤǤо줹⡤ĸ˻Ϥޤꡤƥ졤ե졤ޥĸ졤ťΥɸ̲ˡƱѸ¿̤Ǥ
츻ؤ˸ؤ̥ϤϡΤ褦˲Ǥʤ褦ˤߤñظˤƤ뤳ȤǤƱ츻줫顤Ĺˤ錄벻Ѳ̣Ѳ̤ơ츫ȴطΤʤ¿ñ줬Ť뼰ƤȤ¤⡤ʤȤⶽ̣ȤǤˤĤơܤ##170,171,1723,1724εå
ѸûˤˤơեѸήΥԡѸˤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ΤȤϡ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1]) ʤɤΥդСưפǤ
OED Ƥ Middle English: an overview "Borrowing from Latin and/or French" ɤǤȤȴϢƶŪʿƤΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
By 1500, over 40 per cent of all of the words that English has borrowed from French had made a first appearance in the language, including a very high proportion of those French words which have come to play a central part in the vocabulary of modern English. By contrast, the greatest peak of borrowing from Latin was still to come, in the early modern period; by 1500, under 20 per cent of the Latin borrowings found in modern English had yet entered the language.
եѸήΥԡѸǤꡤƥѸΥԡ϶ѸäȤˤĤƤλŦϤ̤ܤΤϡѤκǽ˵Ƥ40%ȤǤ롥ѸäˤեѸΤ40%ѸμѤǤꡤ⸽ߤŪʸäȤƳƤȤСλ˼Ѥ줿եñϡųʤ⸽ߤ˻ޤͭݤ³ƤΤ¿ȤȤǤ롥¸Ψ⤤ȸäƤ褤
ФƥѸλ¸Ψϡǰʤɽ蘆ƤʤեΤ⤺ä㤤ȹͤ롥ԤǤʤ顤ߤޤǻĤäƤʤʤ뤤ϾʤȤͭѤʸȤƻĤäƤʤˤΤ¿ΤǤcf. #478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])#1409. Ĥä졤ä ([2013-03-06-1])ˡѸˤˤơΥեȥƥθŪƶκۤ϶̣
ȴϢơ#3180. ˹ٸ̤ƤեƥѸ ([2018-01-10-1])#2667. Chaucer Ѥä10--15%եѸ ([2016-08-15-1])#2283. Shakespeare ΥƥѸäλ¸Ψ ([2015-07-28-1]) ʤɤ⻲Ȥ줿
ɤѤƤեѼȸƤ֤٤ȤˤϡĹ餯ƬǺޤƤѸˤǤ⡤ѼˤĤƤФиڤ뵡뤫ܥ֥εդƤ륿ȤƤ (anglo-norman) ѤƤʸǤ Anglo-French θƾΤ⼫ͳ˻ȤäƤ
ε#4133. OED ˤѸ˳ ([2020-08-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤1 Middle English: an overview ɤǤȤ"A multilingual context" ꤹΤȤɸؤθڤĤ
What to call the French used in Britain in this period is a difficult scholarly question. Traditionally the term 'Anglo-Norman' has been used, notably in the title of The Anglo-Norman Dictionary. In fact, the present-day editors of that dictionary note that in many ways 'Anglo-French' is a more appropriate term, since it better reflects the wide variety of inputs shown by the French used in medieval Britain. OED3 retains the term 'Anglo-Norman' largely to maintain consistency with the title of The Anglo-Norman Dictionary.
Ѥ̤ꡤOED ˤȤƤϴ¸ The Anglo-Norman Dictionary θƾΤȰפ Anglo-Norman ѤȤȤΤ褦⿴ΤȤѼؤΥץåȤ Norman French ˸¤ʤȤ顤äȹ Anglo-French ȸƤŬڤȤϹͤƤ餷
ľ OED θäƤߤ褦ޤ Anglo-Norman "The variety of the French language spoken and written in medieval England after the Norman Conquest." Ȥ롥̾̾ȤƤ1818ǯƻȤƤ1735ǯ˽ФƤ뤬ޤǶˤʤäƤθƾΤǤ롥
Anglo-French äƤߤȡ"The variety of the French language spoken and written in medieval England." Ȥ롥ۤȤȰ㤤ʤ̾̾ȤƤ1862ǯƻȤ1884ǯ˽ФƤ롥Τˡνפä
Anglo-French developed after the Norman Conquest of 1066, and remained current in some functions until the mid 15th cent. The term 'Anglo-Norman' has traditionally been used in the same meaning (cf. Anglo-Norman n. 2), but 'Anglo-French' is preferred by many scholars since this variety was not solely based on Norman French. French in later legal use is normally distinguished as Law French (see law-French n. at law n.1 Compounds 3).
Ϥ OED ⿴ Anglo-French θƤ̾ΤۤäƤ褦˻פ롥Law French Ȥ̤λΤռƤ (cf. law_french) ̾ϡ˼ҲŪȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿#3558. ȸ̾ε ([2019-01-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ε#4108. boy, join, loiter --- 2첻μŪʡ ([2020-07-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ2첻 /ɔɪ/ Ūܤ٤طʤͭƤ롥ˤĤơ⤦겼Ƥߤ
Ѹ /ɔɪ/ ϢʤѸǤμ¸ϡ [oi] 뤤 [ui] ä餬Ū˸ /ɔɪ/ ذܲƤä櫓äѸ [ui] ˤĤƤϥڥȤδطǤⶽ̣Ūطʤ롥Minkova (269--70) Ѥ褦
The original [ui] has an unusual history in that, like the more recent history of /h-/ . . . , it is one of the rare well-documented instances of a sound change in progress inhibited and partially reversed by the influence of spelling. Many of the words with PDE <oi> --- loin, boil, coy, oil, join, point, choice, poison --- had variant pronunciations with [oi] and [ui], the latter commonly from Anglo-Norman. The 'normal' development of [ui], involving lowering and centralisation of the first element of the diphthong . . . , was towards [əi], which in the seventeenth and into the eighteenth century was also a possible realisation of historical [iː]. That the two etymologically distinct entities were treated as identical is shown by rhymes like loin: line, boil: bile, point: pint as late as the second half of the eighteenth century. In spelling the [ui] > [əi] words alternated between <ui> and <oi>. Eventually the centralised pronunciation [əi] for historical [ui] was abandoned in favour of [ɔi], no doubt supported by the spelling and pronunciation of the majority of the loanwords in that group.
Ѹ [ui] ̾βѲΥ롼Ȥ˾äƤСǤ [əi] ȤʤäƤϤǤꡤºݤˤʤäƤΤʹߡֻ <oi> ȤݤƤȡ <oi> [ɔi] ¿ñˤƳΩƤȤ顤οͰŪ [əi] > [ɔi] ȤѲ߽Ф줿Ȥפˡֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) Ǥ롥
Ū /a(u)NC/ βϢäƤѸϡɸ㼨̤ꡤѸˤ4ȯʤɤˤ롥[ɔː ? ɑː], [ɑː ? æ(ː)], [æ(ː)], [eɪ] Ǥ롥4֤ζ̤ϡĶˤꡤƤ٤ޤǤϼѤΥˤ롥Ū /a(u)NC/ 줬ɤäƤ4ĤΥ롼ȤޤȤ Minkova (241) ˤɽ¿Ѥǰʲ˵褦
| Source | Output | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| /aNC/ (AN <-aunC>) | [ɔː ? ɑː] | gaunt, haunt, laundry, saunter |
| /aNC/ (OFr <-anC>) | [ɑː ? æ(ː)] | aunt, grant, slander, sample, dance |
| /aNC#/ | [æ(ː)] | lamp, champ, blank, flank, bland |
| /aNC (palat. obstr.)/ | [eɪ] | danger, change, range, chamber |
Geeraerts ˤ롤Ѹˤǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Υܤ⤯ͤꡥ sore Ūʰ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ˤơmetaphor, metonymy, prototype ʤɤǧθŪѸ졦ǰȶ㤬ʷƳƤ롥
Ѹ sore θűѸǤ sār ϡꤹǤ¿äűѸˤƱ prototypical ʸϡ٤ξ夫餫 "bodily suffering" Ū줷ߡˤäθ濴Ȥơ⤿餹ȤƤγŪ "bodily injury, wound" ʽˤŪ "illness" µˤθȥ˥ߡˤȯãƤ"emotional suffering" Ū줷ߡˤθ⡤ΤؤΥե̤ȯãƤΥեطʤˤϡ츻Ūˤ̵طǤ뤬Ū sorrow ʸűѸ sorgˤȤϢۤѤƤ
űѸ sār 嵭¿ϡʲγơθǤʸˤ꼨 (Geeraerts 622)
(1) "bodily suffering"
þisse sylfan wyrte syde to þa sar geliðigað (ca. 1000: Sax.Leechd. I.280)
'With this same herb, the sore [of the teeth] calms widely'
(2) "bodily injury, wound"
Wið wunda & wið cancor genim þas ilcan wyrte, lege to þam sare. Ne geþafað heo þæt sar furður wexe (ca. 1000: Sax.Leechd. I.134)
'For wounds and cancer take the same herb, put it on to the sore. Do not allow the sore to increaase'
(3) "illness"
þa þe on sare seoce lagun (ca. 900: Cynewulf Crist 1356)
'Those who lay sick in sore'
(4) "emotional suffering"
Mið ðæm mæstam sare his modes (ca. 888: K. Ælfred Boeth. vii. §2)
'With the greatest sore of his spirit
Τ褦ˡűѸ sār'' ϡޤ (1) "bodily suffering" θ prototype ȤĤġȥ˥ߡեˤä (2) -- (4) θŪѤƤȤäȤ³Ѹ1297ǯˡޤ "bodily suffering" ̣ pain Ȥեñ줬ѤƤ롥Ĺ餯ƱôƤ sore ϡο pain ˤäƼϰϤå뤳Ȥˤʤäɤ줿櫓ǤϤʤprototypical ʸ (1) "bodily suffering" (2) "bodily injury, would" ؤȥեȤ뤳Ȥˤ̿ΤǤ롥ơԤθѸ sore prototype Ȥʤä¾θषθŪʾΤ˳ΩΤ϶Ѹˡ
Geeraerts, Dirk. "Cognitive Linguistics." Chapter 59 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 618--29.
<ou> /ʌ/ ϡƤߤʤʤȸƤʤʤʤΤĴ٤ƤߤɸΤ褦˰ƳŪʸ줬ФƤ롥country, couple, courage, cousin, double, flourish, nourish, touch, trouble ä롥
ζϡեѸǤ뤳Ȥťե줫鸽ե˻ޤǡθǤ <ou> /uː/ ȤбطΩƤѸǤѸʹߤ˥եñ줬̤˼ѤȤȤˡֻȯбط͢뤳ȤˤʤäѸ /uː/ ϡθ塤ȯŸ첻 (gvs) ˤ /aʊ/ ȤʤϤǤꡤºݤ˸ѸǤϤƤ <ou> /aʊ/ ȤʤäƤ (ex. about, house, noun, round, south) Ѹ /uː/ 餫Τäû첻 /u/ ȤʤС첻ܤˤष岽 (centralisation) /ʌ/ Ȥʤ롥κݤֻϢưѲʤäˡȤʤäƤ <ou> /ʌ/ δطޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä첻岽ˤĤƤϡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) ȡ#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1]) εȡˡ
<ou> /ʌ/ 嵭ñ췲ϡѸǤ <o> <u> ֤뤳Ȥ¿ <ou> ֻϾ٤ƤƳ줿褦 (Upward and Davidson 146) Υߥطʤ꤫ǤϤʤ⤷ռŪʥեֻؤβȤСθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥʤ롥
ʤǤ <ou> /ʌ/ λȤ southern 롥ͭ̾ Blount դäƤѤȤƤϡꥫѸֻ mustache ФƥꥹѸֻ moustache 㤬⤷Carney (147--48) ⻲ȡ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Ǥ礦ǤѸ3ع¤ͭͺۤʪǶ1ĤǤϤʤȻפäƤޤܸθ촶ȤƤϡ֥סʵǢסʪפۤɤǤ礦
Ѹä3ع¤ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#3885. رѸ춵٤Ϣ10֤ʤѸˤ줬¿Τס ([2019-12-16-1]) 䤽ĥäεޤ (lexical_stratification) ʤɤǡ֤ƤޤŪ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ǵƤޤ
äȵƤߤȸƤʤʤŵŪ ask, question, interrogate help, aid, assistance ʤɤƺѤޤƤޤΤǤ褷ϤƤ餺äȸ碌̥ŪõᤤޤǡĤɸ˽Ф路ΤǤWalker swearing ˴ؤ뵭ҤɤǤȤǤ (32)
A few taboo words describing body parts started out as the 'normal' forms in Old English; one of the markers of the status difference between Anglo-Norman and Old English is the way the 'English' version became unacceptable, while the 'French' version became the polite or scientific term. The Old English 'scitte' gave way to the Anglo-Norman 'ordure' and later the Latin-via-French 'excrement'.
˽вäȤϡɡĤޤǡˤϤä©ݤߡܤƤޤޤ
shit ϸűѸ scitte ˤΤܤǤűѸǤΰ̣ϡ֡ʲܤΡ˲ΡפǤ ưȤƤƬĤ bescītan ʱˤΤ褦Ĺ첻Ƥޤ̾줫αƶ⤢äûѸ s(c)hite(n) ʵˤƤޤ̾ΡʵפθȤƤϰճȿѸνФǤ
ordure ϡťե ordure ѸäΤǡֱʪסФʸաסʵפ̣ޤ캬 horrid ʶˤȤⶦ̤ޤ
excrement ϽѸ˥ƥ excrēmentum ʤ뤤бե excrémentˤѤޤ
ߤǤ shit ¯졦֡ŪʡפնɽȤƤϡפ¤줿ե ordure Ѥޤƥ excrement ϡ˷ĥäؽŪʶޤۤȤɡפޤ
ʾ塤餷ޤ
Walker, Julian. Evolving English Explored. London: The British Library, 2010.
ѸαѸ춵Ǥ褯Τ줿ڥΥ롼뤬롥"i before e except after c" ȤΤĹ첻 /iː/ б륹ڥˤĤƤϡ#2205. proceed vs recede ([2015-05-11-1]) #2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) Ǥߤ褦¿बǧ뤬Τ2Ĥ <ie> <ei> 롥ɸθΤ褦 <ie> ΤΤ¿receive, deceive, perceive Τ褦 <ei> ⤢ꡤؽ庮䤹ǡ嵭Υ롼뤬櫓Ǥ롥Ūʥ롼ǤϤ롥
ϡʤɸΤ褦ʸ췲 <ie> /iː/ бطߤΤѸˤδɤäƤߤޤбط Carney (331) ꤤĤƤꥹȤθȾˤϸͭ̾ޤࡥ
achieve, achievement, belief, believe, besiege, brief, chief, diesel, fief, field, fiend, grief, grieve, hygiene, lief, liege, lien, mien, niece, piece, priest, reprieve, shield, shriek, siege, thief, thieves, wield, yield; Brie,, Fielden, Gielgud, Kiel, Piedmont, Rievaulx, Siegfried, Siemens, Wiesbaden
ꥹȤ츻δįƤߤȡbelieve, field, fiend, shield ʤɤαѸޤޤƤȤϤեƥ줫μѸ줬Ωġºݡλ¤ҥȤˤʤ롥
brief /briːf/ Ȥ˼ϥƥǡûפ̣ brevis, brevem ͳ褹롥ΥƥñϸθťեˤѾ줿ŪѸ˱ƶڤܤ Anglo-French Ǥ bref ȤѤ줿ѸϤΥڥƱñ줿Ѹ <e> ɽ蘆줿Ĺ첻 /eː/ ǤꡤѸˤ첻 (gvs) ФƸѸ /iː/ Ϣʤ롥Ĥޤꡤȯ˴ؤƤϡѸʹߡͽ¬ƻɤäȤˤʤ롥
ڥ˴ؤƤϡä𤬤äťեȤäƤ롥Anglo-French Ǥ bref ȤäƤեǤ brief ȤѸѸˤϤۤ Anglo-French bref ˽äƤ16ˤơեθҤˤư۷ȤѤƤ brief Ȥ˿ȯơڥ˴ؤ bref brief ؤȾ괹ΤǤ롥
̤˽ѸˤϸҤ륹ڥؤƴݤƤꡤƴоݤϼȤƥƥ䥮ꥷäΤˤäƤϤΤ褦˥եˤΥڥؤηФȤ⤢ä (Upward and Davidson (105))
ơѸˤơĹ첻б <e> 16ˤ <ie> ؤ֤ľ뵤εȯüե줫μѸä䤬ƱѸޤ嵭θ췲ˤŪ֤ʤŬѤ졤˻롥
٤ߤСҤηаޤˤ̯Ϥ롥Jespersen (77) ˤСեǤ achieve chief б <ie> ǤϤʤ <e> ֤ƤꡤѸ줬ƴΥǥȿ٤ <ie> ˤϤʤäϤcf. ե achever, chefˡ
Ǥ⡤¿ñ줬褽Ʊߥ <e> <ie> ؾ괹Ȥ¤ϽפǤ롥Τˤи츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȤϸƤӤˤޤबѼȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
rhotic ʥꥫѸפȡnon-rhotic ʥꥹѸפȤΩϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ωñ㲽ƤȤ館뤭餤ꡤºݤˤϥꥫѸ non-rhotic Ѽ⤢СꥹѸ rhotic Ѽ⤢롥ꥫѸΰǤʤ non-rhotic ȯԤʤƤ뤫ˤĤƤϹäˤꡤܺ٤Ϥޤ餫ˤƤʤ (cf. #3953. ꥫѸ non-rhotic Ѽε ([2020-02-22-1]))
⤽ non-rhotic ȯ߽ФȤˤʤä /r/ üȤѲϡʤϤޤäΤMinkova (280) ϡ/r/ ü˺ѤŪҲŪװŦĤġֻ˸경줿 <r> Ʊξü˻ߤˡʣʹ˰礤η̤Ȥơrhotic non-rhotic ξȯ¸뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤ⤯
While loss of /r/ may be described as 'natural' in a phonetic sense, it is still unclear why some communities of speakers preserved it when others did not. One reason why the change may have taken off in the first place, not usually considered in the textbook accounts, is loan phonology. In Later Old French (eleventh to fourteenth century) and Middle French (fourteenth to sixteenth century), pre-consonantal [r] was assimilated to the following consonant and thereby lost in the spoken language (it is retained in spelling to this day), producing rhymes such as sage : large, fors : clos, ferme : meesme. Thus English orthography was at odds with the functional factor of ease of articulation and with the possibly prestigious pronunciation of recent loanwords in which pre-consonantal [-r] had been lost. This may account for the considerable lag time for the diffusion and codification of [r]-loss in early Modern English. Rhotic and non-rhotic pronunciations must have coexisted for over three centuries, even in the same dialects. . . . [C]onservatism based on spelling maintained rhoticity in the Southern standard until just after the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
ǿƤե "loan phonology" ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤϡ¿ʻǤ롥
ּʡײեˤ /r/ üֻˤ <r> ݻ --- /r/ üϤʤŪҲŪװȡ˻ߤ褦ˡŪװȤĹˤ錄˰깭Ū1700ǯ鸽ߤޤǤ300ǯʾˤ錄ä rhotic non-rhotic ξȯ¸³ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Ѹˤϸ -ant, -ent ĸ줬¿¸ߤޤabundant, constant, important, attendant, descendant, servant; apparent, convenient, diligent, correspondent, president, solvent ŵŪˤϹ١֤ʤɤɽ魯ƻȤѤޤơط͡ʪɽ魯̾ȤѤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФФǤƻ̾ȤѤΤϡƥθʬͳ褹뤫Ǥattendant Ȥϡ "(an/the) attending (one)" 櫓Ǥ
-ant -ent ϥƥθʬͳ褹ȽҤ٤ޤΤˤϤ줾 -ans -ens Ȥ֤ǤϥƥǼñζʤΤǤʳζǤϻҲ s t 졤ȤñгˡǤ -antem, -entem Ȥʤޤ t Ѹˤ -ant -ent t ȤȤˤʤޤ
ơ첻Ǥa e ϲ㤦ΤȤȤǤüŪˤСƥưˤϤĤγѥѥꡤΤȤʤäƤưγѥѥ˱Ƹʬ -ans Ȥʤ뤫 -ens Ȥʤ뤫ޤäƤޤŪˤ1ѤȤʬवƤư줬 -ans ǡ234ѤȤʬवƤΤ -ens ǤѸ˼ѤƤǤϡȤΥƥθʬͳ褹첻ѾƤȤ櫓Ǥ
ñäǤ⤢ޤȤΤϡƥǶ̤Ƥ2θʬϡեǤ -ant ؤȽƤޤäƤǤ⤷Υեñ줬ѸؼѤƤȤСˤΥƥθ츻˾Ȥ餻 -ent ȤʤϤΤȤ˥ե첽 -ant ȤƱѸ˼ޤ줿Ȥˤʤ뤫Ǥ㤨Хƥ crescent ϤΤޤޱѸ crescent ȤäƤޤǥե첽 croissant ȤǤäƤƤޤƥȥեκϡpersistent resistantsuperintendent attendant ˤߤޤ¤ˤ䤳ˤʤäƤޤޤ (Upward and Davidson 88--89)
ȤƤϡƥδΤưγѥѥ˱ -ant -ent ޤäƤȤޤºݤΤȤ -ant ؽեδĤˤꡤξδ֤˺ƱȺɬ⤭줤ǤʤʬۤȤʤäƤޤäȤȤǤ
ñȯȤƤϡˤ϶֤뤳ȤϤʤΤǡȯϤȤ /-ənt/ Ȥʤꡤ̤ǤޤʤΤֻ϶̤ʤФʤʤ櫓ǤؽԵ㤫ǤκϡȯѸüԤֻؽԤˤȤäƤषǤ㤨Сͥƥ֤ relevant ˤǤϤʤ relevent ʸˤְ֤㤨뤳ȤʤӤǤcf. #3889. ͥƥ֤褯ְ㤨륹ڥ ([2019-12-20-1])ˡ˸ĤʤɤĹʤäǡ˶֤ˤϡ첻βΤ˸ޤcf. confident /ˈkɑnfɪdənt/ confidential /ˌkɑnfɪˈdɛnʃl/ ȡˡ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѥʵ֤ʤ Japanese Chinese ʤɤñʣƱʤΤǤפ夲ƤϢε ([2020-05-03-1], [2020-05-04-1], [2020-05-05-1]) ȴϢơ -ese εˤĤƾܤ줿
ѸǤ -ese θ¿ͤǤ롥Japanese ˤȤȡƻȤƤΡܡʿ͡θϡˤΡפȤŪ˲ä̾ȤƤΡܿ͡θϡפ⤢롥äˡܿ͡פθˤĤơone Japanese, two Japanese ʤɤñʣƱѤ뤳Ȥ˼夲̤the Japanese (people) 괧դȽܹ̱̾ΡפȤʤ롥̵ Japanese (people) ȤȡܿͰ̡פȤʤ뤫䤳ޤ-ese ϸ̾ɽ魯ȤȯȤơΤüʸջȤʸΤɽ魯ǽJohnsonese ʥήʸΡˡjournalese ʿʹʸΡ, officialese ʴģѸˤΤȤǤ롥
θθϡƥηƻ -ensis Ǥ롥?°롤?ͳ褹פ̣롤ŪŪ㤨впˤϥƥγ̾ĤƤ뤬ͥǥ륿ͤ Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Ǥꡤإȥץǥ Sahelanthropus tchadensis Ǥ롥̾ʤɤθͭ̾褤Ȥʬ
ơƥ -ensis ϥޥˤѤ졤ťեǤ -eis ȤȿǷǧ롥˸եǤ -ois, -ais ȤƷѾƤ (ex. français, François) ơťե -eis Ѹؼ㴳ѲĤäΤ -ese Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥
ơͥǥ륿ѥˡե1ˡƥ͡ʡˤ˻ޤǡơʬ˳Ƹ¤꤬ȿǤƤΤΡŪˤƱͭƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ͤޤǤˡOED -ese, suffix 츻βѤƤ
Forming adjectives, < Old French -eis (modern French -ois, -ais):---Common Romanic -ese (Italian -ese, Provençal, Spanish -es, Portuguese -ez):---Latin ēnsem. The Latin suffix had the sense 'belonging to, originating in (a place)', as in hortēnsis, prātēnsis, < hortus garden, prātum meadow, and in many adjectives < local names, as Carthāginiēnsis Carthaginian, Athēniēnsis Athenian. Its representatives in the Romanic languages are still the ordinary means of forming adjectives upon names of countries or places. In English -ese forms derivatives from names of countries (chiefly after Romanic prototypes), as Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese, and from some names of foreign (never English) towns, as Milanese, Viennese, Pekinese, Cantonese. These adjs. may usually be employed as nouns, either as names of languages, or as designations of persons; in the latter use they formerly had plurals in -s, but the plural has now the same form as the singular, the words being taken rather as adjectives used absol. than as proper nouns. (From words in -ese used as plural have arisen in illiterate speech such singular forms as Chinee, Maltee, Portugee.) A frequent modern application of the suffix is to form words designating the diction of certain authors who are accused of writing in a dialect of their own invention; e.g. Johnsonese, Carlylese. On the model of derivatives from authors' names were formed Americanese, cablese, headlinese, journalese, newspaperese, novelese, officialese, etc.
ѸˤμȤǴ줿ѤʵǤ-ese (suffix) ġ?͡פ̣̱̾ϡʣǤ -s դñʣƱȤʤޤThere are one/three Japanese in the class. Τ褦˻ȤޤʤʣʤΤ -s դʤΤǤ礦ϡʤʤǤȻפޤ
Ѹˤ sheep, hundred, fish ʤɡʤñʣƱ̾줬ޤ¿ϡ#12. How many carp! ([2009-05-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦˸űѸζˤΤܤꡤθŤѸޤDzŪ˻ĤäΤȤŪˤưפǤޤ-ese ϻ𤬰ۤʤޤϥե줫μѤǤꡤȤѸȤƶѸʹߤ˸Ƥ뿷ǤűѸʸˡˤΤܤäñʣƱŤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤ
-ese θ츻ͤƤޤ礦-ese ȤϡޤäƸͭ̾餽ηƻǤƥηƻ -ensis ͳ褷θťեˤȿǷ -eis Ѹ -ese ȤƼޤޤĤޤꡤŪ Japanese, Chinese Ū˷ƻȤơܤΡסΡפ̣ΤǤ
ƻ줬̾ȤѤ褦ˤʤΤϱѸ˸¤餺ӤǤJapanese ñȤǡܤθ "the Japanese language" ܤο͡ʡˡ "(the) Japanese person/people" ۤɤ̣̾ȤʤΤ⼫ԤǤߤ˻ޤǡ̾ǤϤʤƻǤȤռΤݥȤǤʣ̾ܿͤפȤѤȤǤ鸶ȤƤηƻΰռĤäƤꡤƻˤϡñȶ̤ʣʤȤ¤ؤäơJapanese Ȥ֤ΤޤޤʤΤȹͤޤפˡJapanese ŪˤϷƻ顤̾ˤߤʣ -s դʤΤȤǤ
ˤϾ꤬ޤŪˤϷƻǤʤ̾첽ñϡѸˤޤȤޤơ¿̾첽ʾ塤̾ȤƤΥ롼˽äʣǤ -s ȤΤǤ㤨 American, black, female, gay, native ϵŪˤϷƻǤ̾ȤƤѤƤꡤξ硤ʣ -s ȤޤȤ Japanese ⤳ƱΩ֤ˤϤǤʤ -s ʤΤǤŪǤ Japanese ñʣƱ˲Ǥޤ
ˤĤƤϡε³Ƥޤ
ε ([2020-04-15-1]) ˰³xenon, xenophobia, Xerses, xylophone ʤɤ˴ѻѸθƬˤ <x> /z/ бˤĤơŪб <x> /gz/ äȤϡԤδ֤Ǥ褽ΰפߤƤ褦ȡ<x> /gz/ Ȥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤפȤʤäƤ롥¤ϤˤĤƤϺ줿#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) #2280. <x> á ([2015-07-25-1]) ǤڤƤפˡ³첻˶Ķ /ks/ /gz/ ؤͭȤֱѸˤˤ Verner's LawפΤȤ
夲 Dobson ϡEkwall ȤĤġ<x> /gz/ ˤϡֱѸˤˤ Verner's LawפǤԽʬǤꡤ⤦ä𤬤äȹͤƤ롥Dobson (II 359) 곺սѤ롥
In many words of Latin origin the consonant x is pronounced [gz]; as this occurs chiefly when the stress follows, the explanation has been advanced . . . that [gz] develops from [ks] by voicing before the stress. But Ekwall, §§150--1, rightly rejecting this view, has drawn attention to the parallel that exists between the English and French pronunciations of the words in question. It is apparent, especially from the Modern French pronunciation, that the medieval French (and English) pronunciation of Latin must have used [gz] for Latin x between vowels (as in ModFr exalter, exemple, examen, exécration &c.) and between a vowel and h (probably silent, as in ModFr exhalaison, exhaustif, exhiber, &c.), but [ks] for Latin x both before and after other consonants (as in ModFr expérience, &c. and anxiété). But at a later date (probably about 1500) the reform of the pronunciation of Latin led to the replacement of [gz] by [ks] for intervocalic x. By this change French pronunciation was little affected (but cf. [ks] in Alexandre), but English pronunciation was much altered, [ks] being introduced in many words. But the English tendency to use voiced consonants before the stress, which in the seventeenth century led to a voicing in this position of [s] to [z], influences the distribution of the old and new pronunciations: [gz] is retained in most words in which the stress follows (e.g. example, exert, exalt, exult, exhibit, Alexander, luxurious), but not in certain learned words (e.g. proximity, doxology, luxation), whereas [ks] has been substituted when the stress precedes (exodus, execute, exercise, &c.) except in derivatives which follow the simplex (exaltation, exultation); but there is some degree of variation, as usually when one pronunciation is replaced by another not phonetically developed from it.
¤˹äʤΤǤΤ褦ĹʸʤΤĤޤǸмΤ褦ˤʤ롥եȱѸǤϡx ĥƥѸ˴ؤơ첻˶ޤ줿ĶǤ [gz] ȤơҲܤˤ [ks] ȤȯƤȤ1500ǯ餤顤§Ȥƥƥ x [ks] ɤ٤Ȥȯãʲ餫εϰռȯͿˡ[gz] [ks] ؤΰؤʹԤΰؤŰ٤ϱʩ֤ǤۤʤäƤѸߤƤⲻĶˤäưۤʤäƤӤƤʤäĤޤꡤ[gz] ΤޤĤäñ⾯ʤʤä櫓Ǥ롥
ǴŪ˸ƤΤϤֱѸˤ Verner's LawפǤ롥Ʊˡ§ϡ̾ˤβĶˤ [ks] [gz] ؤѲˡ§Dobson λٻˤȡष [gz] [ks] ؤѲ˻ߤװˡ§Ȥʤ롥Dobson ǤֱѸˤ Verner's LawפϷɤΤȤͿƤΤ̾Ȥϰۤʤ뾯äˡǡ <x> /gz/ бطγΩ˹Ȥˤʤ롥
<x> /gz/ ɤˤƥȯʤäΤȤСߤ <x> /z/ ϤαĹˤȤ⤤롥ˤƤ xenon, Xerses ϡ⤽첻˶ޤ줿ĶפǤϤʤĶˤ x ΥʸƬ xˤʤΤǡˤΤ褦ʱĹˤȹͤƤ褤Τ褯ʬʤ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
Ekwall, E. Historische neuenglische Laut- und Formenlehre. 1922.
ɸбϡǤϤ뤬ꥷμѸθƬˤƤߤ롥㤨 xenon, xenophobia, xerox, xylophone, Xanadu, Xanthippe, Xavier, Xenia, Xerxes /z/ ǻϤޤ롥εǡ<x> /z/ бϡ<x> /gz/ 1ҲæˤΤȹͤޤסʡ#3654. x ǻϤޤñ줬ʤΤϤʤǤ ([2019-04-29-1])ˤȽҤ٤̤ꡤǥեȤб <x> /ks/ ͭǤǤ <x> /gz/ ȤбꤹСΤȤǤ롥ƬҲ /gz/ 1Ҳ /z/ ȤʤäȹͤФ褤
⤽ʤεʥǤϥǥեȤ <x> /ks/ ǤϤʤ<x> /gz/ ꤵʤФʤʤΤʢ̾Ųؤ̾ϻꤤǤ꤬ȤޤˡˤĤƿͤƤߤȤʤäΤǡĴ٤ƤߤѸȯŰŪ˸椷 Dobson ȤȡΤ褦ʸڤĤä (II 359)
PresE initial [z] in Xerxes, &c. is usually (and rightly) regarded as a reduction of [gz], but as French also has this pronunciation the reduction presumably occurred in the medieval pronunciation of Latin rather than in English itself. Cooper says that x in Xenophon is pronounced z, gz (for [gz]), or ks.
Dobson ϰճʤȤ˸ФƤ롥αѸüԤեüԤθƥȤȯȤˡ̵ /ks/ ǤϤʤͭ /gz/ ȤƼ¸뷹äȤºݡեǤ Xerxès, xènon /gzɛrsɛs/, /gzenɔ̃/ Τ褦 /gz/ ʹ롥ѸǤ⡤17βؼ Christopher Cooper /z/, /gz/, /ks/ ΤȯˤڤƤ̤ꡤɤϤäΤȻפ뤬餯 /ks/ /gz/ ޤ졤1Ҳæ /z/ ǽŪɸȯȤ夯Ȥˤʤäȹͤ롥
嵭ǤɸΡ֤ʤפε˿̤줿櫓ǤϤʤüʼѸθƬȤĶ /gz/ Ф줿ͳ䡤Ѹȥեδ֤ꤵƤοˤΤʬʤ
̤˱Ѹ <x> /gz/ ΩĶϡ(1) x 첻˶ޤƤꡤ (2) Ԥ첻˶ʤʢ³첻˶˾Ǥ롥ϡֱѸˤ Verner's Lawפȸ٤Τǡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1])#2280. <x> á ([2015-07-25-1]) ǿ줿̤Ǥ롥Τ褦 x ǻϤޤϡ̩ˤ (1) (2) ξƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤΤ³첻˶ʴ x ǻϤޤ뤽θƬġˤȤ (2) ˤƤϤޤΤ¿Dobson ⤳δˤǰƬ֤ƾθҤ٤ȤȤ褯ʬʤ
ˤĤĴ٤Ƥ뤦ˡѸ <x> /gz/ бŪаޤˤĤơDobson ñʡֱѸˤ Verner's LawפäܤƤ뤳ȤˤⵤդϢʤΤεǼ夲
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.
ε#3968. ܿ2סimitation adaptation ([2020-03-08-1]) Ƴܿ (contact) ʬ뿷ʽѸѤơѸˤˤƸܿμפʻƤ4ΡʼҲ˸ŪƶӡоȤƤߤȤϤäƤ⡤ΥꥸʥǤϤʤFischer et al. (55) ޤȤƤƤΤƸƤˤʤ4Ȥϥƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤եǤ롥
| Parameters (social and linguistic) | Latin Contact --- OE/ME period and Renaissance | Scandinavian Contact --- OE(/ME) period | Celtic Contact --- OE/ME period and beyond (in Celtic varieties of English) | French Contact --- mainly ME period |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) Type of language agentivity (primary mechanism) | Recipient (imitation) | Source (adaptation) | Source (adaptation) | Recipient (imitation) |
| (2) Type of communication | Indirect | Direct | Direct | (In)direct |
| (3) Length and intensity of communication | Low | High | Average (?) | Average |
| (4) Percentage of population speaking the contact language | Small | Relatively large | Relatively large | Small |
| (5) Socio-economic status | High | Equal | Low | High |
| (6) Language prestige | High | Equal | Low | High |
| (7) Bilingual speakers (among the English speakers) | Yes (but less direct) | No | No | Some |
| (8) Schooling (providing access to target language) | Yes | No | No (only in later periods) | Some |
| (9) Existence of standard in source/target language | Yes/Yes | No/No | No/No (only in later periods) | Yes/No |
| (10) Influence on the lexicon of the target language (types of loanword) | Small (formal) | Large in the Danelaw area (informal) | Small (except in Celtic varieties of English) (informal) | Very large (mostly formal) |
| (11) Influence on the phonology of the target language | No | Yes | Yes? (clearly in Celtic varieties of English) | Some |
| (12) Linguistic similarity with target language | No | Yes | No | No |
(wordform) ȱ (foot) ϡơΩñ̤Ǥ롥Ϸֲñ̡⤦ϱΧñ̤Ȥơơۤʤ٥ôäƤ롥ξԤϰפ뤳Ȥ褯롥ºݡ2θϸ§ȤƱӤ˾
ŪˤߤȸȱӤΰ٤ϸˤ褦Ritt (122) Τ褦Ƥ롥
It seems that English changed from a language in which isomorphy between feet and wordforms was relatively common into one in which it was the exception rather than the rule. . . . Old English word stress fell, as a rule, on the leftmost syllable of the stem. Furthermore, Old English wordforms tended to consist of a stem plus inflectional endings, so that Old English wordforms would typically consist of one stressed and one or more unstressed syllables. Since this type of structure is practically identical with the optimal foot structure, it is easy to see why Old English wordforms very often tended to coincide with feet. It can be assumed that this tendency of feet and wordforms to coincide remained unchanged until well into the Middle English Period. Then, however, the relationship became unbalanced due to two factors. First, the number of monosyllabic words, which was already high in Old English, increased steadily until monosyllabism became typical of English wordforms. A comparison of Old English texts (Beowulf and The Battle of Maldon) and Middle English ones (The Owl and the Nightingale and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales) shows that in Old English less than half of all wordforms used were monosyllabic, while in Middle English roughly two-thirds were. Second, a large number of French loan words were integrated into the English lexicon, and many of them were stressed on their final syllables. It is easy to see that the combination of these two factors must have decreased the probability of feet to coincide with wordforms considerably.
űѸθŵŪˡ1θ촴ʶˡ1ζʼˡפȤʤΤǡ2αӤȤ줤˽Ťʤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤѸˤƶष1θƤȡ1ĤθΤߤ1ĤαӤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäƤ롥ĤޤꡤֲȱΧ߹ʤʤäƤ롥Ѹˤϡۼʶ§ (= Romance Stress Rule; rsr) ĥե줫μѸ줬̤ήѸΡֶפθȤȤˡּ嶯פʤɤθƤơ跿αӤɬʤȤ¿ʤäƤĤޤꡤűѸ줫ѸˤƤΰϢѲ̤ơѸŪˤäƸȱӤפ䤹פθ줫פˤפθؤȥեȤƤȤˤʤ롥
ŪʥեȤϲ̣Τ͡ʴߤȻפ뤬1ĤˤϱΧκѤ줬ֲñ̤ǤʷˤȤ⡤礭ʶȤäñ̤ذܤѤäȤȤ롥ֲñ̤Ǥʷˤ¦ߤСΧΥץå㡼ʤʤꡤʬΧˤǤβѲä̤ѲˤȤä̤äСʷˤꤹ褦ˤʤäȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ޤοȸʷˤ1ᲽˤĤƤϡ#655. ޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1])#2626. űѸ줫ѸˤƤζο ([2016-07-05-1]) ȡޤޤοȥեѸƳȤ2ĤװϡˤȤɤޤ餺ѸαΧ͡ʷǥѥȤͿȹͤ뤬ŦƤ٤⤦1Ĥνפϵӱ (rhyme) ƳȤδطǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#796. Ѹ˵ӱƳ줿Ūװ ([2011-07-02-1]) ȡ
Ritt, Nikolaus. Quantity Adjustment: Vowel Lengthening and Shortening in Early Middle English. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
#2027. ɤdzȤ miuk ȯ ([2014-11-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܲɤ첻³ʤ l 첻ȤѲʹǤ롥ŪˤߤСl 벻ĶˤФæƤȤѲϷ֤ƤƤꡤѲ l μ岽ȤŪʷΤ⤦1ĤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
l æ˴ؤᤤϡѸǧ롥űѸ hwylc (= "which"), ælc (= "each"), wencel (= "wench"), mycel (= "much") Τ褦˻ c ٤礦Ķ l æѸˤ hwich, ech, wenche, muche ȤƸƤ롥ۤ˸űѸ ealswa (= "as") Ѹ als(o)/assceolde (= "should") shudwolde (= "would") wud ʤɤѻ졤Ѹ˼˹ٸˤ l æƤȤ狼롥Ѹ˶Ťȡfolk halfpenny ʤɡ俰٤ΰ֤ˤƤ l æä
Τ褦 l μ岽ϱѸˤˤŪʷȲᤷƤ褤褦Ѳ٤ΥեƤ¤ˤդƤMinkova (131) ԤŦƤ̤ꡤѸ˾ l æϡΩݤȤߤƤ褤եƱѲϤƤȤǽ롥
An important, though often ignored contributing factor in the history of /l/-loss in English is the fact that Old French and Anglo-Norman had undergone an independent vocalisation of /l/. Vocalisation of [ɫC] clusters, similar to [rC] clusters, started in OFr in the ninth century, and although the change in AN seems to have been somewhat delayed ... , the absence of /lC/ in bilingual speakers would undermine the stability of the cluster in ME. Thus we find Pamer (personal name, 1207) < AN palmer, paumer 'palmer, pilgrim', OE palm 'palm' < Lat. palma ? OFr paume, ME sauder, sawder < OFr soud(i)er, saudier 'soldier', sauf 'safe' < Lat. salvus. The retention of the /l/ in some modern forms, as in fault, vault is an Early ModE reversal to the original Latin form, and in some cases we find interesting alternations such as Wat, Watson, Walter.
ѤθȾˤ褦ˡե l æ̤ϱѸ줬Ѥ¿ΥեѸˤȿǤƤꡤ줬Ѹֻ l 褵츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ѰդȤѸ˾ήˤդϢήϡl λҲȤƤꤵ¾ڤƤ褦˻פ롥
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ñ danger ʴˤϡʩǡֻۡϡˡפ̣ dangier, dongier ѤΤ켫ΤƱ¯ƥ *dominiāriu(m) ˤΤܤȤ롥ˤƱΥƥ dominium ˡ dominus ʼ͡ˤˤޤǤΤܤ롥⤦⤵Τܤȡ츻Ǥ domus ʲȡɡˤȤܸǤ롥ΤȤƤСֲȤμ͡עֻۡϡˡעִפΤ褦˰̣Ѳ뤲ƤȤˤʤ롥
ѸǤ danger νФϡѸ1200ǯνƻޥ˥奢 Ancrene Riwle ǤꡤǤϡֻۡϡˡפΰ̣ѤƤ롥Ťǥ to be in danger of ϡ?λ۲ǡפ̣cf. ʩ estre en dangier "to be in the power, at the mercy, of someone"ˡΡִפȤȯŸŪǧΤϡѸ1378ǯ Piers Plowman Ǥ롥
ƻ dangerous Τɤäаޤ⡤̾ danger ȤۤܥѥǤ롥ѸǤνФϤϤ Ancrene Riwle ǤꡤۼԤˤ꤬ʤȤơְˤʡפ̣줬ѸˤƸŪʡִʡפΰ̣ȯãƤ롥̾ˤƻˤ衤ʩ줫Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ϡֻۡϡˡפ̣ƤΤѸδ֤ˤˤơִפΰ̣ȯŸΤ
åץ (198--99) ˤ dangerous θ츻Ọ̇̄Ѳηаޤϼ̤Ǥ롥
(Dangerose) Ȥ̥̾ŪʵؿͤĤƥѥٳԻԥ˥μޡ (Damase) ˤĤѤȤͤϥ롦ޥ (Mans) Υƥ (Thigh) Ȥ̾37ʶˤ⤫餺Ʊμ礬ϤäƤȡ㤷äʤǤ졤˰ޤȾƻࡦȾŮξ֤Ϲòᤷʶ˿ȤꤲƵθ塤ääϹäƤޤäǥեͤϴΤȡ"Ceci sent la Dangerose." ʥΤ褦ˤȸäե dangereux, dangereuse ʴʡˤȤ롥
ηäϡdanger ʴˤΰŪǧƤ츻٤ȿ˷礱롥danger ϡdominion ʻ۸ˤƱ츻ǡƥ dominium ʻۡͭˤ顤ƥ dominarium ʻۡϡˡťե dongier ʸϡۡˤФѸ˼줿in danger of ȸСΰ̣ϡָϤ۸λפΤޤޤˤפǤäкΡִפΰ̣ϡμФ̱˶ƤƤ롥ϼԤϤޤۼԤˡִפ⤿餹Τä
Ѥ1ϡåץιߤָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ŪʰäȤƲˤƤȤơ2ǽҤ٤Ƥ̣Ÿ¤˶̣ϼԤΡֻۡϡˡפϡʤ̱ˤȤäƤΡִפǤȤȤϤΤۼԤƤơֵ̤⤤פְˤפΤǤ롥٤СǻŤԤˤȤäơִʡ¸ߤȤʤθΰ̣ѲϡĤǤۡϤȤϴʤΤȤȤפƤ롥
硼 T. åץ ƻ ϻ إåץѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ
1213ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ1ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ10Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤѸˤ줬¿ΤפȤäƤޤ

Ѹˤϡ־夬פ̣ưȤ risemountascend ʤɤ줬ޤֳȯʡפɽ魯ƻˤ lively, vivacious, animated ʤɤޤֿ̾͡פˤĤƤ folk, people, population ʤɤޤϡֱѸä3ع¤פŵǤꡤѸ줬ɤäƤܿˤΰ仺Ȥ٤ΤǤϢܵǤϡѸäħŪ˭¸ߤ1066ǯΥΥޥ16ΥͥΤޤΤǤꡤ˶äȤˡܸˤ礦ɻ褦Ū𤬤뤳ȤŦƤޤ
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δ졡֤ʤѸˤ줬¿ΤסرѸ춵2020ǯ1桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ121362--63ǡ
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