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french - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2015-09-30 Wed

#2347. Ӥȯãˤե󥹸졤ƥαƶˤĤ [comparison][french][latin][contact][register]

ε#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ǡӤȯãˡե󥹸ƥб빽¤ͿƤǽ˿줿ä˥ե󥹸ƶϤФеƤѸȥե󥹸ζӤι¤ۤʤäƤȡ줫ե󥹼Ѹ줫Ȥˤ餺ӤѤƤȤʤɤ顤ƶǧʤΩ⤢롥
Mustanoja (280) ϡե󥹸졤ƥ줫ƶβǽˤĤƿŤ˵ĤĤ⡤̣ͿƤ롥

It is not easy to assess the influence of Latin and French on the development of English comparison. It is perhaps not altogether impossible that Latin influence has played a part in this process, particularly in the earlier stages. And considering the fact that periphrastic comparison begins to gain ground in English at a time when French influence is particularly strong, it seems reasonable to assume that the influence of this language has considerably strengthened the position of more and most in the English system of comparison. Another point which seems to speak for foreign influence is that the periphrastic mode of comparison does not seem to be favoured by living popular speech. 'The comparison of adjectives is formed in the [modern English] dialects by adding the comparative suffix -er and the superlative -est to practically all adjectives, polysyllabic as well as monosyllabic. More and most are as a rule only used to supplement or intensify the regular comparison, as more beautifuller, most worst' (Elizabeth M. Wright, Rustic Speech and Folk-lore, London 1913, p. 145).


⤷ǸȤСӤζӤλȤʬϡ衤βȤ (medium) ʸ (style) ʤɤλѰ (register) ˰¸ƤȤˤʤ롥ޤλȤʬϡѸΥ󥰥ɤˤȥե󥹸졤ƥμҲŪϰ̤κбȤˤĤʤäƤ¾Ūʸ椬˾ޤ롥

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2015-09-29 Tue

#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã [comparison][french][latin][contact][synthesis_to_analysis][french_influence_on_grammar]

ѸˤϡƻӵȺǾΤˡ̾2Ĥˡ롥 -er, -est դӤȡmore, most ֤뱪ŪʶӤǤʡֶӡפθƾΤˤĤƤϡ#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1]) 򻲾ȡˡξʤʬۤȤʬˤˤĤƤϡ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1]) ȡ#773. PPCMBE COHA ӡ ([2011-06-09-1]) ǴϢ夲٤äΤǡϤ⤦겼
ӤϡޥħŪʼʤǤꡤѸˤƤűѸǤ롥űѸǤ϶Ӥʤä13˽ ma, mo, mara, more; mast, most ʤɤˤӤ롥εϡűѸˤ , bet, swīþor; betst, swīþost ʤɤ줬ưʬ֤줿¤ˤȤ롥
ӤȯãطʤˤϡĤװä1ĤˤϸűѸˤߤ줿 inemest (inmost), norþmest (northmost) ʤɤ -mest αƶäȻפ롥츻ŪŪˤ -mest ϡȤ˺Ǿɽ魯 m est ӤĤ2źǾθǤꡤΩ mæst ȤϴطʤΤξԤƱ˻äʴϢơ#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ȡ#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1]) ⻲ȡˡۤˡե󥹸ƥбӤαƶ⤢ä⤷ʤ (ex. plus beau, le plus beau; magis dignus, maxime dignus) Ūˤϡ礫ʬϤؤȤѸ෿ŪѲȤ⡤ӤȯŸߤ뤳ȤǤˡΧװθ٤Ǥ롥
Ӥ14ޤǤϻȯŪä15ˤʤȤˤȤʤä-ly ζӤѸǽФФ餯ϵä14ˤȤʤä
ʤӤνλѤˤƤϡѸηȤϰۤʤꡤष12û㤬¿Ȥ̣ޤless, least ˤӤϸűѸ̤ꡤmore, most ᤤȤΤ⤪⤷ʾ塤 (13) Mustanoja (278--80) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.

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2015-09-28 Mon

#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia [diglossia][sociolinguistics][bilingualism][oe][me][latin][french]

ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. 󥰥ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ񲽡 ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])

ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥󥰥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽ󥰥Ҳ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС

. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.


פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
Ѹȡ󥰥ɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥

This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.


ΤȸѸˤƥե󥹸λѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥ󥰥ɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥

Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-02-1]

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2015-09-25 Fri

#2342. ̾ˤĤ -ic -ics [plural][greek][latin][french][loan_word][suffix][renaissance]

̾ˤϡacoustics, aesthetics, bionomics, conics, dynamics, economics, electronics, ethics, genetics, linguistics, mathematics, metaphysics, optics, phonetics, physics, politics, statics, statistics, tectonics Τ褦 -ics ΤĤΤŪ¿-ic ǽ arithmetic, logic, magic, music, rhetoric Τ褦⾯롥ǯdialectic(s), dogmatic(s), ethic(s), metaphysic(s), physic(s), static(s) ʤɡ -ics Фơɥĸե󥹸ˡ˱ƶ -ic Ѥ񤭼ФƤƤꡤ䤳
-ic -ics ΰ㤤ϡüŪˤзƻ줫ž̾ñʣΰ㤤Ǥ롥?˴ؤפ̣ƻ̾첽ơ?˴ؤ뤳ȡפȤˤäƤϤʣˤơ?˴ؤפȤơΤȤμɽ魯Ȥ츻ºݾ塤ñʣΤ˰̣Ūʶ̤ĤƤ櫓ǤʤΤǡ򾷤䤹
-ic -ics Τ줫뤫Ȥϡ̣Ȥϡ֤ˤ˾Ȥ餷ƹͤɬפ롥ʥǤ륮ꥷޤ̤äƤߤ褦ꥷǤϡ̾ technē, theōria, philosophia ʤɽ̾ɽ蘆Τ̤Ǥꡤƻ -ikos ͳ褹̾⤽ν -ikē ȼäɽ蘆줿ēthikē, mousikē, optikē, rētorikē ǡǤ롥
-ikos ʣ -ika ϡ?˴ؤפۤɤθȼäʸ̾ȤѤ뤳Ȥä (ex. ta politikē) ʸ̾ϡΤޤ޳̾ؤỌ̇̄ŪȯŸ뤲뤳Ȥäᡤʣ -ika νñ -ikē ϤȤ˳̾ɽ魯ƱȤʤä (ex. physikē / physika, taktikē / taktika)
θ줬ƥؼѤ줿Ȥʤ뺮Ʊꥷ -ika -ikē ϡƥǤƱ -ica ȤƼѤ줿ΤǤ롥ƥǤϡŪˤθ줬ñͳ褹Τʣͳ褹Τ̤ĤʤʤäΥޥ󥹽ɥĸǤϡϰӤñʽ˷ͳ褹ΤȲᤵ졤ߤ˻롥
ѸǤϡ1500ǯμѸ˴ؤƤϡñȲᤵ졤ե󥹸臘 arsmetike, economique, ethyque, logike, magike, mathematique, mechanique, musike, retorique ʤɤ֤줿15顤ꥷʣ̤Ȥ˴ŤαѸΤʤȤ etiques ʤɤη롥16ȾϡꥷǤ⤿ɤäʤʸ̾ͳƳ̾ؤȯŸѸǤ֤ⷫ졤1600ǯʹߤϡ-ics ̾ɽ魯ŪȤ夷Ƥ-ics γ̾ϡ־ʣȤ뤬ѸǤ졦̣ǤñȤʤäƤ롥
绨ĤˤСѸˤȤäƸŤ -ic -ics Ȥʬۤ򼨤Ȥˤʤ뤬ζܤ16դȤ̣⡤ŵؤƴݤħŤ줿ѹͥ󥹤θŪȿǤ⤷ʤ

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2015-09-17 Thu

#2334. ѸȵIJȯŸ [law_french][register][french][bilingualism][latin][reestablishment_of_english][history][parliament][hundred_years_war]

Υޥ (norman_conquest) Ǥäϰ̤βѸ줬ѸȾФե󥹸ƥ˹ƽƤˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵǼ夲ƤѸϿˤ錄ʲǤ뤿ᡤγʳǤζŪʾȤ館ˤǡƱ˿ʹԤ#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) Ȥ롥μŪ褯򤹤뤿ˤϡƱ͡ʳ٤įᡤΩŪ夲Ƥʤ
ϢȤơ#2330. 13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) 夲ϡǤ줿ФΡɤߤ䤹ľδˤ륤ꥹ˳ꡤƱˡΧޤλѸȤ顤ѸˤĤƿƤս꤬ΤǡѤ

֥Υޥװʸ塤󥰥ɵ²ϥե󥹸Ǥꡤʸʤɤˤϥƥ줬ѤƤ줬ˤ֥ΥޥӼװʹߡ²δ֤ǤѸ줬Ū˻Ȥ졤ɥ3ΰ컰ϻǯϵIJǤ˱Ѹ줿̱ˤϥե󥹸줬Ǥʤؤ¿ȤȤؤäƤ
IJθʸΤۤϡȾޤǤϥƥȤȤ˥ե󥹸줬ȤƤȬǯˡƤѸȤʤäʵIJˡΤϥƥΤޤޡˡŪˡȤǧֹ񲦤ˤ۲ġסʥ롦ȡˤ⡤켷ȾޤǤϥե󥹸줬ȤƤʰϻͶǯˤȤȤ˱Ѹľ졤ʸ庣ޤ³Ƥ롥 (134--35)


ѤǤ⼨ƤȤꡤѸϡIJȯŸȾʤ餺¹ԤƤ롥13ʹߡ󥰥ɤβϡJohn μäΦϤåԤ٤ʩ򤷤Ƥ椯Ѥ롥ä14ɴǯ˺ݤơEdward III ĴãΤ˹̱ФǤ׵ᤷǤˤλޤǤˤϡ񲦤ǤǼԤɽޤIJξǧʤƤϼ¸ˤƷȤʤäƤˤIJ䤬礭ʤꡤơ³ʤɤƤΤEdward III μ (1327--77) äλˡѸ줬ŪʻѤǧƤ椯褦ˤʤȤΤϡǤϤʤ
äդǤϾ嵭Τ褦˱Ѹ塹ȿʤ񤭸դǤϤޤޤʪե󥹸ȥƥ줬Ф餯ѸȤƤϰ̤³뤳ȤˤʤäǤ⡤ñ̤ǤߤСϤŪʱѸĬήϡѸȾФˤϤǤޤƤȤߤƤ褤

ľδʪ졡ꥹˡʾˡ١ҡӡ2015ǯ

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2015-09-13 Sun

#2330. 13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸ [law_french][register][anglo-norman][french][bilingualism][latin][norman_conquest][reestablishment_of_english]

Υޥ (norman_conquest) Υ󥰥ɤǤϡˡΧϢѤʣäˡΧθȰˤäƤ⡤񤭸դäդȤä (mode of discourse) Ȥѥ᡼⤢äˡʸȽϿʸƬʤɤȤäξ (field of discourse) Ȥѥ᡼⤢äѸϡɥȤǤϰۤʤäƤ⤷ʤȽεˤäƤѰۤƤǽ롥ơȤȤˡƥե󥹸ءƥե󥹸ѸؤȤĬή⤢äѸˤˡΧʬǤ塦ʩѸλȤʬμ֤ϡĤ줿˴Ťơ餫ˤ뤳Ȥϲǽ¿οɬפȤʤ롥
#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ƭ˵褦ˡάȤƤϡ13ˤϥƥäƥե󥹸줬ˡΧطɽˤͥȤʤäƤ椯ե󥹸ˡʸˤƤƥȶ礤14ˤͥȤʤ롥15ˤϡLaw French Law English ˽˼äƤ椯˻ޤǥե󥹸ΰ仺ϼѤ줿פȹͤƤ褤Brand ϡˡΧޤäλѰʬǡ13--14󥰥ɤˡΧޤλѸĴƤ롥
Υޥ塤ˡΧطʸˤƥƥ줬Ǥ̤θǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤȽѤˤĤƤϤɤäΤBrand (66) ϡHenry II (1133--89) ΩȽΩ餫顤ǤλѸϱѸǤϤʤե󥹸äȤߤƤ롥

It seems much more likely that French had been the language of the royal courts from the very beginning of the system of central royal courts established by Henry II and that French was their language because in that period it was the first language of the men appointed as royal justices and of many of the litigants. French seems then to have remained the language of the courts in part because of cultural conservatism, the absence of any really compelling reason for changing accepted practice; in part because there were advantages to the professional elite who came to dominate legal practice in using a language which needed to be learned and mastered by outsiders and which enhance their mystique; in part also because the courts had developed a technical French vocabulary that was not easily translatable into English.


Ǥϡ#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤ12ȾˤϥΥޥϵ²ޤ।󥰥ɹ̱¿ѸȤƤȹͤ뤬ˡΧȽȤŪʻѰˤƤϡե󥹸ѤŪ˻³ƤȤꤵƤ롥
1314ˤƤ³षȯŸ餷ե󥹸ˡʸˤƥƥȶ礷1275ǯ˽ƥե󥹸ˤŪꤵ줿ˡʸ񤬸ȡ1300ǯʹߡե󥹸 "the language of the future in 1300 for English legal instruction" (Brand 72) Ȥʤä
ե󥹸αɸĹ³ʤä14ȾФˤϡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) #131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ줬ˡΧʬؤ⿯ƤǤ롥
Brand (75--76) ϡ1314Ⱦˤơե󥹸줬ˡΧʬѤ줿ˤĤơΤ褦󤷤Ƥ롥

The languages of English law in the thirteenth and fourteenth century were primarily Latin and French. Latin was and remained the language of formal record at all levels of the court hierarchy. It was also the language of some of the thirteenth-century instructional literature of English law and even perhaps of some of the actual instruction. Its status as the language of formal legislation appears to have gone unchallenged prior to the last quarter of the thirteenth century but thereafter was increasingly challenged by the Anglo-Norman French of the common lawyers. Anglo-Norman French was the language actually used in pleading not just in the royal courts but also in county and city courts and came to be the invariable language of the law reports which recorded such pleading and which were also used to teach the following generation of law students. Anglo-Norman was also the language of oral legal instruction and of the legal literature which grew out of such instruction and of some other instructional literature as well. Anglo-Norman may always have been the language for the drafting and discussion of legislation but was also from 1275 onwards one of the two languages used for the formal enactment of legislation as well. The third language used in thirteenth- and early-fourteenth-century England, English, is little in evidence here. It may have been used in the local proclamation of legislation, but it was not for the most part one of the written languages used in legal contexts.


ϢơLaw French ˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ڤ law_french γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

Brand, Paul. "The languages of the Law in Later Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 63--76.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-02-1] [2015-09-17-1]

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2015-09-12 Sat

#2329. ѸμѸ [borrowing][loan_word][me][lexicology][contact][latin][french][greek][italian][spanish][portuguese][welsh][cornish][dutch][german][bilingualism]

ѸθüѤȤСޤե󥹸줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬󤬤 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾󤲤뤬ե󥹸졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥե󥹸ͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ򹭤̣ǼСѸ쥤󥰥ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)

LANGUAGESDirect IntroductionIndirect Introduction
Latin--- 
French--- 
Scandinavian--- 
Low German--- 
High German--- 
Italian through French
Spanish through French
Irish--- 
Scottish Gaelic--- 
Welsh--- 
Cornish--- 
Other Celtic languages in Europe through French
Portuguese through French
Arabic through French and Spanish
Persian through French, Greek and Latin
Turkish through French
Hebrew through French and Latin
Greek through French by way of Latin


#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) ǰѤ̤ꡤ"French acted as the Trojan horse of Latinity in English" Ȥ⤤ϻ¤ե󥹸ѸˤϡƥΤߤʤ餺äȤä¿θ줫μѤΡפȤƵǽƤΤǤ롥
Ϣơ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1])#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1]) ⻲ȡ

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-22-1]

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2015-09-11 Fri

#2328. Ѹ¿ [me][bilingualism][french][latin][contact][sociolinguistics][writing][diglossia][register]

Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲ򻲾ȡ

#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. 󥰥ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])

Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤򡤤֤޼ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥

LANGUAGERegisterMediumStatus
LatinFormal-OfficialWrittenHigh
FrenchFormal-OfficialWritten/SpokenHigh
EnglishInformal-ColloquialSpokenLow


Crespo (25) Ϥޤ3 (trilingualism) ֤ȤȤ2 (bilingualism) ءƺǽŪ1 (monolingualism) ؤȲäƤʳ򡤼Τ褦˿޼Ū˼Ƥ롥

ENGLANDLanguagesLinguistic situation
Early Middle AgesLatin--French--EnglishTRILINGUAL
14th--15th centuriesFrench--EnglishBILINGUAL
15th--16th c. onwardsEnglishMONOLINGUAL


ºݤˤϡ3Ѥ2ѤƤĿͤοΤ鸫и¤ƤȤդ٤Ǥ롥Crespo (25) 2ܤɽˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ"The initial trilingual situation (amongst at least certain groups) developed into oral bilingualism (though not universal) which in turn gradually resulted in vernacular monolingualism" ȤȤǤ롥ɽ⡤ѸΥޥҲŪΰ̤򤦤ޤɽƤޤǤϤ롥

Crespo, Begoña. "Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 23--35.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-09-28-1]

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2015-09-02 Wed

#2319. Ѹδط the which [relative_pronoun][expletive][article][french][contact]

Ѹ̤ˤߤ wh- δطϡѸ which ȤƽФ롥ط which ϡŪä that ȶ礷ʤ⡤14դ꤫ʬۤȤ15ˤ̤Ȥʤä#2314. °³ȤƤ that ([2015-08-28-1]) Ǽ褦ˡexpletive that ȼ which that ⸽졤Chaucer ʤɤǤ̤ˤߤ줿expletive as ȼ which as ΤƤ (Mustanoja 197--98)
ܤ٤ϡƱѸ the which (that) Ǥ롥괧 the ȼطϡѸǽ񤫤줿 Cursor Mundi ǽФCursor Mundi Ǥϡ¤70ۤɸˡOED which, pron. and adj. ꡤ13

a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Gött.) l. 9434 þe first law was cald 'of kinde,' .. þe toþer has 'possitiue' to name, þe whilk lawe was for-bed Adam, Forto ete þat fruit.


θ塤14ˤǤ⸫褦ˤʤꡤ٤ƤԤƥȤˤäƤ٤ϤޤޤǤꡤChaucer Ǥ which ٤1:9ȳʤ˾ʤGower Ǥˤ褯롥15λʸˤʤȰ̤ the which which ⤺ä٤⤯ʤ뤬Capgrave, Pecock, Fortescue 㳰ǡष the which ڸʤ (Mustanoja 199)
ʬۤޤޤǤȤ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ᤤƤΤϡεǤ롥ɴФǡϤʤˤȡʩ liquels ʸʩ lequelˤȴطȤʤϡ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥ե󥹸αƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) ΥꥹȤǤ󤲤ˡʩ줫ƥȤˤƤб뤳Ȥ顤ξԤ̵طȤϸʤФ嵭Τ褦ƥȤǤ뤳Ȥ顤ե󥹸줬 the which ľܤΰȤʤäȤϹͤˤե󥹸ϡѸŪȯãɽλѤ岡ۤɤä
ŪȯãȤȡűѸ seþe swa hwelc 1˵󤬤롥ʣطϡűѸƥ Lindisfarne Gospels ˸ƤꡤȤƤϤդ路褦˻פ롥ͤγؼԤٻƤΤűѸ줢뤤ϽѸ se þe Υפδط˵ߤǡѲ þe which ֤줿ΤȤ (Mustanoja 198)
켣 (253) ˤ18ȾǤܾۤǤߤϻ¾ѤȤʤäƤ뤬OED ǤκǤ٤ϡ"1884 Tennyson Becket Prol. 20 He holp the King to break down our castles, for the which I hate him." ȤʤäƤ롥

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2015-07-24 Fri

#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ [loan_word][french][lexicology][register][taboo][semantic_change][lexical_stratification]

ѸˤϡѸȥե󥹸졦ƥ줫μѸ줬Ѱ㤨ƶ¸롤äع¤Ȥ٤Τ롥̤ˡäŪŪ̱ŪάȤľܤäʤɤħѸϳŪŪʸŪʼΩ褽褽ȤäġλѰΩˤĤƤϡOrr εҤŪΤǤ롥

For two hundred years and more, things intellectual, things pertaining to the spirit, were symbolized by words that had a flavour of remoteness, of higher courtliness, words redolent of the school rather than of the home, words that often had by their side humbler synonyms, humbler, yet used to express the things that are closer to our hearts as human beings, as children and parents, lovers and workers. (Orr, John. Words and Sounds in English and French. Oxford: Blackwell, 1953. p. 42 qtd. in Ullmann 146)


ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ω˴Ϣ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1]) ۤ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
줬㤯Ѹ줬⤤ȤѰʬۤ¿θåڥƤϤޤ뤳Ȥϻ¤طžƤ褦˸ڥʤǤϤʤ㤨СUllmann (147) ϡΥڥ󤲤Ƥ롥ǽ2ȤΥڥˤĤƤϡJespersen (93) ⿨Ƥ롥

Native wordForeign word
dalevalley
deedaction
foeenemy
meedreward
to heedto take notice of


Υڥˤơ̤ʴްդʤŪѤΤϡ¦μѸη¦ηϡषʸŪŪǤꡤ٤Ū㤤Ȼפ롥ͽۤȿ뤳Τ褦ʵžʬۤϡŪޤǤϤȤϤʤΤ
1ĤˤϡΥڥǤϡ٤㤵Ѱζ䤷̤ˡѸ줬Ⱦִ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤΤۤäƤдѤȤʤäƤ⤪ʤäѰ¤äꡤ˸ꤵʤɤǽŪˤϼŪ˻¸˻äΤǤΰϤ̣ü첽 (specialization) 뤤Ͻ̾ (narrowing) λȤäƤ褤
ơΤ褦ˤĤäϡˤΡִľܤä¤ȯĤˤζŪʴްդӤӤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤϤʤ󥰥̱²Ȥ򤢤ƤСˤϡΤ褦̱²ۤ䶫ӤΤ褦ʤΤΤ줬ʤΤ̤ʤΤˤȤʸŪŪʶäѤ˻äƤ롥
˶ŪʴްդղäơˤäƤϥ֡˶ᤤϤͭ˻äΤȤơbloody (cf. sanguinary), blooming (cf. flourishing), devilish (cf. diabolical), hell (cf. inferno), popish (cf. papal) ʤɤ (Ullmann 147) ⡤dale foe ʤɤƱͤˡǤ˲ƻѰ褬줿ΤȲǤ롥

Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.

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2015-07-11 Sat

#2266. eh? Canadianism [interjection][canadian_english][language_myth][french]

ꥫѸȤ⥤ꥹѸȤۤʤѼȤơʥѸȼθħȤޤäƻŦब롥ʸ֤ eh? Ǥ롥ϡԤ eh? λѤˤäƥʥͤݤȽ̤ǤȤä⤢ۤɡ褯ΤƤħǤ롥¿ΥʥͤϤη򶯤ǧƤꡤδǤɽŪʥʥˡ (Canadianism) ȤưռƤ롥
Avis ϥꥹꥫʥαѸѼˤ eh? λѤˤȸĴ̡̩ʰ̣Ǥ Canadianism ȤϸʤȷŤƤ롥

. . . it should seem quite obvious that eh? is no Canadianism---for it did not originate in Canada and is not peculiar to the English spoken in Canada. Indeed, eh? appears to be in general use wherever English speakers hang their hats; and in one form or another it has been in general use for centuries. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that eh? has a remarkably high incidence in the conversation of many Canadians these days. Moreover, it seems certain that in Canada eh? has been pressed into service in contexts where it would be unfamiliar elsewhere. Finally, it would appear that eh? has gained such recognition among Canadians that it is used consciously and frequently by newspapermen and others in informal articles and reports . . . and attributed freely in reported conversations with all manner of men, including athletes, professors, and politicians. (Avis 95)


Although eh? is no Canadianism, there can be little doubt that the interjection is well entrenched. . . . [M]any Canadians are aware of its current high frequency (especially in its narrative function), a fact which leads some to claim it as a Canadianism, others to use it intentionally in print, and, it must be added, some to treat it as a pernicious carbuncle. (Avis 103)


Avis η⡤ɤΤȤ Canadianism ɤΤ褦뤫˰¸Ƥȸ虜򤨤ʤʥѸޤ줿ĥʥѸǤΤѤȤĤʤСeh? Canadianism ȤϤʤΤˤơʥѸˤä˸ѤȤ¤뤫ʤȤ餹Сeh? Ͻʬ Canadianism ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤϤȤơŪʻ¤Ż뤹ʤСeh? ʥѸκΩäħ1ĤǤ뤳ȤϳΤΤ褦
⤦1ĽפϡʥѸüԤħΤ˰ռƤꡤռŪѤʤ뤤ϵդ˴򤹤˷ȤȤĤޤꡤʥѸüԤˤռŪʥƥ쥪פȤ¦̤롥ʥͤ뤳ȤɸΤȤ eh? տŪ˻ѤƤΤǤСϸŪʹ԰٤ǤƱˡ¿ʬ˼ҲŪʹ԰٤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ǸˡʥѸˤ eh? Ѥطʤ˴ϢơAvis (102fn--03fn) ζ̣ŦҲ𤷤Ƥ

Eh? is a common contour-carrier among French Canadians (along with eh bien and hein?), as it has been in the French language for centuries. This circumstance may have contributed to the high popularity of the interjection in Canada generally. (Avis 102--03fn)


Avis, Walter Spencer. "So eh? is Canadian, eh?" Canadian Journal of Linguistics 17 (1972): 89--104.

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2015-07-02 Thu

#2257. ѸѼ¿ȥե󥹸Ѽΰ [french][variety][history][lingua_franca]

ȯãݸɽȤơѸȥե󥹸줬롥⿢̱ϼβϤ˹ä޲ (cf. #1521. ޲ȷ ([2013-06-26-1])) Ǥꡤlingua_franca Ǥ롥ξˤҲŪʤ¿ٹ礤ϸ˰ۤʤ롥Bailey and Görlach (3) νϤˤʲʸϤܤ

The social meanings attached to French and to English in the colonies where they were used differed markedly. Ali A. Mazrui, a Ugandan scholar, has summarized this difference by pointing to the "militant linguistic cosmopolitanism among French-speaking African leaders," a factor that inhibited national liberation movements in countries where French served as the sole common national language. "The English language, by the very fact of being emotionally more neutral than French," he writes, "was less of a hindrance to the emergence of national consciousness in British Africa" (1973, p. 67). This view is confirmed by President Leopold S. Senghor of Senegal, himself a noted poet who writes in French. English, in Senghor's opinion, provides "an instrument which, with its plasticity, its rhythm and its melody, corresponds to the profound, volcanic affectivity of the Black peoples" (1975, p. 97); writers and speakers of English are less inclined to let respect for the language interfere with their desire to use it. One consequence of this difference in attitudes is that French is generally more uniform across the world (See Valdman 1979), while English has developed a series of distinct national standards.


ǤϱѸγŪʤȥե󥹸εŪʤ椵Ƥꡤΰ㤤Ūʰ̣ˤƱѸѼ¿ȥե󥹸Ѽΰ򤽤줾⤿餷Ƥ뤳ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Ѹˤ⵬ϼŪʷϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤե󥹸ˤѼϾʤ餺¸ߤ롥ӤƤСʩμҲŪʿ񤤡ʤѼ¿ɤϡΤ˾嵭ΤȤоŪ
ʩʸˤŪˤ⡤ҲŪˤ椷Ƹ뤳Ȥ¿̱ͼ㤦θθιŪŸλۤʤС쵬ϼФ٤֤äƤ롥κۤϡ줾ι񤬼äƤεǤꡤ켫ΤŪ껺Ǥ롥΢⾯ʤ餺¸ߤΤϳΤΩܤ뤳Ȥˤäơ줾ħ䤫⤭Ħˤʤ롥
ʩμҲŪ񤤤˴ؤ뺹ۤˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤΤǡȤ

#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1])
#626. ֥ե󥹸ŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1821. ե󥹸ȱѸ ([2014-04-22-1])
#2194. ե󥹸쵬ϼѸŨ롤̱Ūե󥹸 ([2015-04-30-1])

Bailey, Richard W. and Manfred Görlach, eds. English as a World Language. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983.

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2015-05-11 Mon

#2205. proceed vs recede [spelling][latin][french][spelling_pronunciation_gap][orthography]

ɸθϡ츻Ūˤ϶̤θ촴ƬۤʤʤΤѸǤϤ줾 <proceed>, <recede> ȰۤʤֻѤ롥ϰΤʤʤΤȡαԤ䤬󤻤줿
ʤۤɸ촴ϥƥ -cedere (go, proceed) 뤤ϤΥե󥹸 -céder ͳ褹Τǡ츻Ūˤ <cede> ֻդ路Ȥˤä <ceed> <cede> ޤäƤ롥Upward and Davidson (103) ϡ10󤲤Ƥ롥

-<ceed>: exceed, proceed, succeed
-<cede>: cede, accede, concede, intercede, precede, recede, secede

θ⡤ѸѸ˺ǽ˸줿Ȥֻ -<cede> äΤФơξ˼ޤäȤѸǤ interceed, preceed, recead/receed ʤɤԤƤɸŪˤϤʤʤä֤äƤߤ -<cede> ͥä褦˸뤬ȵη֤ˤꡤơۤȤɥ˷ޤäȤäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤֻȯΰ¿δط褯ɽ魯
Τ褦ʺ˾褸ơƱñ줬2ʬ줿㤬롥discrete discreet ƥ discretus ̤뤬ֻκռ˼뤫Τ褦ˤơ2ĤΰۤʤʬȤäƲʬ䤹ʤä櫓Ǥʤ
ѸǤ <e>, <ee>, <ea> λäκʤcomplete, compleat, compleet ʤɤܤޤ뤷äκȤҤȤ⤤٤Τspeak vs speech Τ褦Ω˻¸Ƥ (Upward and Davidson 104; cf. #49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1])) Ϣơ#436. <ea> ֤ε ([2010-07-07-1]) ׻ȡ
-<cede> vs -<ceed> ˸¤餺Ĺ첻 /iː/ бֻ¿ܤĥ롥Ĥ󤲤Ƥߤ褦

<ae>: Caeser, mediaeval
<ay>: quay
<e>: be, he, mete
<ea>: lead, meat, sea
<ee>: feet, meet, see
<ei>: either, receive, seize,
<eigh>: Leigh
<eip>: receipt
<eo>: feoff, people
<ey>: key
<i>: chic, machine, Philippines
<ie>: believe, chief, piece
<oe>: amoeba, Oedipus

õСۤˤ⤢Ȼפ롥

Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-06-30-1] [2019-07-11-1]

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2015-05-07 Thu

#2201. ǤȤ Princess Charlotte [onomastics][french][loan_word][pronunciation][consonant][personal_name][title][palatalisation][fricativisation]

轵ѹ񲦼Υ٥ӡ Princess Charlotte ꤬ѹܤʨƤ롥Prince William Kate Middleton ׺ʤեȥ͡ Charlotteߥɥ͡ϡ褯ͤȴ졤֤ˤ⹥ɾ Elizabeth Diana Ǥ롥̤ˤϡιդ Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte of Cambridge ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #440. ˻ĤɾΤ you ([2010-07-11-1]), #1952. Ųפ Your Majesty ˤߤɰա ([2014-08-31-1]))

Carlotte Elizabeth Diana

Charlotte ϡCharles θ캬˽ܼĻؾ (diminutive) դ֤ͳ褷־Ƥ襤 Charles פۤɤǤ롥θ캬ϵŪˤϥޥĸ *karlaz (man) ͳ褷줬ƥ Carolus ȤƼѤ졤˸ťե󥹸ȯŸǸƬҲ [k] [ʧ] ȸ (palatalisation) θҲäťե󥹸βѸؼѤ졤ߤ [ʧɑːlz] ϢʤäƤ롥
ե󥹸ä᤽ե󥹸Ǥ13˻ [ʧ] [ʃ] ؤ໤ (fricativisation) ʸä s ȯ򼺤ߡƱ̾ [ʃaʁl] ȯƤ롥ƱͤˡCharlotte ⸽ե󥹸Ǥȯ໤ǻϤޤ [ʃaʁlɔt] Ǥ롥αѸΥ٥ӡ̾⡤໤ǻϤޤ [ʃɑːlət] 顤ե󥹸ŪȯȤȤˤʤ롥嵭ޤȤȡѸ̾ Charles ˻äƸťե󥹸Ūʶ̾ Charlotte ໤äƸե󥹸ŪʶΤȤ롥
Ѹˤե󥹼Ѹ <ch> ֤Τ˻ [ʧ] 򼨤໤ [ʃ] 򼨤ȤϡФмѻ򸫶ˤΤѤ롥㤨 chance, charge, chief, check, chair, charm, chase, cheer, chant ϤѸ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤꡤchampagne, chef, chic, chute, chaise, chicanery, charade, chasseur, chassis ϤѸäΤǤ롥㤨ƤκƼѤͿʤɡɬ⤳ε§ˤƤϤޤʤ⤢Τǡܰ¤ˤȤɤƤCharles Charlotte λҲκۤˤĤƤŪ˾ܤĴ٤櫓ǤϤʤΰ㤤Ȥϡͭ̾˿ȼ䤹ήԤϹȿǤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥
ʤޥĸ *karlas (man) ϡľܤ뤤ϴܤ˸Ѹ churl carl ޤƤ롥̣Ρˡפֿʬ㤤ˡפؤȲƤΤ⤷դˡ̾ Charles Charlotte ϡѹ񲦼ο͵ˤꡤषͤޤäƤȤʡˡ
ե󥹼Ѹǯ˴ؤƤϡ#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1291. ե󥹼Ѹμѻκ ([2012-11-08-1])#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2011-03-06-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħ ([2010-12-12-1]), #2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]), #2184. ñȥեñ (2) ([2015-04-20-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Referrer (Inside): [2018-05-07-1] [2018-04-25-1]

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2015-05-01 Fri

#2195. Toubon ˡΡƱ [french][language_planning][sociolinguistics][loan_word][synonym]

ε#2194. ե󥹸쵬ϼѸŨ롤̱Ūե󥹸 ([2015-04-30-1]) ǡե󥹤1994ǯꤵ줿 Toubon ˡ (Loi Toubon) ˿줿Toubon ˡȤ¯Τϡʸե󥳥եˡ (Le ministre de la culture et de la francophonie) Jacques Toubon ˡƳȤˤʤࡥŪʾǤΥե󥹸λѤˡʤȤ櫓Ѹռơ˳λѤ¤ˡȤäƤ褤ե󥹤θڤӸؤλθˡȸ뤳ȤǤ롥
Toubon ˡϡŪϼʤɤμҲŪʴΤ˶̣ǤϤ뤬ŪʴȤ뤳ȤϾʤʸΤʤ˸Ū˹θ٤1Ĥ롥Article 5 ˼Τ褦ˤ롥

Quels qu'en soient l'objet et les formes, les contrats auxquels une personne morale de droit public ou une personne privée exécutant une mission de service public sont parties sont rédigés en langue française. Ils ne peuvent contenir ni expression ni terme étrangers lorsqu'il existe une expression ou un terme français de même sens approuvés dans les conditions prévues par les dispositions réglementaires relatives à l'enrichissement de la langue française.


ŪʷǤϡƱ̣ ("même sens") Υե󥹸ɽ礬ˡб볰ѤƤϤʤȤʸǤ롥ǤƱ̣פȤɽϡ̣ŪޤǤ롥#1498. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (3) ([2013-06-03-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ褯ΤƤȤꡤ˸̩ʰ̣ǤƱ¸ߤˤθȰ츫ƱȤܤ¾θ礬Ѥ¸ȤƤ⡤ξԤ̯˵ǽ㤨Τ̤Ǥ롥ǡֵǽפȸƤΤϡdenotation connotation ޤƤΡְ̣פƱΤǤ롥ʸ "sens" denotation ΤߤؤƤ褦 "sens" ζλüԤȤѸȤ򤹤ˤϡdenotation Τߤʤ餺 connotation θ򤷤ƤΤǤꡤξԤϸߤ˴ƱǤϤʤ
1Ĥ signifié б signifiant 2ĤꡤʸϤǤդ˸ؤȤΤϡΤˤ˸򾷤ǽǡŪʸˤդ路ʤ1Ĥ signifié б signifiant 2ĤפȤϡҤΤ褦˵Ǥ롥ǤϤ뤬ˤϤȤΤȤǤηǰƤΤǤС֤˸򾷤ȤΤʤ褦ˡפʤɤȤʸʸ˴ޤФ褤ΤˡƺԤδؿϡľܤΤ褦ʴˤȤϡ¤ "l'enrichissement de la langue française" ˤ褦Ǥ롥
ξʸϡ"même sens" ȤѸѤƼݤ褦ȤƤ뤬ǸˤϸŪȤϸŪȤ٤ "l'enrichissement de la langue française" ǽƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥դˤ󤯤򴶤롥

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2015-04-30 Thu

#2194. ե󥹸쵬ϼѸŨ롤̱Ūե󥹸 [french][prescriptive_grammar][standardisation][academy][linguistic_imperialism][language_planning][language_myth][world_englishes]

ե󥹸˵ŪʸǤȤ롥ϼϱѸˤ⤢뤬ե󥹸ˤϱѸ붯Ϥ롥⤷쵬ϼŪʸȤ뤫⤷ʤΥե󥹸εϼγΩȡȼο (language_myth) ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ

#626. ֥ե󥹸ŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1077. Rivarol Υե󥹸ͥº (1) ([2012-04-08-1])
#1078. Rivarol Υե󥹸ͥº (2) ([2012-04-09-1])
#1079. Rivarol Υե󥹸ͥº (3) ([2012-04-10-1])

Perret (70--71) ˽äƥե󥹸쵬ϼȯŸˤ⤹ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥15--16ե󥹲ϥƥäƥե󥹸θȤƽѤϥե󥹸ɸಽή¥ʤ17ˤ Academie française Ω1635ǯ˵ڤӵŪʸˡ伭νǤ꼡18Υե󥹸ݲνפФȤʤä18γ̿ˤե󥹸ϿȤΥܥ˻Ωƾ夲졤ե󥹸ʳθɸŪʥե󥹸ѼˡŪӽ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤɸե󥹸м20ޤ³20ʹߤϡѸŨĬήǻ1994ǯ Toubon ˡǤϡѸɽθŪʻѤ¤褦Ȥаޤ롥ˤ La Francophonie ([2015-04-28-1], [2015-04-29-1]) 20ȾˤȯŸϡΤ褦ʱѸŨδ֤Ť뤳ȤǤե󥹸ŪȻȼɸŪŪʥե󥹸줬θҤɬݻǤʤʤäƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ϰ褴Ȥι̱Ūե󥹸Ѽ (français nationaux) ¸ߴ򶯤ƤƤ롥 (World) Englishes (world_englishes) Υե󥹸ǤȤ
ե󥹸εϼβȥե󥹳̿δطˤĤƤϡ4ϡ֥ե󥹳̿ȸפɤߤ䤹٤ࡥ

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-07-02-1] [2015-05-01-1]

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2015-04-29 Wed

#2193. La Francophonie (2) [french][statistics][demography][francophonie][map]

˰³La Francophonie ˤĤơLa Francophonie θǸե󥳥եˡ ˡե󥹸˴ؤ͸פޤ͡ʿǺܤƤ롥οϡOIF (Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) ˤ2014ǯ4ǯȤ˹ˤ˴ŤΤȤ򤤤Ĥ

La Francophonie 80ιϰ褬äϢ54β23Υ֥С3ν
ե󥹸ϱѸȤȤ5ΦäƤǤ
27400ͤΥե󥹸üԡʤ5Φ21200ͤȤƻѡ
12500ͤΥե󥹸ؽԡ7600ͤȤơ4900ͤȤƳؽ
衼åѤ7700ͤŪʥե󥹸üԡڤ5200ͤΥե󥹸ǽϤͭ
5ܤˤ褯ä
3ܤζ̳Ѹʥ衼åѤǤ2ܡ
4ܤΥ󥿡ͥåѸ
2ܤ˹ݵؤѤƤ

嵭ΥȤˤϥե󥹸˴ϢϿޤ⤤ĤǺܤƤ롥ʲŽդ褦

Estimation de francophones

Le monde de la Francophonie

Le monde de la Francophonie et Commonwealth

2ܤϿޤˤ褦ˡLa Francophonie ˤ54β (États de gouvernements membres de l'OIF)23Υ֥С (États observateurs), 3ν (États associés) η80ιϰ褬äƤ롥ϰ褴Ȥ̾󤲤褦

Afrique de l'Ouest

  • Bénin
  • Burkina Faso
  • Cap-Vert
  • Côte d'Ivoire
  • Ghana (État associé)
  • Guinée
  • Guinée Bissau
  • Mali
  • Niger
  • Sénégal
  • Togo
Afrique centrale et océan Indien
  • Burundi
  • Cameroun
  • Centrafrique
  • Congo
  • Congo RD
  • Gabon
  • Guinée équatoriale
  • Rwanda
  • Sao Tomé et Principe
  • Tchad
  • Comores
  • Djibouti
  • Madagascar
  • Maurice
  • Mozanbique (État observateur)
  • Seychelles
Afrique du Nord et Moyen-Orient
  • Egypte
  • Émirats arabes unis (État observateur)
  • Liban
  • Maroc
  • Mauritanie
  • Tunisie
  • Quatar (État associé)
Amérique --- Caraïbe
  • Canada
  • Canada Nouveau-Brunswick
  • Canada Québec
  • Costa Rica (État observateur)
  • Mexique (État observateur)
  • République dominicaine (État observateur)
  • Dominique
  • Haïti
  • Sainte-Lucie
  • Uruguay (État observateur)
Asie --- Pacifique
  • Cambodge
  • Laos
  • Thaïlande (État observateur)
  • Vanuatu
  • Vietnam
Europe
  • Albanie
  • Andorre
  • Arménie
  • Autriche (État observateur)
  • Belgique
  • Bosnie herzégovine (État observateur)
  • Bulgarie
  • Chypre (État associé)
  • Estonie (État observateur)
  • Croatie (État observateur)
  • Ex-Rép. yougoslave de Macédoine
  • France
  • Géorgie (État observateur)
  • Grèce
  • Hongrie (État observateur)
  • Kosovo (État observateur)
  • Lettonie (État observateur)
  • Lituanie (État observateur)
  • Luxembourg
  • Moldavie
  • Monaco
  • Montégnégro (État observateur)
  • Pologne (État observateur)
  • Réep. Tchèque (État observateur)
  • Roumanie
  • Serbie (État observateur)
  • Slovaquie (État observateur)
  • Slovénie (État observateur)
  • Suisse
  • Ukraine (État observateur)
  • Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles

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2015-04-28 Tue

#2192. La Francophonie (1) [french][history][linguistic_imperialism][francophonie][hfl]

#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]) Υե󥹡ʸǤȸƤǤ褤ΤˡLa Francophonie ʥե󥹸Ϣˮˤ롥֤դ󤹡פ4ˡ˳Ȥե󥳥եˡLe Monde de la Francophonieפꤹ뵭ߤ30Ǥ˼Τ褦롥  *

֥ե󥹸οʸŪŪ¿οסʿ¡̱͸οʡסֶȸλٱסֻ³ŪȯŸ˷Ҥ붨Ϥγȯפ̿Ȥݥե󥳥ˡ (OIF: Organisation internationale de la Francophonie) 80˵ڤֹϰ5Φ٤Ƥʬۤ뤬Τ٤Ƥե󥹸ѸȤ֥ե󥹸פȤ櫓ǤϤʤ֥ե󥳥եˡפȤϡե󥹸̤βʹѤȤƾ嵭̿Τ2ǯȤ˥ߥåȤԤʤޤޤʳư˼ȤŪȿǤ롥


տȤ館褦ΰǡ֥ե󥹸̤βʹѤȤơפȤ꤬Ǥʤ̸˲餫βͤȤ̸ˤʹѤտ路ƤȤȤǤ롥ե󥹸餷Ǥ롤ŪʸǤ롤ʿ¤θǤβͤŤΤȤե󥹸Ф뤳βͤŤɤȤȤǤϤʤ̸ˤϱˤƤΤ褦ʲͤŤʤΤȤ̣ǡ˲ʹѤտ路Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥ΰѤǤϡե󥹸˲ʹѤտ路ƤȽҤ٤ƤΤǤϤʤե󥹸Ȥ̸ֲʹѤȤפȤ롥⡤ֶ̤βʹѤȤפȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϰβ̣Τ̸ʹѤȤȤϡɽαDz򤹤꤫Ƥ褦ʵơ󤯤򴶤ʤThe Commonwealth of Nations La Francophonie ⡤εῴϤѤƴˤ䤫ʹݥ֤ȤݤȻפ뤬Ϳ褦ˤʤȡꥹե󥹤ˤ뿷̱ϼǤȤηǰ롥La Francophonie ˤȿѸδȤ¦̤⤢뤬С켫Ȥ (linguistic_imperialism) οԡԤȤʤӤӤƤ褦˻פ
ΤȤƤ La Francophonie ʥ1960ǯˤ뤬θ塤ĤʳФȯŸƤǽιݥߥåȤϡ1986ǯ˥ߥåƥΤθƤӤˤ륵dzŤ줿ʸ塤褽2ǯ1٤ΥڡǥߥåȤƤ롥La Francophonie OIF αפˤĤơPerret Υե󥹸ˤΥ (71) Ѥ褦

La Francophonie et la francophonie

La Francophonie (avec une majuscule), organisation plus politique que linguistique, est née au debut des années 1960 de la volonté de quelques dirigeants de nations francophones devenues indépendeantes, comme Hamani Diori, Habib Bourguiba, Norodom Shihanouk et Leopold Sédar Senghor, malgré les réticences de la France, alor peu désireuse de s'impliquer dans un «Commonwealth français». De Conférence des états francophones (1969) en Organisation commune africaine et malgache (1966) et en Agence de coopération culturelle et technique (1970), l'idée prit corps et le gouvernement canadien finit par accepter que le Québec et le Nouveau-Brunswick soient inclus dans l'organisation naissante. Les sommets francophones ont commencé à se réunir à partir de 1986; ils ne regroupent pas seulement des États dont l'une des langues officielle est le français, mais aussi des régions, des «États associés» et des «États observateur», si bien que cette Organisation internationale de la francophonie compte en son sein des pays non francophones comme l'Albanie, la Bulgarie, La Guinée-Bissau, la Guinée-Équatoriale, la Macédoine, la Moldavie, le Mozambique, la Pologne, la Roumanie, Saint-Thomas-et-Prince, la Serbie et l'Ukraine, pays qui ont choisi le français comme langue d'enseignement, première ou seconde, et/ou comme langue internationale. Aussi ne parle-t-on plus d'États francophones mais d'États ayant le français en partage.


ܤˤˤĤƤϡLa Francophonie θ Une histoire de la francophonie - Organisation internationale de la Francophonie ˾ܤ

Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.

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2015-04-20 Mon

#2184. ñȥեñ (2) [french][norman_french][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][norman_conquest][false_friend]

ε#2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥϡʩбη̣Υ򤯤٤(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݤܤϡ(2) ե󥹸äμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ2ĤλƳ롥
ޤ (2) ˤĤơѸȥե󥹸бӤȤ´κθϡֺǤ롥䤿ӤƤΤϡ̾Ѹȸե󥹸бǤ롥եñ줬ѸؼѤ줿Τϡ¿ѸˤƤǤ (cf. #117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])) Ĥޤꡤ6--8ۤΥե󥹸ä6--8ۤαѸήεǤߤ褦ˡμѲˤƤ model Ȥʤեñ loan ȤʤñΤ¿ΥåפΤ̤äΤǤ뤫顤ޤƤФˤξбɤ̣ˤƥԥäȰפʤΤ϶äȤǤϤʤ6--8Τˡθη̣ϡե󥹸¦ǤѸ¦ǤȼѲƤǽ⤤
㤨СѸ doubt ϥե󥹸 douter б뤬ֻϰۤʤ롥ñֻ <b> ƤΤϱѸˤ׿Ǥꡤֻϥե󥹸Ǥ夷ʤä (cf. #1187. etymological respelling ζ ([2012-07-27-1])) ޤե󥹸 journée ϡ1פΰ̣бѸ journey ϡιԡפǤ롥ѸǤѸˤϡ1פθäˡ1ΰưΥפФơιԡפθȯŸȤȤθѤ줿λ֤СäȤ줬ΤϤΤȡ鸫ǤϤбΤȵ虜ʤۤɡߤˤΥ줿ؤȯŸǽ롥
ˡ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ˽פǤ롥ǯǤϤʤäȤΥåפ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ե󥹸Ѥθɬե󥹸ɸե󥹸ˤǤϤʤȤ¤롥䤿ؽ븽ե󥹸Υե󥹸ͳ褷Ƥ뤬Ȥ櫓Ѹ˱Ѹ줬Ѥե󥹸ä¿ϼ¤ϥե˹ԤƤΥޥ󡦥ե (norman_french) Ǥ (cf. #1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])) פˡΡ¤äץեñ줬ñȤƼѤƸߤ˻äƤΤǤꡤȸɸե󥹸ȤӤȤˡ줬ΤǤ롥Υե󥹸üԤλ鸽Ѹбįȡ֤ʤѸΤΡ¤äեñѤƤΤפȼ򤫤ʤ롥ŪʻˤĤƤϡ#76. Norman French vs Central French ([2009-07-13-1])#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1])#388. äȤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2010-05-20-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ʾ塤2ˤ錄äƱñȥեñθˤĤƲ⤷ƤξԤΥåפϡ(1) ѲΤΤ˵Τ⤢С(2) Ѥ夬ΤȤǤꡤθξŪȯŸη̤ȤƤȤ館⤢뤷(3) μѥե󥹸ɸäȤ¤ˤΤ⤢롥ñȸեñȤʿŪįƤǤϸƤʤΩŪʱԤ򡤱Ѹˤ̤ƴƤ餤

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-07-1]

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2015-04-19 Sun

#2183. ñȥեñ (1) [french][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][norman_conquest][false_friend]

Ѹ˳μȤʤɤǡѸθäˤ¿Υեñ줬ޤޤƤ뤫ˤȡʹϰͤ˶ä绨ĤˤäƱѸä1/3ե󥹸줢뤤ϤοƸǤƥ줫μѸǤ롥Ϣ뤤ĤפˤĤƤϡ#110. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-15-1]) ӡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ƭĥä󥯤򻲾Ȥ줿
λ¤ʹȡѸȥե󥹸˶̤ä¿Τϡñ줬ե󥹸̤¿褦ߤαѸŪͥޤܸˤ¿αѸäήƤ¤ͤСե󥹸줬¿αñѤƤϤȤΤ̵Ϥʤ
Ѹˤ򻲾ȤмºݤˤϵդǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Ū˱Ѹ줬եñ̤˼ѤƤ椨ˡ̤Ȥξ˶̤θä¿ΤǤ롥üŪˤС1066ǯΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤꡤ󥰥ɤΰҿ줬Ѹ줫ե󥹸ذܤäˡ̤Υե󥹸줫̤αѸؤȸä̤ήȤȤǤ롥ʱѸ줬ե󥹸ͿƶȤλϡŪˤŪ˵Ǥ롥#1026. 18Ѹ줫ե󥹸äѸ ([2012-02-17-1])#1012. ˤѸ줫ե󥹸ؤαƶ ([2012-02-03-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ե󥹸򾯤Ǥ⤫äȤΤԤǤСʩǶ̤ϳΤ¿ɡ̣ߤˤƤȤ㤬ʤʤȤ˵ŤбäϤΤ̩ˡƱפǤ櫓ǤϤʤˤꡤfalse_friend (Fr. "faux amis") ꤬뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])) ե󥹸¦ model ȱѸ¦ loan Ȥδ֤ˡ̣Τ줬ƤޤΤϡäʤmodel loan ȤѸˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
䤤ˤϡ(1) äμѲ (borrowing) ˵꤬ʸݡ(2) ե󥹸äμѤλȤθθѲ(3) ѤоݤȤʤäե󥹸Ȥ3ˤĤ򤷤Ƥɬפ롥ϡ(1) ܤ褦äμѲ˵꤬ʸݤȤϡѸˤη̣¿ʤȤĤƼإԡΤ̤Ǥ뤳ȤޤܤСѸϡȤȯֻ¿쾯ʤηϤŬ礵ήΤ̾Ǥ롥㤨Сե󥹸α߿첻 /y/ Ÿɡ /ɲ/ ϡɬ⤽ΤޤޤηDZѸ˼줿ΤǤϤʤ¿ξ礽줾 /ɪʊ/, /nj/ ȤƼޤ줿 (cf. #1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])) ̯ʺۤǤϤ뤬μѤˤ model Τޤ˥ԡ櫓ǤϤʤȤ򼨤Ƥ롥Ѹ /ʃəːt/ (shirt) ܸ /shatsu/ ʥġˤȤƼޤʤɡäդäȤܤǤϡΤ褦ʥ줬Τ϶ˤ̤Ǥ롥
˰̣ܤƤ⡤model loan δ֤ˤϤФХåפѻ롥Ȥ櫓ѤˤƤ model θΰΤߤѤ뤳Ȥ¿̣ϰϤȤƤ model > loan δطΩĤȤ¿ͭ̾ưʪ󤲤ȡѸ beef ϸťե󥹸 boef, buefѤǤ롥model ˤϵȵξθޤޤ뤬loan ˤϵθޤޤʤǤϥեñ줬̣̾DZѸؼѤƤʤ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ⻲ȡˡƱͤˡѸ room ϡ֥롼פȤθˤܸäƤ뤬;Ϥθϡ֥롼פˤϤʤ
ǵ󤲤ƤǤϡñȥեñδ֤κۤϤäȤƤŪΤäե󥹸ؽˤƽвñαʩ֤ΥȰ´ϡФФä礭õˤϡ(2) (3) λȤɬפǤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2015-05-07-1] [2015-04-20-1]

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