ѸˤϤäȱѸɸಽ (standardisation) ܻؤ줿ɸಽȤ Haugen ˤ "maximum variation in function" "minimum variation in form" ΤȤǤʡ#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1])ˡԤüŪˤС1ĤñˤĤ1ĤηȯֻˤбƤ٤Ǥꡤʣΰ۷ (allomorphs) бƤ뤳Ȥ˾ޤʤȤΩǤ롥
ɸεǽΥڥϡn ķ֤츻ŪǤϤ뤬ѸǤ n æ۷֤̤ѤƤꡤä˱ʸʤɤǤϲ䱤ΧԹ˻ȤʬΩѰۡפäŪ˰ܲ⡤ŪԹΤ¿ͤĤƤΤ褷Ȥ߷פäȤǤ
ȤѸ˱ѸɸಽʤǤȡȤϵդˡŪͳˤƷŪŻ뤹߷פƬ⤿Ƥ롥ɸγƸϡn ̵ͭδ֤Ǽͳɤ뤳Ȥʤʤꡤ줫η֤ɸȤƺѤʤФʤʤʤäΤǤ롥n Τ֤ʤ֤줬Ф뤫ϸˤäưۤʤäƤ괧1;νͭ̾Τ褦ˡѤʬۤŪʸˡŪΤ˵ꤵ줵ξ֤¸뤳Ȥ⤢ꤨΤ褦ʸġθοΰ㤤졤ŪʻۤȤƤϡͳѰۤȤƤΰ۷֤¸ߤ줾η֤1ĤηޤäͿȤȤȤʤä
a my Ǥ n Τʤ֤Ф졤in on Ǥ n Τ֤Ф줿Ȥ㤤ϡŪˤĤΤɸಽˤ۷֤Ȥ礭ʸ߷פδϡɽŪʰ㤤ˤʤȤȤˤʤαԤ Schlüter (29) ꡤϢսѤ褦
Possibly as part of this standardization process, the phonological makeup of many high-frequency words stabilized in one way or the other. While Middle English had been an era characterized by an unprecedented flexibility in terms of the presence or absence of variable segments, Early Modern English had lost these options. A word-final <e> was no longer pronounceable as [ə]; vowel-final and consonant-final forms of the possessives my/mine, thy/thine, and of the negative no/none were increasingly limited to determiner vs. pronoun function, respectively; formerly omissible final consonants of the prepositions of, on, and in became obligatory, and the distribution of final /n/ in verbs was eventually settled (e.g. infinitive see vs. past participle seen). In ME times, this kind of variability had been exploited to optimize syllable contact at word boundaries by avoiding hiatuses and consonant clusters (e.g. my leg but min arm, i þe hous but in an hous, to see me but to seen it). The increasing fixation of word forms in Early Modern English came at the expense of phonotactic adaptability, but reduced the amount of allomorphy; in other words, phonological constraints were increasingly outweighed by morphological ones . . . .
ɸθ n æ۷֤ˤĤƤϡ#831. Why "an apple"? ([2011-08-06-1])#2723. ֻ on ˤ n æ ([2016-10-10-1])#3030. on foot afoot ؤʸˡȽز ([2017-08-13-1]) ʤɤȡ괧#907. 첻 the εŪȯ ([2011-10-21-1]) ȤϢʵ롥
Schlüter, Julia. "Phonology." Chapter 3 of The History of English. 4th vol. Early Modern English. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2017. 27--46.
ε#3455. ʤˤ˽Τ --- 3ĤΩ ([2018-10-12-1]) ǰ͵ Wardhaugh ϡˤϡҲĿͤǧȤ٥Ǥͳ褹ΤȹͤƤ롥ĤޤּҲʸǧפΰ̴طѤƤΤǤꡤεդǤϤʤȤΩơΤ褦ʺۤϡ˸¤餺Ҳпϰʤɤ˴Ť¾μҲŪѥˤߤΤǤꡤ夲ơä˽Ż뤹뤳ȤǤΤȵ褷Ƥ롥εʹƤߤ褦
[W]e must be prepared to acknowledge the limits of proposals that seek to eliminate 'sexist' language without first changing the underlying relationship between men and women. Many of the suggestions for avoiding sexist language are admirable, but some, as Lakoff points out with regard to changing history to herstory, are absurd. Many changes can be made quite easily; early humans (from early man); salesperson (from salesman); ordinary people (from the common man); and women (from the fair sex). However, other aspects of language may be more resistant to change, e.g., the he-she distinction. Languages themselves may not be sexist. Men and women use language to achieve certain purposes, and so long as differences in gender are equated with differences in access to power and influence in society, we may expect linguistic differences too. For both men and women, power and influence are also associated with education, social class, regional origin, and so on, and there is no question in these cases that there are related linguistic differences. Gender is still another fact that relates to the variation that is apparently inherent in language. While we may deplore that this is so, variation itself may be inevitable. Moreover, we may not be able to pick and choose which aspects of variation we can eliminate and which we can encourage, much as we might like to do so. (350)
ҲŪ˽ȤΤϡ䤹ʿǤʤ̤Ǥꡤ줬ˤȿǤƤȤȤ館ΤȡWardhaugh ϹͤƤ롥ˡ丫ȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ʤ˴ؤϤĤƤ롥
My own view is that men's and women's speech differ because boys and girls are brought up differently and men and women often fill different roles in society. Moreover, most men and women know this and behave accordingly. If such is the case, we might expect changes that make a language less sexist to result from child-rearing practices and role differentiations which are less sexist. Men and women alike would benefit from the greater freedom of choice that would result. However, it may be utopian to believe that language use will ever become 'neutral'. Humans use everything around them --- and language is just a thing in that sense --- to create differences among themselves. (354)
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
йҲؤǡּҲؤڤפȤ (1) ࡤ(2) (3) Ѳ3Ƥ롥¤ʬ䤹й (45) ΤޤȤʸϤѤȡ
(1) ġĸդϡäʹꡤãˡ˹ä¿ͤʼब롥
(2) ġĸդϡä꤬¿ͤʼΤʤ֤ΤǤ롥
(3) Ѳġĸդϡ¿ͤʼΤʤ¿ä꤬Ť̡ͤҲŪѲ롥
ѸǤС(1) variation, (2) selection, (3) change ȤäȤϳΤ variationist ɸ֤ҲؤǤϤ뤬Ʊ˸ѲˤǤ⤢롥
Ѳ (language_change) äơޤ (1) variation variants ¸ߤƤʤФʤʤcf. #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])#2574. ־ѰۤꡤѲäƤס ([2016-05-14-1])ˡ
ˡüԡʽġˤ variants Τʤ餤줫Ӽ (2) selection β롥
ơѡʤɸƤ͡βФƿΰ̣Ǥ (3) change 뤳ȤˤʤΤcf. #1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) ȡ#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1])ˡ
3Ĥϡ#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich et al. ηǤ§Ȥ⤪˽Ťʤ롥
й ܸϡֶפ롡Ҳ١ʸҡҸʸҿӡ2013ǯ.
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ѸϡӵǾΤ -er, -est ʤɤζޤѤ뤫more, most ʤɤαŪˡ뤫ˤĤơ츫ƤʤƤ;ȤϸѸޤ³ƤȤäƤ褤Mondorf (863) ϡǽŪʴߤиѸξϡƤʤפȤߤʤȤϤǤषĤĤȼĥ롥
The distribution of comparative variants in Late Modern English reveals an emergent functionally-motivated division of labor, with the analytic form becoming the domain of cognitively complex environments (e.g. if the adjective is accompanied by a prepositional or infinitival complement or if it is poly- rather than monomorphemic, etc.), while the synthetic form increases its range of application in easier-to-process environments . . . .
ĤޤꡤƻӤѰۤϡñˡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤ礭ĬήΤʤǤȤ館٤ǤϤʤǧŪʥץפޤǽŪ¦̤դį٤ǤȤѰۤϺɽ魯ΤǤϤʤʬ ("division of labor") η̤Ǥꡤष1ĤʤΤMondorf (864) ηѤ롥
The system of comparison in Late Modern English develops a remarkably clear pattern of reorganization. Comparative alternation becomes more systematic by exploiting the options offered by the availability of morphosyntactic variants. As regards processing requirements it makes the best possible use of each variant: cognitively complex environments (such as adjectives accompanied by a complement) consistently increase their share of the analytic comparative to such an extent that the analytic form can even become obligatory. By contrast, easy-to-process environments can afford to use the synthetic comparative. What is at stake in the diachronic development of comparative alternation is an economically-motivated division of labor, in which each variant assumes the task it is best suited to. This division of labor emerges in the LModE period, around the 18th century . . . . The benefit of creating a typologically consistent, uniform synthetic or analytic language systems is outweighed by forces following functional motivations. The older synthetic form can stand its ground (or even reconquer formerly lost domains) in easy-to-process environments, while the analytic form prevails in cognitively-demanding contexts.
Ϣơ#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
ʸˡǤ be ưβˡȤơ1;ñ3;ñ was ʤ were Ѥ롥If I were you . . . as it were ǡǤ롥Τ褦ʷʸŪʸΤǤλѤΥСǤľˡ˰ĥ was Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤƤȸ㤨СI wouldn't do that, if I was you. I wish I was dead! ʤɡˡ
ŪʲʹѤԤǤСΤ褦 was ˡָѡפȴλѼԤüԤȤߤʤ⤷ʤѲȤߤԤϡwas λѤäˤäơ̯ʿ벾ˡʲˤƤȤ֤⤷ʤۤˤϡʪήžסֹԤϤή䤨ơפãѤƸѲįͤ⤢ȤơѲκˤʤȤܤ˿Ѱ۷ϡߤ˰ۤʤỤ̄ (connotation) ˥奢͡ʼҲŪʸŪʲͤӤӤ뤳Ȥ¿
ΰ⤦ǫ褦A B ȤѲƤˤϡʤ A B Ѥ֤롥ξǤСˡ If I were . . . (= A) If I was . . . (= B) ξѤ֤롥ζѴ֤ˤϤʤĹꡤʤɤζ̤̤뤬̤˱ A B ΤˤϼҲŪʸŪͤѰˤƳƼκۤ뤳Ȥ¿̤ǤϡA ˤμB ˤϿʪȤƤηʶ뤫⤷ʤ̤ζ̤ǤϡA ϶ܤB ̵ܤɸ뤫⤷ʤޤ̤ζ̤ǤϡA ϵʷϵޤȤäſ뤪भB Ͽͽ㡹뤫⤷ʤǽŪ A äB ΤߤǽȤʤäȤޤǤγƶ̤ǤξԤΥ饤ХطϡʻפФв˲ΥɥޤȤʤäƤꡤǤϴλƤΤǤ롥
If I were/was . . . ˤ餺ѲȤϤΤ褦ʤΤѲΤʤǶŪƤüԤˤȤäƤϡξΩϸ߿ʹΥꥢʥɥޤʤΤǤꡤݼ顤¾Ω줬ΤޤʤΤǤϤʤ
#3162. Ű ([2017-12-23-1]) #3172. 饤ҥ㡼ηŪȯۤϥǤϤʤʸؤ ([2018-01-02-1]) ǻȤƤˤСʹ֤ιԤʤʪʬˡϡʬ͡ (group thinking) ȡַ͡ (tree thinking) ̤ȤȤʬहȽļηطȤʬहΤ (107) Ϥ줾˴ŤʳؤʬʳءפȡָŰʳءפȸƤӡξԤΤ褦оȤƤ롥
| ʬʳ | ʬ | ե | 硿 | ǧΥƥ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Űʳ | | ȥ˥ߡ | Ρʬ | ˡʥ֥ |
| ǰŪ | Ū | |
|---|---|---|
| ηϳ (Systematik) | (Phylogenetik) | |
| (Formverwandtschaft) | ط (Blutsverwandtschaft) | |
| (Metamorphose) | ȯ (Stammesentwicklung) | |
| ηϳŪʳ (systematischen Stufenreihen) | (Ahnenreihen) | |
| (Typus) | (Stammform) | |
| (typischen Zuständen) | Ū (ursprüngliche Zuständen) | |
| Ū (atypischen Zuständen) | Ū (abgeänderte Zuständen) |
| ʬʳ | Űʳ |
|---|---|
| ¤ (structural linguistics) | Ӹ (comparative linguistics) |
| (typology) | ˸ (historical linguistics) |
| (linguistic area) | ² (language family) |
| ܿ (contact, borrowing) | (inheritance) |
| (space) | (time) |
| (synchrony) | ̻ (diachrony) |
| ط (paradigm) | Ϣط (syntagm) |
| ѥ (pattern) | ץ (process) |
| ???? (variation) | ???? (change) |
| (type) | ȡ (token) |
| ե (metaphor) | ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) |
| How | Why |
ʲͤƴĤȤƹ⤯Ǥ뤿ˤϡ䤿ʬͤйϤĤ⤦ĤλȤȤƥԡ뤹ɬפ롥ȤСܤˤΤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡƤΤʻװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϼºݤ̿ץʬʪؤؤȤߤʤ롥ФơΤ֤ʤפΤ褦ˤäΤʵװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϿʲʪؤȤ٤
ѲΡ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפȡ֤ʤפ (how_and_why) ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2642. ѲμȻȤߤν̡ ([2016-07-21-1])#3133. Ѳ "how" "why" ([2017-11-24-1]) ǰäƤʪؤθˤ꿷ȯۤ줿롥
ؿʲͤҥȤϿݤɤηϲ뤫١NHKǡ2010ǯ
2018ǯȤʤޤǯ hellog ³Ƥޤꤤפޤ
ǯǽϡ֤餮פˤĤơ¸ߤ餮ˤϵ§ŪȤΤ⤢СޤäͽԲǽʤΤ⤢뤬¿θݤˤƤϡȤϤȤ⤢ͽ¬Ǥ餮ǧ롥ʤǤ1/f 餮פȤΤƤΤϡȤβˤ¿ǧ졤Ȥ櫓ʹ֤ΤΤʤˤФдޤޤƤȸ롥Τ餮ϳܤǯءαλݤߡż֤ɤ졤ŤĮ¤ߡࡤܡҡݤΥꥺࡤȸȤХåϤ⡼ĥȤγڶʤʤɤˤߤۤ١˦¤ˤǧȤ1/f 餮פȤƾΤϡоݤΤ餮μȿ (frequency) ʬʬϤʬζŪäƥղȡľ뤳Ȥˤ롥1/f2 1/f-1 Ǥʤ 1/f ǤȤɤʹ֤ˤȤäƤβΥݥȤ餷ԡpp. 24--39ˡ
1/f 餮ʹ֤̩ܤʤȤ¿ȤΤϡηϡˤˤߤǽ뤳Ȥ롥ǸˤȤäƤ餮Ȥϲˤʤ롥Ū variation ꤹ뤳ȤǤѲ (language_change) (frequency) ® (speed_of_language_change) ʤɤˤ⸫뤫⤷ʤ㤨С1/f 餮óȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȴؤäƤ餪⤷
1/f 餮ϡʣ (complex_system) 䥫 (chaos_theory) Ȥط롥ηϤʣϤǤꡤѲŬѤоݤȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥϡ#3112. ȸѲ (2) ([2017-11-03-1])#3122. ηϤϡ֥ձפˤ ([2017-11-13-1])#3142. ۥᥪ (1) ([2017-12-03-1])#3143. ۥᥪ (2) ([2017-12-04-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤС1/f 餮ޤ˴ͿƤǽ⤤ιͤˤⶦ̤ƤΤϡưƤʥƥळϤͽǤʤưŬ䤹Ȥ꤫꤬٤ޤ褦ʥƥǤ롥ŪʸˤϡưŪʰ괶פȤäƤ褤뤤ϺǶβʳؤΥɤǤСưŪʿա (dynamic_equilibrium) Ǥ롥ͷӡפˤ̤Τ롥
ȴϢơ (127--28) 1/f 餮ܤξˤĤƤζ̣Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
ܤʪΤθ¦˾碌ƤޤƾϡԥäȰΤȤ˻ߤޤäƤΤǤϤʤĤˤդդưƤΤǤ
ư1/f 餮˶ᤤΤǤ
ˤäˤäꡤ礳礳䤨ưƤΤϡưƤۤΤΰ֤ѤäȤˤ碌ľ䤹Ǥƥ˥꤬֤ȤˡƾΤɤäƤޤϻߤޤäƤȡܡ뤬ǤȤΤưʤǤ礦ܤξƱȤǤ
ޤϡ褦ȤΤ˹碌ƤΤ̤Τ褦ǤƤΤưȡƲܤ䤱ޤ⤷ʪΤ˹äƤȡΤƤ˹ԤäƤ⡤ܤ䤱ȤǤƱȤˤʤޤǤϾ碌ľΤˡɤ˾ưФ褤ΤȤäȽǤǤޤƤΤ⡤˾ޤäƤСΤ饺ƱưȤΤϤäꤷƤޤεդ˼ưСܤ䤱㤷ʤޤƱˡϾ˹碌ƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ˤ餤ǤۤΤȤѲб䤹ȤȤǤ礦
ηϤˤ餤Ǥ뤫餳ʹ֤Υߥ˥ߵ䤨Ѳ¨ǤʥƥȤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤ1/f 餮θؤαѤ̤οؿƤ
ؤ餮ȯۡ1/f 餮ˤޤ١Ƕ1994ǯ
ε ([2017-12-03-1]) ³ԡҡ (205) ˤȡۥᥪȤϡּ夤ѿδطˤפǤ롥ҡ (205--06) ϡۥᥪ̿ȤʣϤˤʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
̿ϤΡפȤˤ꼡ߺѤʤ롥ƱΤνĤǤäƤ⥫ˤäʬϤᡤ¿ޤ롥äƤǤ¿ϥۥ⥫֤Ȥưݻ롥ξ֤ǤϥŪˤ곰ξϤФ¿ͤĽʱԤäƤ롥
ѤƤ֥Ūפ⡤ʣϤʬΥ㡼Ǥ롥ҡʡ¿߽ФסХ1994ǯ5ˤϥŪΤ褦Ƥʵȱʡp. 163 ¹ˡ
㤨СǤۤĤΥ饹ʬƤ줾Ǥۤܰǿư֤Ĺ³塤ФФˤʤꡤФ餯³ǡޤۤȤġʤʤġˤΥ饹ޤФФˡġĤȤäȤ֤ĤޤꡤĤŪʾ֤δ֤줿֤ͳƥåƤΤǤ롥
ˤƤ֥ۥᥪפ֥ŪפŪ˸롥㤨СʸˡŪ˶ޤ˰¸ȸ˰¸Ȥξˤδ֤ɤưΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ΥեȤʳǡɤ餮줬뤫⤷ʤ椯椯Ϥʤ夯ΤǤϤʤηϤˤƤ⡤ηϤˤƤ⡤ɤưȤ̣ŪȤΤϤʤưŪ˥ХݻƤ롥
ʿξǴŻߤƤ뤳ȤξߤɤѤƥХȤ³뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥Ȥɤ礭ʤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Υԥä뤿ˡ¦˻פڤäƥХ뤳Ȥǡ̤ȤƺƤӰ֤˲뤳ȤϤ롥ľΩưŻ߾֤ȤŪˤϤ뤬ŪˤϤʤݡŪǽꤷǤưŪǤ뤳ȤȤΤۥᥪǤ롥
ˮɧ ϺʣϤΥŪʥꥪ١īҽŹ1996ǯ
ȱ ءʣϡפȤϲ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ1996ǯ
ηϤȼȿħȤʣϤǤ뤳ȤˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥcf. #3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1]) #3112. ȸѲ (2) ([2017-11-03-1])#3122. ηϤϡ֥ձפˤ ([2017-11-13-1])#3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1])#3130. ʣϸء ([2017-11-21-1])ˡ
ѲѰۤоݤˤƤȡ˴ؤ븽ݤΤޤʣ˰ݤ롥ɤΤ褦˹ͤƤˤȸäʣϤˤư롥и̵ۤΤ褦ˤߤơǤְ㤤ʤ餫ϤľȤʣϤ˰㤤ʤȤȯۤˤʤ롥Ū濴ηǡưŪʰ¸ߡ̤ȤƥХݤ륢ХΤʤѲѰۡΤ褦̷⤹ħݤʪݤʪȤäǤǤʤоݤΤߤ롥
ءʣϡפȤϲ٤路ȱ (169) ϡΤ褦Ҥ˽äơ֥ۥᥪפȤ¤ǸƤǤ롥
ʬؤϡȿȤդäƥ褦ʡŪʰǤϤʤ¿μͳ٤ļ夤Ūưˤ櫓ǤʤȤäƴˤФФˤʤ櫓Ǥʤߤƶ礤¸礤ʤ顤Ĥޤ¿ݻʤ顽뤤¿Ĥ椨ˡڤǤϤȤʤ֤äơæʤΤ褦ʤդޤ롤ưŪʰ֤Ǥ롥
ҤϤ¿ݻ֥ۥᥪ homeochaosפȸƤǤ롥ۥᥪŪŪꤷ餮ФᤷΥեɥХåȹͤƤΤФۥᥪϤΤ褦۾֤ۤʤƤ⤤ȤƤƤ롥
ˡΥۥᥪˤΤϡΡּפּͳ١פȤäȤߤΤΤѲۤʤȤߤ뤳ȤȤȤϥץʳˤȸƤФʵȱ, pp. 169--70ˡ
ۥᥪȤ˽פˤʤΤϡ֤μ륷ƥऽΤΤμͳ٤ư륱Ǥ롥ŪˤϡŪʥ˥åȤߤߺѤФʬꡤޤ椫üꤹǤꡤȤк˦ʤɡȾΥƥϤͳ٤ưƥˤʤäƤ롥
ͳ٤ꤵ줿ä֤μѤݤ줿Ĥƥ˸̾ΥǤϡ֤ǤεƻˤʤäƿФƤȡɤޤꤿޤ롥֤ΤΤѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤͳ٤ư볫ƥǤϡ礷ƤäƱưԵ§ˤʤȡǼͳ٤Υפ뤳Ȥ롥ơ˽и;ʬʼͳ٤ꤵʬۤȡ缫ͳ٤μ夤֤˥ۥᥪεƯơ¿ݻ롥Τ褦ʳƥͭʥΥʥߥҤϡֳפȸƤǤ롥
ƥƥȤưݻ뤿ưŪʵƤΤǤСϸˤŬѤǤǽ⤤줯餤ưŪʣǤ롥
ȱ ءʣϡפȤϲ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ1996ǯ
ˮɧ ϺʣϤΥŪʥꥪ١īҽŹ1996ǯ
#3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1]) εǡζϤʰۤʤ꤬˿ʺۤ⤿餷뤳Ȥñʿʥƥåˤˤ꼨Τ褦ʥϡݡޤοؼ Benoît Mandelbrot (1924--2010) ˤؤȷӤĤ졤Ūʿ֥ե饯 (fractal) ȴϢŤ褦ˤʤä
ͤ˼̤ƤͻҤŪɽС1ؤ٤ƤޤäƤȥ饯Ȥȥ饯ˤϡΤ褦ˤñʤΤ⤢뤬⤦ʣʤΤȤĤؤηΤ⤢롥Ǥϼ̤Ƥ椯褬1ǤϤʤ롼ǤϤΤΡޤʬ˵§ŪȸƤӤ륢ȥ饯Ǥ롥1Ǥ롼Ǥʤʣʿȥ饯Ȥʤ륱롥줬ޤ˥μȥ饯ǤꡤܼƤʤȤ顤ȥȥ饯ȸƤФεǼġȥ饯1ˡΤ褦ʥȥ饯̤δŪʱ黻äʤȡʣŪʿĤޤե饯ȤʤΤ롥κǤͭ̾㤬֥ޥǥ֥ (Mandelbrot set) Ǥ롥η "gingerbread man" ȤƤФ롥ʲåơ˳礷ƤGIF˥ɤ

οΤʬ礷ƤȡȤοʿȸ롥κƵʱ³ƤΤǤ롥
Ѳݤ1ȤСбؿǤե饯ȤμȤħϡѲΤʤ¦̤ɽ路ƤȹͤΤ
ե饯μϡȤ櫓ձˤƤߤ롥㤨СѲˤ variation ˴ؤơ¦̡ǻ褦ʤȤƤ롤Ȥ褦ʤȤͤ褦óȻSʣΤ꾮SäƤȤ¤⡤ե饯ŪǤ롥
ȥե饯ԻĤʴطˤĤƤϡ奢 (268--301) ɤߤ䤹
奢ȡˡ ס¼ ˡˡإŪʣϤβʳؤء١ȼҡ1998ǯ
ɸˤĤơCrystal (296--97) ν˶ᤤʬǡϤäƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It is no more than common sense for those who have invested a childhood, or adult time and money, in successfully acquiring the English language to maintain an active interest in the language's progress. The more we learn about where the language has been, how it is structured, how it is used, and how it is changing, the more we will be able to judge its present course and help to plan its future. For many people, this will indeed mean a conscious altering of attitude. Language variation and language change --- the two aspects of English which are at the centre of its identity, and which are most in the public eye --- are too often blindly condemned. If just a fraction of the nervous energy which is currently devoted to the criticism of split infinitives and the intrusive r were devoted to the constructive promotion of forward-looking language activities, what might not be achieved?
Crystal ϡѸѲѰ (change and variation) ؤ֤Ȥˤꡤθߤ褯ȽǤ̤褯ײ褹뤳ȤǤ⤷Ƥ롥줬ѸˤϤᡤ¤ѰۡѤؤְյߡ̤˸ơѸȤޤդäƤμǤηäȤʤ롥ˡѸˤؤ֤Ȥϡޤ̤ФƤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤ롥⡤ʬΤ礭ʲǽŦ⤤ƤȻפäƤ롥
Ϣơ#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1])#1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) ([2012-08-08-1])#1200. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (3) ([2012-08-09-1])#1367. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (4) ([2013-01-23-1]) ⻲ȡ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
䡦ꥹȶˤСͣΤΤǤäʹ֤θ졤ʤ "the language" ϡ֥Х٥פλ˥ХХΥʣθ졤ʤ "languages" ȤʤäȤ롥ŪѤϡΤθ쵯ȸȻˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤˤʤȡФȽŪʸΩƤ
ˤơ18λ۲ȤǸεˤĤƤν路 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712--78) θϡػŪ˶̣륽ϡäƤθηϸĤäƤʤΤǤϤʤޤ֥Х٥װˤ줬ΥƤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥Mufwene (20) β
Rousseau questioned the Adamic hypothesis on the origins of modern language, arguing that the language that God had taught Adam and was learned by the children of Noah perished after the latter abandoned agriculture and scattered. Modern language is therefore a new invention . . . . Rousseau may have been concerned more about the diversification of the language that Noah's children had spoken before they dispersed than about the origins of language itself. He assumed the speciation to have happened before the Tower of Babel explanation in the Judeo-Christian tradition.
λߤС륽Τθϡ˾θƤȤϡػ˾ΰյĤ˲ʤϤ٤δ֤֤֡СΥ¿ͲƤΤǤȤξQŪʸꤷΤȤɾͤ롥
Mufwene (20) ϡʹ֤θǽϤȯˤĤƤε¿ͲˤĤƤϽʬ˵ƤʤȻŦƤ롥Τˡ¿ͲβˤĤƤϡޥˤߥˤ⡤ؤȤƤäܼŪʹͻʤƤ٤Ȥϴ롥ϢơηܿؤʤɤΥɤפ⤫֡
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
A's X ȤɽθǡB's X ̣ΤȤơX ά줿 B's ȤɽѤ륱϶ḽˤ⸫롥㤨СA's X and B's A's X is better than B's Τ褦ʹ¤Τ褦ʾˡ2ܤ B ˽ͭʤ 's Ĥñ B ȤҤ٤ɽ⡤ޤǤ̤˸줿㤨СA's X and B A's X is better than B Τ褦ʹ¤ǤŪ X B ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤʹ¤ȤФʤΤ¤ˤѸ줫ѸޤǹԤʤƤ
Jespersen (302) Ѹ줫ȤưʲƤ롥
His top was dokked lyk a preest biforn (like that of a p.) [Ch., A., 589]
Hys necke he made lyke no man. [Guy of Warw., 8054]
ι¤϶ˤ³ä Shakespeare ¿ѤƤȤ𤬤롥Jespersen (302--03) ¿ȤȤˤθҲ𤷤ƤΤǡѤ褦
Al. Schmidt has collected a good many examples of this phenomenon from Shakespeare. He considers it, however, as a rhetorical figure rather than a point of grammar; thus he writes (Sh. Lex., p. 1423): "Shakespeare very frequently uses the name of a person or thing itself for a single particular quality or point of view to be considered, in a manner which has seduced great part of his editors into needless conjectures and emendations". I pick out some of his quotations, and add a few more from my own collections:---
Her lays were tuned like the lark (like the lays of the lark) [Pilgr., 198]
He makes a July's day short as December (as a December's day) [W. T., i., 2, 169]
Iniquity's throat cut like a calf [2 H. VI., iv., 2, 29]
Mine hair be fixed on end as one distract [2 H. VI., iii., 2, 318]
I know the sound of Marcius' tongue from every meaner man [Cor., i., 6, 27]
My throat of war be turned into a pipe small as an eunuch [ibid., iii., 2, 114]
Ūˤϡ嵭 A's X is better than B 餤ǡ A's X is better than B's ⤢ꤨΤǡξ¤ŪѰ۷äȤˤʤ롥ϡΰѤǤƤ̤ꡤѰۤ Shakespeare ʤɤˤƼͳѰۤäΤ뤤ϽŪʺۤȼäƤΤǤ롥⤷ 's ȤʷǤ̵ͭʸˡʸΤܿȤʤꤦΤǤСʸؾΥƥȤʤ
Jespersen, Otto. Progress in Language with Special Reference to English. 1894. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
Ѹˤơ岻˸д첻ɽȤ /ə/ /ɪ/ 2ब롥ܼʣιǤȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ơʬۤˤϤ褽Ф꤬ΤΡξԤδ֤ɤ⾯ʤʤ㤨 except θƬ첻ˤ /ə/ /ɪ/ Τ⸽뤳ȤǤԤξˤ accept ƱȤʤ롥illusion θƬ첻ˤĤƤƱͤǤꡤ/ə/ ȯ allusion ƱȤʤ롥ѸѼˤäƤ⤳ɤʬۤηϰۤʤ롥
ɤεϡSamuels ˤѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤäȤűѸˤ岻첻ϸ¤ѸǤ /ə/ ؤۣ첻θ夵˼岽ƴĶ˱ /ɪ/ ؤѲ礬äʤʤǤּ岽פȤʹ (sonority) δߤ岽ǤꡤĴŪˤС־夲 (raising) 롥⤤첻ˤʤСʹ٤ꡤ첻ȤƤϼ夯ʤȲǤ뤫ˡ
/ə/ /ɪ/ ɤϡߤ֤夤פǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ȥ/ə/ ϶ĥٹ礤ȤǤ /ɪ/ 夯 /ɪ/ ʹ٤Ǥ /ə/ 夤ȹͤ뤫Ĥޤꡤߤ˼岽礦طȤȤˤʤ롥Τʤˤ첻ˤϾ˼岽뷹ȤСʤ /ə/ /ɪ/ ΤDZʱɤ줬֤Ȥˤʤ
嵭ˤĤ Samuels (44--45) ľʹ
In ME, where the vowels of the OE endings had been centralised to /ə/, we find widespread new raising to /ɪ/, especially in inflexions ending in dental or alveolar consonants (-is, -ith, -yn, -id, -ind(e)). Since then, there has been constant distribution of the vowels of syllables newly unstressed to one or other member of the opposition /ɪ?ə/, depending partly on the inherited quality of the vowels and partly on that of the neighbouring segments: /ɪ/ is the commoner reflex of the vowels of ME -es, -ed, -est, -edge, -less, -ness, de-, re-, em-, ex-, whereas /ə/ represents the vowels of nearly all other unstressed syllables (the more important are -ance, -and, -dom, -ence, -ent, -land, -man, -oun, -our, -ous, a-, con-, com-, cor-, sub-, as well as syllabic /-l, -m, -n, -r/ and their reflexes wherever relevant). But there are exceptions to the expected distribution that are due to conditioning: the raising of /ə/ to /ɪ/ before /(d)ȝ, s/ as in cottage, damage, orange, furnace, and by vowel-harmony in women (also sometimes in chicken, kitchen, linen); and the same applies to other exceptions recorded in the past.
Thus the pattern of development in EMnE was that new cases of /ə/ were continually arising from unstressed back vowels, but meanwhile certain cases of /ə/ with raised variants from conditioning were redistributed to /ɪ/. In present English, centralisation to /ə/ is again on the increase as dialects with higher proportions of /ɪ/ gain in prominence.
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ѲȤǡ (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony)Ѱ (variation) Ѳ (change) Ȥǥ롼סǥåƤȤ륰롼פɸΤ褦ʸӽФȤƹͤƤΤϡoften ȯŪ [ˈɒfən] Ǥʤֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) Ȥ [ˈɒftn] Ȥȯ褦ˤʤäƤƤѲ (= t1) ԤȯʤäȤ (= t2) ˸ԤƤ鸽ߤ˻ޤξȯδ֤ɤ줬졤Τ (= t3) ˤԤѤƸԤΤߤĤȤǽʤǤϤʤϡԤȯʤäȤΤΤǤꡤܺ٤ϡ#379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1])#380. often <t> ǤϤʤ <n> ⤷ ([2010-05-12-1]) Ȥ줿δάΤˡϤΤ褦ˤƤˡ
ơ̾ѸȤǤϡt1 t2 t3 Ȥ̻ŪʲˤĤơ֢פ뤤ϡ֢פʬΤȤѲפȸƤӡt2 ˤƸɤؤơѰۡפȸƤ֡礹Ѱ۷ (variant) ¸ߤʤ t1 t3 λˤƤ⡤塤ɤΤѰۡפξ֤Ȥߤ뤳ȤԲǽǤϤʤºݾ϶꤬¸ߤʤΤΡϥѰ۷Ȳꤹ롤Ȥt2 ˤ2ĤѰ۷ѻΤѰ۷߲Ƥ뤫Ǥꡤt1 t2 Ǥ⸫ʤѰ۷Ū¸ߤƤΤȵǤ롥ιͤ variationist ξsuper-variationist ȤǤ⤤٤Τ٤ƤθबŪˤϾѰۤˤ餵Ƥ롤ȤѰۤƤ롤ȤäȤ
ѰۤˤĤƤΤιͤѲˤѤȡƤȸ뤳ȤǤ2ĤλӤȤˡܤˤϲѲƤʤǤäƤ⡤ϥѲäΤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤŪˤϤबѲƤΤȲꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥Τ褦˹ͤΤǤСܾѲƤʤݤ¤ѲΤΤȤȤˤʤ뤫顤֤ʤפ䤤ΩƤ뤳ȤǤ롥٤ϡ#2115. ݻȸѲؤ ([2015-02-10-1])#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡؼԤ̵ѲǤ餦٤ȤMilroy μĥȤ礤
ѰۡѲȤͤˤϥԥ졼
3ñ -s ѸءѸ˾ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ 3sp ε¿äƤˤĤƤϿǯĴ٤ƤΤ1ǯۤɤδ֤˸ƬȯɽʸȤƸɽ뵡äΤǡܥ֥ǤƤ
Ѹ˸褷ʸؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá١ʲջҡԡˡǤ줿Τʤǡ3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪפꤹ뾮ƤƤܽϡ2014ǯ525˳줿ܱʸز86ʱ̳ƻءˤǤΥݥ֥ХαѸ춵顽Ѹˤιפθ濴Ԥޤ줿Τǡ伫ȤϤȯɽԤǤϤʤäΤΡʸδ˺ƤȤǤʥݥطԤѸˡѸ춵鸦ԤΥ롼פƤˤ꤬Ȥޤˡ
ʸΥȥ뤬̤ꡤѸˤȱѸ춵ռʤ鼹ɮ뤳ȤԤƤΤ֤ȱѸ˴ˤʤäƤޤäʢȿʡˡܥ֥Ǥϥ֥ȤǥŪˤʤä3ñ -s ˴ؤġʸȤκۤȤ뤳ȤˤäơΤȤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פʸǤϡ#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) #2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1]) ʤɤεȯŸǡȤ櫓̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (variation) Ż뤷Ÿ
Ѹ춵Ȥ顤ˤĤä˶ĴäȤϡ˼ʲμĥǤ롥
3ñ -s ȤϡʸˡŪȤɽŪȤƲ٤ΤǤϤʤषϱѸؽԤˡ(1) γؤǤоݤɸŪŪѼǤȤ¤˰ռ(2) ظ¿ɸѼޤŪ˻ѤƤȤѸ¿θ¤˵ŤμεȤ (3) ѸѼʤ줿ܸѼˤФ봲Ƥ乥εƤ롤ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤƤ
ʤʸμɮԤϰʲ̤ꡥȤ櫓Ѹ춵ȪɤǤȴǤ
ϤˡѸˤȱѸ춵 ջ ѸˤȱѸ춵ͻ硡Applied English Philology λ Ѹ춵ˤѸ ë 콬μѸˤζŪ ľȥ ѸȯãѸؽȯãءˡư쥹ä ¹ ХʱѸáѸˤö ߷ 3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪ δ ѸˤȱѸ춵ꥨ鸫Ѳ ջ
δ졡3ñ -s ȤϲѸ춵˴ͿѸŪסؤ줫αѸ춵顽Ѹ˸Ȥá (Can Knowing the History of English Help in the Teaching of English?). Studies in the History of English Language 5. ջҡԡˡν2016ǯ105--31ǡ
ѲȤ̻ŪѲΤȤǤ뤫顤ϸ츦̻Ǹ椵٤ΤǤ롤ȤΤ̤⤷ʤ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۤƱ츽ݤΰۤʤ¦̤ǤȤ䡤⤽⥽塼ߤ֤̻֤ζ̤ǤϤʤȤ뤳ȤͤȡѲ̻Ū椢뤤ŪȤư֤Ť뤳Ȥ⵿路ʤäƤ롥
Ѳϡ֤̻֤ζۤ뤤϶ѶŪۣˤ븦ΰǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ϡ֤ϳء뤤ϡ֡פȤɽС֤ϳؤȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥ιͤϡϤäɽȤϤʤäܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤˤФƤ
#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1])
#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])
#2125. 르ͥ륲 ([2015-02-20-1])
#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1])
#2167. "orderly heterogeneity" diffusion ([2015-04-03-1])
#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])
־֤ϳءפȤƤθѲΤȤ館ϡʤԤФƤ褷ư̲ƤȤϸʤ־֤ϳءפΰ⤤ľܤɽƤ Keller (125) Ѥ褦
. . . does a theory of change belong to the field of synchronic or diachronic linguistics? If we look again at the definition by Bally and Sechehaye, we observe that the answer can be either 'both . . . and' or 'neither . . . nor'. Now, if a question admits two contradictory propositions as answers, we can be sure that something is amiss with the concepts involved. In this case the conclusion is inevitable that the concepts 'synchrony' and 'diachrony' are not suitable for dealing with problems of language change. They are basically concepts which belong to a theory of the history of language, not to a theory of change. The concepts 'state (of being)' and 'history' are very different from those of 'stasis' and 'dynamics'. 'The past is the repository of that which has irrevocably happened and been created'; whatever belongs to history is static, but the place of dynamics is the present. A theory of change is not a theory of history, but a theory of the dynamics of a 'state'. An explanation of this type seems able to fulfil the claim for an 'integrated synchrony' made by Coseriu in 1980 in his article 'Vom Primat der Geschichte'. Its task would be to define the manner in which 'the functioning of language coincides with language change'.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Ѽ֤ȯΰۤʤϡܸǡ֤ʤޤסѸ "accents" ȸƤФ롥2ĤѼȯӤȡۤʤˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥ狼롥㤨С#1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸáˡ ([2012-12-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥹѸȥꥫѸȯ٤Ȥbath class 첻ƴ֤ѰۤȤȤΰۤʤȡstar four ˤƸ <r> ȯ뤫ݤȤۤʤȤϸߤ˰ۼΤΤΤ褦˴롥Ѽ֤ˤ͡ʥפȯκۤꤦȹͤ졤ΰۤʤ˴ؤ붦ŪȤΤͤ뤳ȤǤǤ롥
Trubetzkoy 1931ǯȤᤤʳ "différences dialectales phonologiques, phonétiques et étymologiques" Ȥ3ĤΰۤʤƤƤ롥Wells (73--80) Ϥ Trubetzkoy ʬΩӤ1Ĥäơ4פʤWells ѸǤȡ"systemic differences", "realizational differences", "lexical-incidental differences", "phonotactic (structural) differences" 4ĤǤ롥Ѥ뤬ʲȤȤä褦
(1) realizational differences. 2Ѽ֤ǡͭ벻ǤβŪ¸ۤʤȤ硥goat, nose ʤɤȯˤơRP (Received Pronunciation) Ǥ [əʊ] ΤȤǤ [ʌʊ] ȼ¸줿ꡤåȥǤ [oː] ȼ¸ʤɤΰ㤤롥ҲȤƤϡRP ζκǽ˸ /p, t, k/ [ph, th, kh] ӵȤƼ¸ΤФơåȥǤ [p, t, k] ̵Ǽ¸ʤɤ롥ޤ/l/ RP ǤϴĶˤäƤ dark l ȤʤΤФǤϾ clear l Ǥʤɤΰ㤤⤢롥[r] μ¸Ѱۤ褯ΤƤ롥
(2) phonotactic (structural) differences. 벻Ǥʤäꤹ벻ĶۤʤȤ硥non-prevocalic /r/ μ¸̵ͭŵ1ĤǤ롥GA (General American) ǤϤδĶ /r/ ¸뤬б RP Ǥ̵Ȥʤ (cf. rhotic) Ū¸Ūʥ٥ˤ벻˴ؤۤʤȤ롥
(3) systemic differences. ηϤۤʤäƤ뤬椨ˡġβǤб㤦褦ʾ硥RP Ǥ GA Ǥ /u/ /uː/ ϰۤʤ2ĤβǤǤ뤬åȥǤξԤϤζ̤Ϥʤ /u/ Ȥ1Ĥ礵Ƥ롥첻˴ؤ⤦1ĤСstock stalk Ȥ RP Ǥϲǥ٥Ƕ̤뤬ꥫѸ䥫ʥѸΤʤˤϲǤȤͻ礷ƤΤ⤢ (cf. #484. ǿΥꥫѸ첻ͻȿǤ MWALED ȯɽ ([2010-08-24-1])#2242. ʥѸβŪħ ([2015-06-17-1])) ҲǤСloch θҲˤĤơRP Ǥ [k] ȯ뤬åȥǤ [x] ȯ롥ϡԤѼǤ /k/ Ȥ϶̤벻ǤȤ /x/ ¸ߤ뤫Ǥ롥
(4) lexical-incidental differences. ηϤ䲻Ū¸ˡ켫ΤѰۤʤθǤˤơۤʤ벻ǡФ礬롥Ѽ֤ǰۤʤ뷹Ȥ⤢СüԸĿͤˤäưۤʤȤ⤢롥㤨Сeither 1첻ǤϡѼˤäơ뤤ϸĿͤˤä /iː/ /aɪ/ Ȥȯ롥ѼĿͤϡξ첻ǤηϤȤƤäƤ뤬either ȤФƤΤ줬ŬѤ뤫ȤۤʤäƤΡĤޤꡤ٥롤٥ΰ㤤ǤϤʤå٥ΰ㤤ȤäƤ褤
̤ˡȯεϤˤ֤θȤʤΤϡΥ٥Ǥΰ㤤Ǥ롥㤨Сaccomplish Ȥ2ζ첻 strut 첻Ǥ٤lot 첻Ǥ٤Nazi 2Ҳ /z/ /ʦ/
Wells, J. C. Accents of English. Vol. 1. An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1982.
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1])#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1])#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1]) ǡWeinreich, Labov, and Herzog θѲ夲ƤWeinreich et al. ˤȤʤ¤ˡ"orderly heterogeneity" äۼˤ롥ηŪѰ۲ǽ (systematic variability) ȸƤǤ褤Ѱۤ츫ФФ¸ߤƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ΤȤƤϹ¤ʤƤȤˤ "orderly heterogeneity" ֤ǤƱˡϸ줬ѲƤ뤳ȤθǤ롥
"orderly heterogeneity" ϡѲäδ֤˥Τ褦˽˿ʹԤƤȼĥóȻ (lexical_diffusion) βˤ˴ѻ롥ѲϤĶ̤θĶؤηϤϤ⤤ƤΤλ֤γ̤ߤȡȿäѰۤ«롥̻ŪѲΥѥȶŪѰۤȤߤбͤѻΤǤ롥äȤ⡤˽Ҥ٤ΤŪʾǤꡤºݤˤϸ¤Ϻ٤ȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ⡤ŪʥǥڵϿ¿θФƤ롥
Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (716) ϡCharles-James N. Bailey (Variation and Linguistic Theory. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1973.) ˰͵Ѳκˤ "orderly heterogeneity" ɤΤ褦˸ΤǥͿƤ롥Ѳεȿ X, Y ȤY ȤäƤ2ĤθĶ E1, E2 ȤȡѲϼγʳФƿʹԤƤ
Variation model of change
| Stage of change | E1 | E2 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Categorical status, before undergoing change | X | X |
| 2 | Early stage begins variably in restricted environment | X/Y | X |
| 3 | Change in full progress, greater use of new form in E1 where change first initiated | X/Y | X/Y |
| 4 | Change progresses toward completion with movement toward categoricality first in E1 where change initiated | Y | X/Y |
| 5 | Completed change, new variant | Y | Y |
#1997. Ѳ5Ĥ¦̡ ([2014-10-15-1]) ӡ#1998. The Embedding Problem ([2014-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog ˤѲˤĤƤʸκǸˡѲȤ٤ "SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE" (187--88) Ƥ롥
1. Linguistic change is not to be identified with random drift proceeding from inherent variation in speech. Linguistic change begins when the generalization of a particular alternation in a given subgroup of the speech community assumes direction and takes on the character of orderly differentiation.
2. The association between structure and homogeneity is an illusion. Linguistic structure includes the orderly differentiation of speakers and styles through rules which govern variation in the speech community; native command of the language includes the control of such heterogeneous structures.
3. Not all variability and heterogeneity in language structure involves change; but all change involves variability and heterogeneity.
4. The generalization of linguistic change throughout linguistic structure is neither uniform nor instantaneous; it involves the covariation of associated changes over substantial periods of time, and is reflected in the diffusion of isoglosses over areas of geographical space.
5. The grammars in which linguistic change occurs are grammars of the speech community. Because the variable structures contained in language are determined by social functions, idiolects do not provide the basis for self-contained or internally consistent grammars.
6. Linguistic change is transmitted within the community as a whole; it is not confined to discrete steps within the family. Whatever discontinuities are found in linguistic change are the products of specific discontinuities within the community, rather than inevitable products of the generational gap between parent and child.
7. Linguistic and social factors are closely interrelated in the development of language change. Explanations which are confined to one or the other aspect, no matter how well constructed, will fail to account for the rich body of regularities that can be observed in empirical studies of language behavior.
ʸԤϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian)¤ (structural linguistics)ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ³ػˤ̤ϢʤȼѤƤĿ (idiolect) ȶѼ (homogeneity) 뤹Ȥ櫓ֹ¤ѼפФơиŪΩ줫ȽäΤϡԶѼ (heterogeneity) ι¤ (structure) ǤȤ顤ɤȤƤ "orderly heterogeneity" "orderly differentiation" Ω롥Ω϶ǯ "variationist" ȤƤФ褦ˤʤäƤϾ7̤ȤäƤ
change variation ްդȤ3ܤˤĤƤϡ#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1]) #1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1]) ȡ
6ܤλҶײؤȽˤĤƤϡ#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ѳ "multiple causation" 𤤾夲7ܤϡ#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ǤѤmultiple causation ˤĤƤϡǶεȤơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ȡ#1992. Milroy ˤ쳰Ūװؤʸ ([2014-10-10-1]) Ǥ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
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