Ѳȸ٤ȤδطˤĤƤϡPhillips θҲ𤷤ʤ顤#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesis ([2012-09-17-1]) #1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ#1265. ٤ȲѲνδط˵ŤƤ Schuchardt ([2012-10-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ˲ŪѲϹٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ19ŦƤդ (analogy) δؤֲŪѲٸ줫ϤޤȤȤ⡤ۤƱ Herman Paul ˤäƻŦƤHooper 95)
Hooper ϡ1984ǯʸǡ٤Ȥ顤벻Ѳȹͤ븽Ѹˤ schwa-deletion memory ʤɤ2첻ˤˤʿȹͤưμѲĴ2Ω "phonetic change tends to affect frequent words first, while analogical leveling tends to affect infrequent words first" (101) ٻPhillips Ϥñ2ΩˤäƤǤʤΤ뤳ȤƤ뤬ΩνȯȤ뤳ȤϺǤ
Τ褦٤ȲѲδطˤäƤ褦˸ Hooper ¤ΤȤüԤϸپ˥ǤʤϤȹͤƤ (102)
I do not think the relative frequency of words is a part of native speaker competence, so I would not propose to make the rule sensitive to word frequency.
Ǥ٤ȲѲοʹԽشط뤳Ȥǧ³ΤǤСξԤϡüԤθǽϤǤϤʤ챿ѤΤʤˤȤȤˤʤΤHooper ϻҶθĤ褦ȤƤ褦
٤ȲѲν˴ؤΤŪʰյϡʷ֡˲Ѳˤϸΰۤʤʣμब뤳Ȥˤ롥ѲνۤʤȤȤϡ餯ѲΥᥫ˥बۤʤȤȤǤꡤѲθۤʤȤȤǤϤʤȤСѲν狼СѲưŤ狼뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϤΤ褦ʸΰۤʤѲˡֽ벻ѲפŪʷֲѲפȤ٥ŽդƤϤ٤ʬबɬפHooper (103) ηƤ
. . . if it turned out that vowel shifts and some other phonetic changes affect infrequent forms before frequent forms, then we would have an interesting indication that phonetic changes arise from different sources, and furthermore, if my hypotheses are correct, a way of determining which types of changes are traceable to which source. Thus it appears that lexical diffusion, studied in terms of word frequency, may turn up some interesting evidence concerning the source of morpho-phonological change. (103)
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
ñʸˡֻ§Ȥɬؤֻ1Ĥˡɸֻ§롥dig digging, hop hopping, run running, swim swimming ϤʤȤѤʵ䤬줿Τǡά⤹롥
դƤΤϡ -ing ˤơֻǤҲŤͤΤΡȯˤƤҲʣ (geminate) Ȥʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤܸȤƤϡ֥˥פ /n/ Ťͤȯ뤬ѸǤϤޤǴΤȯ -ing ȯä /rʌnɪng/ Ǥ롥ѸζˤƤϡȯȤƤλҲʣ¸ߤʤȹͤƤ褤űѸǤñҲȽŻҲΩʤҲ̡ĹˤΩŪ¸ߤѸŻҲ (degemination) ʹԤʹߡҲ̤Ωä줿Ǥ롥äȤ⡤penknife /pɛnnaɪf/ ʤɤʣʤɤǤϷǴ֤ޤäƤλҲʣϤΤǡѸ˻Ҳʣ̵Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤ
ǤϡѸˤϲŪñҲȽŻҲΩʤˤ⤫餺ˡ <running> Τ褦֤뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤϤʤŪˤϡΤ褦ʽŻҲϡҲΤΤĹǤϤʤľ첻βǽ̤ƤȤ롥<running> Τ褦 <n> Ťͤ뤳Ȥˤäơ*/nn/ ɽ路ƤΤǤϤʤľβĹ첻 /uː/ ǤϤʤû첻 /ʌ/ Ǥ뤳ȤƤȤΤǤ롥⤷Ĺ첻ɽ路ΤǤСդ <n> Ťͤ *<runing> ȤФ褤ʼȤơ<hoping> <hopping> Ωʤɤ뤬Ϥ Magic <e> ֻ§ȤϢˡΤ褦ˡѸˡǤϡҲŤͤ뤫ݤˤäơľ첻βʴǤϤʤˤ褽ꤵȤȤߤˤʤäƤ롥
λȤΤɤΤ褦ȯΤŪõȤС˽Ҥ٤ŻҲλˤ벻ηϡṽ¤ֻμɬפȤʤ롥Ȥ櫓 Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL), loss of schwa, degemination ʤɡߤ˴ϢϢβѲ礫ʤΰϢβˤŪ¿äϹäƤ롥ñƧ߹ʤΰʤΤǡ̤εפळȤˤǤϴϢǶʸȤ Britton ˤȤɤƤ
Britton, Derek. "Degemination in English, with Special Reference to the Middle English Period." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 232--43.
ؤΩ붵ΤʤǤǤ⡤Ȥ櫓̷ΩȤɸ2Ĥ롥H. Osthoff and K. Brugmann ɽɥĤǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze "sound laws without exception" ȥեؼ Gilliéron ξ chaque mot a son histoire "every word has its own history" Ǥ롥Ԥϲˡ§٤Ƥθ㳰ʤѤ뤳ȤԤϤ٤Ƥθ줬ȼȯŸȤƤ롥Τ褦ΩϤɤΤ褦˲áʤ뤤ϲˤ٤¤ϡξԤΤΤɤˤȤȤʤΤ
Robins (213) ϡξԤϤ̷ۤ⤷ƤʤȹͤƤ롥äΤȤƱѲФȤƱ¦̤ȡƸ줬̤ʿȤۼ¦̤¸ƤȹͤΤǤϤʤȡ
Changes in the pronunciation of words involve two things: the transmission from generation to generation of articulatory habits rests on the learning in childhood of sets of sounds heard first in certain words but, once mastered, used without effort in any number of words; but for various reasons, not by any means all understood, changes take place in the course of successive transmission between the generations, and the recurrence of a relatively small number of sounds in the virtually limitless vocabulary of a language makes for the universality of sound changes. But words are also learned as whole lexical units, and any hesitation, individual change, or other peculiarity in the pronunciation of such a unit is also learned, and may be retained and propagated in later generations or within people's speech during their lifetime. Every word has its individual history in its semantics, grammar, and pronunciation. In most cases its phonetic evolution can be described by reference to the phonetic evolution of the sounds occurring in it (this is the basis of historical 'sound laws'), but in certain cases its pronounced form must be particular history. The neogrammarians stressed phonetic uniformity; Gilliéron and his disciples stressed etymological individuality.
θؤȯۤϡȤ̤ˤĤƤϵ䤬äƤ⡤§Ȥ Neogrammarian Ǥ³Ƥ롥Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze ˴꤫뤿ˤ⡤۾ˡŪʸѲϽפ
Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.
[2012-02-12-1]ε#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿפǷڤڤΤߤܸ̻Ūಽ (delabialisation) ФȤƤ롥ߤΥϹԤλҲϡĤƤ [p] äȤǤ롥[p] ΤΤ夯ʤꡤĴ [h] ؤȸषȤʤ櫓ǤϤʤسǤϤۤȤƼƤ롥
[p] > [f] ѲȤСѸˡΤˤϰˤȤ٤ˤˤˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) ۵롥ˡ§μѲϡĴˤƤĴͼˤƤ⡤ϤηŪǤꡤñȯܸοಽȤ礭ۤʤ롥[2012-05-22-1]ε#1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤפʤɤǡˡ§ѲεǤΤȤꡤܸοಽװǤȤǡξԤ϶̤Ƥ롥
(95--96) ϡˤäƤϸջݤͿͤʤŪװƤƤ롥
ΡFͤβϡɻΤܤäλˤϿι碌äȶơpͤβǤäȿꤵƤ롥礦ɸβȬŻǻ pa֤ panaꤤ pai paka puni pu: Ȥ褦ˡɻꤺäȰڤܸǤ⡤ puna ʤɤȸäƤΤȤϺγسǤ롥ʤǤϡp͢F͢hͤȤѲϲεäΤˤĤƽȤʤͤʤϤ줬ܿͤγܤιθȤʤǯŪѲ̩ܤʴطΤȹͤƤ롥ܤʸοǤϾȲȤϤԤä߹蘆äƤ뤬ʹߡܤभŪ˾˽Ф뷹롥ƳһοοȻ夬ˤĤơܤʤꡤˤäƹԤƽл䤽û¿ʤĤĤ롥ϸ忰ûΤܿͤξ岼οι碌ˤ븶ȤʤŪѲǤ롥ѲʤȡϹԻҲΡp͢F͢hͤѲȤʿԤƤꡤ˽Ҥ٤wͻҲæ⡤ȯѲȤƤƱθˤäƤҤƤ롥
ƤϳسǤϤۤȤˤʤäȤ (125) ϤΤ褦ʸջƤջΤߤͳˡƬʤꤹΤϲʳŪ٤ǤϤʤȸڤ褦ȤɬפȹͤƤ褦ȤƤϾβܹꤷƤ뤬⾯ʤȤ⸡ڤͤϤȤոΤˡջ̵ΤȻפ롥ΤȤϤɤޤǾФäƺѤޤʤΤȤνʤ顤ΤꤿȻפ
ʤ⤬ջʹ뤫ȤСŪװȤϿͼŪʺʤΤȤǤꡤϿͼﺹ̤ˤĤʤꤦϤǤ뤫εˤĤƤϿŪθԲķǤ뤳Ȥï⤬ǧƤʤ顤ŪħȽħؤƤǽȤϰΥ֡ȤƤѤ롥
ǡϥޥƥͤβʳŪꥢꥺɾʲϡࡼʥ (281--82) Υޥƥ͡ʡزѲηкѡ١ɾǤ롥
ޥƥͤϤˡʤäƤ褤ʳŪꥢꥺäơʪŪƯǽƤ뤳ȤǧƤ롥ʤˤʪŪȤΤϡʥǥŪˡѤ줿뤿ӷ礬¿ΤǤ롥ϤƤ롤ֿͼαƶȤĤΩ꤬롥ऱƤޤ櫓ˤϤʤΤθδﴱΰ̤˸оϡŪ˱ѤäƤǽ뤷Ūʿι¤ˤäơȤФθˤϤβǤǡƤȤޤǤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤϡΤϤˤϡɤʼѤ⤿ĹǦѤŤ褤ĴʤᡤŪʳβΤʤ褦̩θ뤳Ȥᤵ
ܸΤܤ١ȽŹ1974ǯ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١ֽ2001ǯ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
̾ʣ -s ˤϻμפʥơޤ1ĤǤ[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספȡˡȤ櫓ʤۤʤ -s Ф줿ΤȤˤϤäƤHotta (148--49) ǤϡĤθŪװŦ1ĤȤơ-s ¾ʣɽ٤ƲŪ˶ǤǤꡤˤȤŦ
-s βŪۤȤˤĤơHickey (62) ˴ϢڤĤǤϡ̾ʣ -s Τߤʤ餺ư3ñ -th Ф -s ˤĤƤƤ롥
. . . acoustic prominence can be appealed to in the history of English as well, for instance the substitution of /-θ/ by /-s/ in the third person singular or the progressive productivity of /-s/ plurals from Old English onwards and their encroaching on already established plural types --- cf. ME nasal plurals, such as eyen eyes --- can be accounted for on the grounds of the phonetic salience of /s/ and hence its suitability as a grammatical suffix.
-s βŪۤϡ饤ХФľŪʾȤϡǽŪĤ˹ a conditioning factor 餤ˤȤ館ƤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬Ѳ˲ŪħؤäƤȤܤͤ롥ä [s] [θ] ĴŪʺۤˤĤƤϡŪͤùȤϤʤäΤǡHickey (71 [fn. 5]) μϤ꤬ʰλʸϰѼԤŸΡˡ
Ladefoged and Maddieson (pp. 145--72 of Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.) suggest a division of fricatives into sibilant and non-sibilant given that with the former (/s, ʃ/ articulations in English for instance) the constriction at the alveolar ridge produces a jet of air that hits the obstacle formed by the teeth. In non-obstacle fricatives, such as /θ, ð/, the turbulence is produced at the constriction itself. Laver (pp. 260--63 of Laver, John. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.) discusses the auditory characteristics of fricatives as does Fry (p. 122 of Fry, Dennis Butler. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.), who notes that the noise energy for [s] is prominent between 4000 and 8000 Hz. It is similar in frequency distribution to [θ] but has much greater energy which means it is more clearly audible (see diagrams, Fry 1979: 123). *
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hickey, Raymond. "Salience, Stigma and Standard." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 57--72.
óȻ (lexical diffusion) ȤƿʹԤ벻Ѳƻڤ٤ؤƤ餷ȤϡŤ19ŦƤºݤˡPhillips (1984: 321) ˵Ƥ褦ˡ٤ι⤤줫Ѳ뤲ȤѲϿڤƤǡ٤㤤줫Ѳ뤲ǧƤꡤ٤ȸóȻνδطˤĤƤϡޤ˵䤬¿ˤĤơPhillips ϡꥫѸˤ glide deletion Ѹ unrounding Ѹ̾ưdiatonic stress shift; diatone εȡˤȤ٤㤤˿ʹԤȤ3ĤβѲ夲ơ"Frequency Actuation Hypothesis" ϡ"physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first" (1984: 336) ȤΤǤԤ surface phonetic form ƯѲԤ underlying phonetic form ƯѲؤˡ
Phillips 1998ǯ -ate ǽưζ֤ΰư˴ؤ븦ˤơŪưŤƤʤѲͽۤ褦٤㤤ˤϿʤޤष٤ι⤤˿ʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤǡ Frequency Actuation Hypothesis
[F]or segmental changes, physiologically motivated sound changes affect the most frequent words first; other sound changes affect the least frequent words first. For suprasegmental changes, changes which require analysis (e.g., by part of speech or by morphemic element) affect the least frequent words first, whereas changes which eliminate or ignore grammatical information affect the most frequent words first. (1998: 231)
ĤޤꡤΰưΤ褦ĶʬβѲ˴ؤƤϡüԤˤʬϤ뤫ʤǡ٤ȽδطžȤ櫓Ǥ롥ʤʤΤˤĤơPhillips Bybee (117--19) "lexical strength" ȤͤФƤ롥
ɬ⤳εǼƤʤޤPhillips μĥȤϰۤʤꡤ̾ư夬٤ι⤤˿ʹԤȤǡȼƤ롥٤ѲνˤĤƤθϽ˽ФǤꡤ;Ϥ¿ʬ˻ĤƤ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Bybee, Joan L. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1985.
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) ȡ#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) ǡѲˤŪװȳŪװˤĤơAitchison ζѹդμ줿ͤҲ𤷤ƤΤ褦ʶѹդݤƤ櫓ǤϤʤä˲ѲˤĤƤϡ1950ǯˤŪѲнŤѲѤäꥫθؼ Charles Fransis Hockett (1916--2000) random fluctuation Ǥ롥
Hockett ˤСüԤϤ첻ȯȤˡŪȯɸŪפȤܻؤƤ롥Ū濴ͤʤȤǽ㤤ΤǡüԤϤФФøȯ¸롥٤֤ⷫͤȯϡΤȤŪ濴Ϥ褦ʬۤ뤬֤ȤȤ˥ߥŤʤäƤ椯ȡŪ濴ۤξĤƤ椯̤ȤơäˤȤäƤʹˤȤäƤ⡤ۤ濴ưȤˤʤ롥줬ѲȤ櫓Aitchison (135--36) ¹Hockett (443--45) Ѥ褦
It is just this sort of slow drifting about of expectation distributions, shared by people who are in constant communication, that we mean to subsume the term 'sound change'. . . The drift might well not be in any determinate direction: the maxima might wander a bit further apart, then come closer again, and so on. Nevertheless, the drift thus shown would constitute sound change.
ιͤˤ3Ĥ (Aitchison 136--37) (1) Hockett 褦ˡˤƤ椯ȤȡϤ䤬ƺ٤˴٤ºݤθϡѲƤΤȤƤݻƤ롥(2) ۤʤǤ褦Ѳ֤äƤ롥Ѳ˵ȤСΤ褦ˤ(3) Ѳˤϡ䤹ѲȵˤѲȤ롥Ѳˤϲ餫Ū¤뤳ȤϳΤʤ褦Ǥꡤrandom fluctuation ȤƤʤ
ߤǤϡHockett 䡤#1155. Postal θѲѡ ([2012-06-25-1]) ǿ줿 Postal μĥ褦ˡrandom fluctuation Ѳμ礿븶ǤȤϱƤʬŪʸǤ뤫⤷ʤȤǽϻĤƤꡤꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Hockett, C. F. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan, 1958.
ե줬ѸͿŪƶȤСäǤΤǤ롥¾ɽֻˤ⾯ʤ餺ƶڤܤˤ¿ʤ˴ؤƤϡФХե줫μѤȤƸڤ벻Ǥ롥Görlach (337--38) ˤȡˤ5बǧ롥
(1) /v/ βDz (phonemicisation) űѸǤ [v] ϲ /f/ ΰ۲ˤޤΩǤǤϤʤäȤ(a) very Τ褦 [v] ĥեѸή(b) vixen Τ褦 [v] μѡ(c) over : offer ˸ñҲȽŻҲΩξü(d) of ˸̵ˤͭȤäŪװˤꡤ/v/ ǤȤΩƱȤ [z] ˤĤƤ롥(a) װ˴ؤƤХեαƶ뤳ȤǤ뤬/v/ /z/ ۲ȤƤϸűѸ¸ߤƤĺ˵ǽƤ̵ͭΩؤ礷ȤȤ館СηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡGörlach ϡѸηװ뤷Ƥ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפȡˡ
(2) /ʒ/ βDzβűѸǤΩǤǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Ѹ joy gentle θƬ /ʤ/ ȤƼ¸줿ΤǡѸǤ鵩ʲä/ʒ/ βDzϡmeasure ʤɤθǤ [-zj-] ͻ餦Ȥ礭βDzˤꡤηϤ /ʤ : ʒ ? ʧ : ʃ/ оȴطϤꡤǤեαƶŪǤʤ
(3) եѸ˴ޤޤ첻αƶǡ첻 /ɔɪ, ʊɪ/ ѸDzDz2Ĥä뤳ȤǡѸ첻ηϤϤμ줿ΤȤʤä
| -- | ɛɪ | aɪ | ɔɪ | ʊɪ |
| ɪʊ | ɛʊ | aʊ | ɔʊ | -- |
. . . it is significant that phonemes said to be derived from French survive only where they fill obvious gaps in the English system --- and some of these were stabilized by loans from English dialect . . . . (337)
¦פʤΤζפʤΤ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפεפ롥
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
űѸ1;ñ̾ ic ϡɤΤ褦ʷаޤǸѸ I ؤȯŸΤʽŪȤƤϡѸǸҲ /ʧ/ æĤä첻Ĺ첻줬Ѹ첻ܤФ /aɪ/ ȤʤäȤ롥ŪˤϤǤ褤ʤҲæΤʤ첻ĹΤȤϻĤ롥üȤȼĹ (compensatory_lengthening) Ȥǽ⤫֤⤷ʤ;̾ŵŪˤߤ붯ȼθؤȤƹͤΤ褵
ǽ̤ˤ뤳Ȥ;̾ˤ϶ȼζ̤ȯã䤹㤨СɸѸˤ;̾ζΩȤơ them Ф 'hem ʤξԤľŪʸ츻طˤϤʤˡƱ you Ф ye ʤɤ롥ɸܤܤС;̾ˤʤƻؼ̾Ǥ˶ΩϤ餳˸뤷Ūˤ¿ǧ (Yokota 9--11) ե1;ñ̾ me ФơĴ moi ̤ѤΤݤ
η˾Ȥ餻Сic I ȯãϡҲæȡ³ĹǤŤϡҲæˤȤƵǽƤ /i/ 顤Ĺˤäƶ줿 /iː/ ȯã줬ɸಽŤۤϤΤǤϤʤҲ /ʧ/ æϡ¤櫓ǤϤʤŪʲѲ̾ΤȤŤ褦Ȥ뤳ȤϤǤʤषǽζξΩȤۤϤ롥
Yokota (8) ϡBrook Ȥʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
As we know, variation of stress has greatly influenced the development of pronouns. Strongly-stressed and lightly-stressed forms coexist for a time with only one form eventually becoming generally accepted by the majority of people. This general acceptance, however, does not lead to permanent fixation. Minor forms can at anytime gain popularity, a process that is repeated in history. For instance, the regular ME development of the OE first person singular ic was ich. Along with this strongly stressed ich, all dialects of ME has the lightly stressed i /i/ (later written I). When ich disappeared, i started to be used in all positions, developing a strong-stressed pronunciation /i:/ for the stressed positions. From this lengthened /i:/, through the Great Vowel Shift, the present-day pronunciation /ai/ was created (Brook 1965: 104).
Yokota, Yumi. "Some Thoughts on the Origin of They, Them and Their."س쳰ʸ١ʹδس쳰ʸԡˡ205--13ǡ
ֻ <gh> Фȯ¿ͤǤ뤳Ȥϡ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) #210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1]) Ǽˤ /f/ бϾʤʤ[2012-06-29-1]ε#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database SearchפθȤƵchough, clough, cough, enough, laugh, rough, shough, slough, sough, tough, trough ʤɤҥåȤʤΤΤĤϰۤʤȯΤ⤢ˡHough Brough ʤɤθͭ̾ˤ /f/ 롥ΰǡborough, bough, dough, plough, though, through ʤɡ̵ΤΤ⾯ʤʤޤ/t/ ³ĶǤ̵¿ (ex. aught, bought, daughter, naught, ought, slaughter, sought, thought, tought)
¿ͲˤΤ뤿ˡ<gh> βˤĴ٤Ƥߤ (443--44) ˤС/x/ > /f/ ѲϡĶˤäưۤʤ뤬14ѻ롥 /rx/ 뤤 /lx/ ȤҲϢ³Ȥʤˤϡ14 /rf/, /lf/ ؤȤ줾ѲűѸ dweorh ϡѸ dwerh Ф dwerf "dwarf" ϤθˤĤƤϡ̤Ȥɽ줿ȯ˹碌 <f> ֤äΤǡ <gh> ľܤˤϴطʤ
ˡ餯15˻Ϥޤäꤵ뤬/uː/ /aʊ/ ԤĶ /x/ /f/ ؤѲ첻ȤƱˤ /x/ /xw/ ؤȿ /f/ ؤѲȹͤ롥줬 enough laugh ΥǤ롥ͳǤ뤬δԤѲʤäbough, through Ǥ롥
/t/ ³ sought, daughter ʤɤˤĤƤϡ/x/ ϰ /f/ ؤѲ17ˤ /f/ Τ¿ä˺줿Ω餯ˤꡤ/f/ ݤ줿 laughter draught ⤢ꡤñǤϤʤ
plough ˤĤư<plough> ϡűѸ plōh ͳ褹뤬ѸǤʣ plōwes ˴Ť <plow> ¤Ωä17ʹߡꥹѸǤ <plough> 졤ꥫѸǤ <plow> 졤ߤʬۤ˻äƤ롥<enough> ȸŷ <enow> Ʊ͡Ǥ롥<gh> ˤޤĤ뤽¾ξܺ٤ϡUpward and Davidson (182--84) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ȥʤɤǡˡ§ (Grimm's Law; [2009-08-08-1]) 첻 (Great Vowel Shift; [2009-11-18-1]) ʤɤηŪʤȤߤ˲Ѳ⤹ȡʤΤ褦ѲΤȤѤʵ䤬¿롥ѲθˤĤƤϽȤΰոΩƤꡤϤäꤷȤϸʤΤǤ롥ѸǤܸǤ⡤¾ΤǤ⡤üԤεդ̤ȤDzѲϸߤäȿʹǤ롥ޥˤѸˤ˸¤äƤ⡤¿βѲŪ뤤ʸŪǧƤꡤˡ§첻ܤϡȤ櫓̾ǤϤ뤬¿Τ2Ĥˤʤäơˡ§ˤĤƤΡ֤ʤפ䤦ΤǤСƱ褦̵βѲΡ֤ʤפʤФʤʤʤ롥ѲθϤȤƤ⡤ѲŪǤꡤ˭٤Ǥ뤫ȤȤϵαƤɬפ롥
㤨СѸ Welsh ȯޥĸκƷŪˤʣβѲȤʤФʤʤФ꤫ޥĸ줫űѸ West-Saxon ɸǤ Wīelisc ˤɤ夯ޤǤˤ⡤5ĤβѲͿƤΤǤ (Hamer 34--35) ޥĸȤƤϡ캬 *walh ˷ƻ *-isk ղä *walhisk ƷƤбѸ -ish ˤĤƤϡ[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפȡˡ

οޤǤ "raising", "breaking", "sk > sc", "i-mutation", "loss of h and compensatory lengthening" 줾βѲդ줿̾ΤǤ롥ˡ§ʤɤĤ̾դƤʤ줾줬Ωɤ1ĤβѲǤ롥
äϤǽʤűѸ West-Saxon ɸ Wīelisc ˤɤ夤θѸʹߤˤʤäߤɸ Welsh ϢʤΤϡ West-Saxon ǤϤʤAnglian Kentish Ǥ롥űѸ Anglia Ǥϡbreaking 餺ष1첻 æ a ز줬 i-mutation ˤƤ æ ؾ夬ꡤѸǤϤȯŸ e, a ʤɤΰ۷Ω16ʹߤϡe 첻ǸǤޤꡤߤ Welsh ŪʸȤ夷
2첻 i ξüˤĤƤϡűѸ˻Ϥޤä餷i ̵ͭɤѸˤ㤷ä褦MED Welsh (adj.) ȡˡʤFrench Ƭ -ish 첻ξά줿֤Ƥ[2009-10-09-1]ε#165. ̱²ƻ i-mutationפȡˡޤ̾ Wallace, Wallis Welsh Ū۷Ǥ롥
Τ褦ˡΤˤȯŪˤϡ¿βѲפɤȤɬפȤʤ롥ȤơѸ father ĸɤΤ褦˲ŪȯŸƤ[2010-08-20-1]ε#480. father ͥˡ§פ⻲ȡ
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
analogy ѡˤϡѲθȤơǤΤƤ뤬Ʊ˺Ǥڻ뤵ƤȤäƤ褤ֲѲ㳰ʤפȾ19ǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ϡˡ§ϳϡ䤫ѤˤäƸ̤ˤǤȼĥˤäơȤ櫓ϡ㳰ꤲ٤ȢȲƤä
ǯʸˡɤβѲιͤ "phonetically gradual and lexically abrupt" ȤΤ¤βѲΤʤˤ "phonetically abrupt and lexically gradual" ΤΤ뤳ȤʬäƤƤ롥óȻ (lexical diffusion) νޤѲѲػȡष "morphologically abrupt and lexically gradual" λ㤬̾Ǥ롥ϡޤˤѲŵŪ˸Ǥ롥Ūʲˡ§Ω줫鸫СϥȢΤ褦ʤΤդ濴Ȥ餹ȡˡ§ðۤʻΤ褦˻פƤ롥ξԤʤΰƱǡ⼡βѲˤϸѲФȤɬפʤΤǤϤʤ
֤ƤԹΩˤĤơޤȲѲȤ֤ƤԹʾˤĤơPostal (234) 3ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
'Analogy' is really an unfortunate term. There is reason to believe that rather than being some sharply defined process, analogy actually is a residual category into which is put every kind of linguistic change which does not meet some set of a priori notions about the nature of change. In particular, I think that the term 'analogy' has been used very misleadingly to refer to cases of perfectly regular phonological change in which part of the conditioning environment involves Surface Constituent Structure; i.e. changes which happen only in nouns, or only in verb stems, etc. I suspect that an analytic survey of cases which have been referred to as 'analogy' would yield many instances of regular phonological change with nonphonetic environments . . . .
Postal ϡ"the regularity of phonetic change "its putative purely phonetic character" (281) ȤƱƤȤŪŦʤ顤벻ѲȤεΥϤۤ礭ʤΤǤϤʤȼƤ롥
ϡŪԵ§ŪʺѤȤơѲεˤƤⰷȤƤŪʲˡ§ˤ顤ŪʲФƤºݤˤԵ§뤫餳ȢɬפȤƤΤǤ롥analogy ϿޤƤ٤
Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
ε#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1]) ǡĸ labiovelar ˤäȤ˿줿[k, g] Τ褦ĴݤˡƱ˿ݤƽФǤ롥ɽȤƤ [kw, gw] ʤɤȼΤǤ롥2ĴﴱƱѤäʲǤ뤿ᡤĴˤİˤؤʡñʤ뿰뤤ñʤؤȯã뤳Ȥ¿ۤʤƱ (cognate) ɤδ֤ǡ/k, g/ /w, b/ ʤɤб뤳Ȥˤʤ櫓顤ϡ礭ʺ߽Ф븶Ǥ롥
㤨Сեε˸ƬҲ [k] (ex. que, qui, quoi) ФơѸε˸ƬҲ [w] (ex. what, who) ϲŪˤۤʤäƤ褦˸뤬ĸ *kw ꤹСƱб褯Ǥ롥Ѹ̾ cow ʥˤȥƥͳηƻ bovine ʥ°ΡˤθƬҲۤ⡤PIE *gwōus ꤹ뤳ȤǡճȾƤʤθεˤθ츻ˤĤƤϡرѸ츻ŵ pp. 1647--48 ܤˡ
Ķˤä [g] [w] ˻ƤȤȤϡȶθȤ롥̼Ļˡ֥åޡפ֥åޡפȳФƤޤäȤ㤬롥[regg(u) woːmaː] [reggu goːmaː] ȼ줿Τ3ܤ4ܤζ˸θǤ롥
Ҷθ㤨ʹ㤤ȤȤǤСǶμˤˤʤȤơ֥ȥåȡơѡפ롥ȥá֥ȡפ [t] ˤꡤϤ [p] ĴƱʿʹƱˤ [t] ȤʤäΤȹͤ롥ʹȤƬ褮äΤϡ[2009-07-26-1]ε#90. taper paperפǤ롥εǤϡƱ (assimilation) ǤϤʤष۲ (dissimilation) ä櫓
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ʸ嵭2022/10/02(Sun) 2022/05/01 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤơ#335. cow beef butter Ʊ캬äƾ̤ǤפȤƼ夲ޤʲɤ
[2009-08-05-1]ε#100. hundred ȰӸءפǡ礭2ʬŪˡȤơɴפɽ魯ƥ (Latin) centum ȥ٥ (Avestan) satem ȤɽʬζʬϡTocharian ε° ([2009-08-06-1], [2009-08-14-1]) θζ֥֥ ([2011-01-20-1]) ʤɤǤȤƤꡤӸؤǤ˽פʤΤȤƤʤζʬ˴Ϣϡcentum satem γƵȡˡ
2ʬˡϡޤȤƤۤɬǤϤʤȤȤ狼äƤƤ롥ξ뤿ˤϡޤ centum satem 2ʬˡκʤФʤʤFortson (53--54) ˤȡĸĺˤĴˤ3̤ƤȤ롥̵ k ǤСplain *k, labiovelar *kw, palatal *
3Ǥ롥3ϡΤۤȤɤΰˤ2غ줿ˤ2̤ꤢꡤ*
*k صۼ줿centum ϡˤȡ*kw *k صۼ줿satem ϡˤȤä̤ȤơԤǤ k, g, gh Ф kw, gw, gwh ԤǤ k, g, gh Ф
,
,
h ̤줿Ȥˤʤ롥PIE *
ܤСԤκǤŵŪ k صۼ줿ԤκǤŵŪ˻ /ʦ, ʧ/ /s, ʃ/ Ѳơɴפɽ魯 PIE
ϡ centum Ϥ satem ϤؤʬƤäΤǤ롥k ɽȤơͻҤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

2ʬˡŪ˸СˤޤŪ뤳ȤǤ롥centum 롼פθ (Greek, Italic, Celtic, Germanic) ŪʬۤƤꡤsatem 롼פθ (Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic) ʬۤƤ롥20ˤʤäȯ줿 Tocharian ϰʬۤȤƤ϶˰֤ˤ⤫餺plain, labiovelar, palatal 3ݤƤꡤƤ centum ϤθǤ롥ƱͤˡAnatolia ɤ Luvian ˤ3ζ̤ǧ롥ޤBalto-Slavic νϰŪ satem ϤȤ뤬ˤäƤ centum ϤλҲΤ¿Albanian satem Ϥθcentum Ͻϰ˰ϤޤƤȤԲIJʻ¤⤢롥
Τ褦ʻ¤ȡĸĺŪѲϡʤȤʬŪˤϡΩΤǤϤʤȤǽǻˤʤäƤ롥ߤǤϡcentum satem ˤ2ʬˡϡĤƤΤ褦ˡŪʶʬȤϤߤʤʤʤäƤƤ롥ȤϤäƤ⡤ʶʬˤϰ㤤ʤڤ³Ƥ椯
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
ʼפʸŸˤβбΰɽȻפWatkins (146--47) ɽƸƤߤƬκǽλҲ첻ˤĤƤбɽǤꡤޤǴؤʤΤǤ롥ʤGermanic ˤĤƤ mutation ϹθƤʤ
ĹɽʤΤǡʲν̾åơPDFdz礷ʤ餴
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
ε[2012-06-10-1]³ԡJespersen ξ䡤ǸڤƤ뤫ĤƤν¯פȤऱΤϡץ顼 (The Prague School) µ Roman Jakobson (1896--1982) Ǥ롥Jakobson ˤϡŪäͤ롥Murdock ̸Ū mama, papa Ĵ̤˴ŤơΤ褦˹ͻƤ롥
(1) Murdock 줫齸ƤƤɽ魯1072θβʬۤŪʬϤȤҲϢ³ޤΤΤ1.1%ۤɤǤꡤ첻ñȤΤΤϤۤȤɤʤäĤޤꡤξˤĤơñҲ첻Ȥ߹碌Ūä (540)
(2) ҲˤĤƤϡĴͼȤƤĺɡ碌85%ᡤĴȤƤϡȻ碌76%Ȥ櫓Ҳι⤤ĺ⤤Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ (540)
(3) 첻ˤĤƤϡΤʳϽФʤ첻Ū /a/ ΩäƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥"the optimal consonant" "the optimal vowel" ȤȤ߹碌¿ȤϡĻθδŬäƤ (540--41)
(4) Ҳ첻Ȥ߹碌νˤĤơ㤨 /am/ ǤϤʤ /ma/ ǤΤϤʤȤΤϡǸȯǤϡĤȤ /am/ νΤۤҲβǤ̤ʤˤϡĻϻҲ첻ؤΤ錄˥ҥȤᡤ˻Ҳ첻βϢǤ椯/ma/ /pa/ ʤɤβṽ¤ϡβȿǤǤϤʤ (541)
(5) ҲȹŸҲΤȤǤϸ첻³䤹֤סˡҲҲΤȤǤ³ˤ֤Ϥϡסˡ첻κۤĴƱˤΤǤꡤ˲ǤȤƤζ̤ΩƤ뤳Ȥɬ̣ΤǤϤʤ̣ͭʲǾζ̤ϡҲˤ (541)
(6) mama, papa ʤɤƱη֤ (reduplication) ϡβǸȤƤζλʪǤϤʤ̣Τñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥɽ魯ȤǡĻθˤäƤϵ̳ŪǤ餢 (542)
ơĤϡʤƤɽ魯줬 /m/ ϤȤɡҲȼ䤹뤯Ǥ롥͡ʡ¯פऱʤ顤Jakobson Ӯ˺ݤƸФɤ뤿ɡȼ虜ʤȤä٤Ƥ롥ʤۤɡФɤä֤ȯ褦ȤСϥߥˤʤ餶ʤ /m/ ʤɤɡŪʪƤ٤Ƥ˾ߤʤƤƤȷӤĤƤ椯ΤǤϤʤơ¸ߤ֤Ƥ/m/ [nasal] ž /p/ ʤɤλҲȷӤĤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤϤʤ (542--44)
뤳Ȥ21Ĥϡ褯ŤȤȡ⤦1Ĥϡդꡤˤ Jakobson ŪȤȡڤ䤫
ʸ嵭2013/03/28(Thu)ؤķ˻һˤǽΰ졽ʤƤϡ֥ޥޡסƤϡ֥ѥѡפʤΤ⻲ȡ
Jakobson, Roman. "Why 'Mama' and 'Papa'?" Phonological Studies. 2nd ed. Vol. 1 of Roman Jakobson Selected Writings. The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1971. 538--45.
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
[2012-06-06-1]ε#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬פǡ(3) (language universals) 1Ȥơ¿θǡƤɽ魯 ma, ba, da, ta Τ⡤ΰפȤϹͤ줺餫θͿƤȤפȽҤ٤ʤĶŪʤΤιŪˤϿʤäƤ mama ǡƤ papa ʤΤϤʤ
͡⤬ƤƤĤƤ褯줿ΤϡѸ papa mam(m)a 䡤ɥĸ졤ǥޡ졤ꥢбϡե줫μѤǤȤǤ롥Υ衼åѤνΤߤʤ餺奮ꥷˤ⡤θˤ㤬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ե櫓ˤϤʤΤˡä17˥衼åѤ˹ޤäƤեʸήԤ衼åѤζ٤θˤ papa mam(m)a ʤɤλѤ¥ȤȤϤä⤷ʤθȯϡ̸ŪΩΤǤȹͤ٤ (Jespersen, VIII. 8 (p. 159))
ޤɽ魯줾θϡĻˤϽФǤϤʤ¾θäƱͤˡ夫ؤȼѤƤˤʤȤԤ⤤Jespersen (VIII. 8 (p. 160)) ڤΤƤƤ褦ˡ¿θҲĤθ줬ǧ뤳Ȥ顤줬
Ǥϡpapa mama ΩȯȤȡϤɤΤ褦˹Ūphonaesthesia δ顤m ϵῴŪľŪǤꡤp ϱŪİջŪǤꡤ줾ΥŬ礹Ȥ⤬줿Ȥ롥Τ褦ˤʤäΤϡ Jespersen (VIII. 8 (p. 154)) ξ褦ʡǤ롥
In the nurseries of all counties a little comedy has in all ages been played---the baby lies and babbles his 'mamama' or 'amama' or 'papapa' or 'apapa' or 'bababa' or 'ababab' without associating the slightest meaning with his mouth-games, and his grown-up friends, in their joy over the precocious child, assign to these syllables a rational sense, accustomed as they are themselves to the fact of an uttered sound having a content, a thought, an idea, corresponding to it.
ĻʤȯޤỤ̄⤿ʤΤĤʤƤʬؼƤΤȴ㤤롤ȤǤ롥Ļˤ콬θθٻǤϤϤ뤬ȾŪ줬 /m/ 㤬 /p/ бΤϤʤʤΤͿƤʤ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
ε[2012-06-08-1]³ơbinomial 2।ǥˤιǤνȲŪꡥϡ1 and 1˶Τ2פȤ binomial ¿¸ߤ뤳Ȥطʤˤϡ嶯ΥꥺŬ礹ȤȤ⤢뤬Bolinger λŦ褦ˡû and ĹפȤŪʽˤ礹Ȥװ롥äȤŵŪĹûκۤ2Ǥβΰ㤤ȤȤƱñΡ˾ˤϡĹûκۤϲλ³ʹ٤ΰ㤤ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥Bolinger ɽǤС"openness and sonorousness" (40) ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
ʬ "open and sonorous" ٤ι⤤ۤ㤤ۤؤʬहȡ(1) 첻(2) ͭ³(3) ͭĺ˻(4) ̵³(5) ̵ĺ˻Ȥʤ롥δû and ĹפСopenness and sonorousness 㤤 and ⤤פȤȤˤʤBolinger (40--44) ϡ¤ˤ¸ߤʤˤ binomial ƻǤäǤνؤơѸüԤ︳Ԥˤɤ餬Ф"He lives in a plap and plam house." vs "He lives in a plam and plap house." ΤȤǤ롥̤ϡŪɬΤǤϤʤä٤ηϸ줿Ȥ
Ǥä binomial ˤ¸ʾ˶̣Τϡp. 40 ˵ƤϢƬɽǤʴϢơ[2011-11-26-1]ε#943. Ƭˤפȡˡflimflam, tick-tock, rick-rack, shilly-shally, mishmash, fiddle-faddle, riffraff, seesaw, knickknack. Ǥϡ2Ǥ¤Ӥϡ줾첻ʹ٤㤤Ρܹ⤤ΡפνˤʤäƤ롥νˤĤƤϡphonaesthesia δ顤ŪˡֶᤤΡܱΡפȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ (see ##207,242,243)
ꥺࡤʹ١Ƭphonaesthesia binomial ȤˤϱѸβԻĤͤޤäƤ褦
Bolinger, D. L. "Binomials and Pitch Accent." Lingua (11): 34--44.
Ʊ2줫ɽ 2।ǥˤȸƤ֡##953,954,955 εǤϡܤƿ binomial Ҳ𤷤binomial "A and B" Τ褦ŵŪ³ǷФ뤬ǤνϤƤꤷƤ롥ɬ⥤ǥȤƸꤷƤʤˤ⡤ȤƹޤȤΤ롥ʤˤ "A and B" ޤ졤̤ξˤ "D and C" ޤΤ䲻ʤɡä˲ŪʾȤΤΤ
Bolinger ϡѸηȤơû and Ĺפνޤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥ĹûκϡŵŪ˲ΰ㤤ȤƸ롥ŵϡ1 and 1˶Τ2פǤ롥̾ƻĤСa bows-and-arrows project, cold and obvious fact, drum-and-bugle corps, floor-to-ceiling window, fresh and frisky pups, furred and feathered creatures, a red and yellow river, strong and bitter political factor, up-and-coming writer ʤɤ (Bolinger 36) ¾ˤϤ롥
black and sooty, blue and silver, bright and rosy, bright and shiny, bruised and battered, cheap and nasty, cloak and dagger, drawn and quartered, fast and furious, fat and fulsome, fat and sassy, fine and dandy, fine and fancy, free and easy, full and equal, gay and laughing, grim and weary, hale and hearty, high and handsome, high and mighty, hot and bothered, hot and healthy, hot and heavy, hot and spicy, lean and lanky, long and lazy, low and lonely, married or widowed, plain and fancy, poor but honest, pure and simple, rough and ready, rough and tumble, slick and slimy, slow and steady, straight and narrow, strong and stormy, tried and tested, true and trusty, warm and winning, wild and woolly
Ƥˤ狼뤬 binomial 嶯οϤ褤ꥺȤʤ롥 tattered and torn, peaches and cream, merry and wise, open and shut, early and later ʤɤΤ褦ˡ嶯Ȥʤ binomial ⤢ˤϤ뤬㳰ŪȹͤƤ褵
Ρ1 and 1˶Τ2פȤηˤĤơBolinger (36--40) üԤμ¸ˤäƤǧȤäƤ롥ǥȤۤɤޤǤˤϸꤵƤʤ2ˤĤơ"A and B" "B and A" ¤Ӥξơɤ餬꼫üԤФȤ¸Ǥ롥ĤξǼ¸ܤ餫äbinomial ˤơprosody β̤Ƥ礭
Bolinger, D. L. "Binomials and Pitch Accent." Lingua (11): 34--44.
ɸϡ[2011-02-06-1]ε#650. ˥ȥˡ§פǼ夲Dz⤷ظƶ (substratum theory) ФƤϰ⤢롥 Grimm's Law θŪˤϥޥ˸ҲܤθˤĤƤ¾Ҳ𤷤
substratum theory äƤƤŵŪˤСޥɤħŪʻҲܤϡȤƻӤƤꡤϤεӵĴ¥ΤȤ줿1901ǯ Meyer-Benfey ˤäƼĥ줿ΤǤ (Collitz 180) οܤܼŪ aspiration ٤ѲǤȹͤƤ Grimm ˤȤäƤƤߤ䤹ä⤷ʤ
θ塤1910ǯˡFeist Kauffmann ʤɤˤꡤ"ethnological grounds" β⡤ʤߤǤظƶ⤬Ф (Collitz 181) [2011-09-01-1]ε#857. ޥ²κħפǿ줿̤ꡤMeillet ⤽̾ΤʤƱٻƤ롥
Collitz 2ĤȽƤ롥ޤظƶΤʤͳȤƤϡظˡޥҲܸбҲ٤·äƤȲꤹΤ뤳ȤƤ롥ǤʤȤСظ줬 aspiration ٤ˤĤƤν۴ķäƤȹͤɬפꡤν۴ķϤʤΤȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ظƶϡܼ˿ƤʤȤ櫓Ǥ (181--82)
Collitz Ϥɤ餫ȤлӵٻƤ롥ȤΤϡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) Ūʬۤѻȡץɥġɥġ̥ɥĤ̿ʤˤĤƿܤδ٤㤯ʤäƤȤ¤뤫ޤMeyer-Benfey Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡƱͤλҲܤФ Armenian 䥢եꥫ Bantu Ǥ⡤ϻϤ˸ꤵƤȤ⤢롥
Collitz ϻϤӵΤߤǤȤϹͤƤʤ3ȤǤ⤤٤ΤȤơaspiration ؤΰŪĴȤʤ⡤͡ؤѲǽʤ餷ˤ "fashion" ƯͿƤȤƤƤ (183) Ĵˤ "increased refinement" 褦ȤΤ̾ȯã"fashion" ƯͿСθ¤ǤϤʤĴȯã⤢롤ȤΤ
. . . the phenomena generally designated by the term of Grimm's Law are plainly the outcome of a tendency towards vigorous articulation, the impression of vigor being effected partly by using an abundant amount of breath, partly by adding to the muscular effort. . . . It will readily be seen that, while the mountain climate may favor the tendency toward energetic articulation, it cannot be maintained that either one of the two modes of articulation is dependent exclusively on climatic conditions. (183)
fashion ǧȤˤƤ⡤ fashion ʤλξΤõΤǤϤʤѲθ fashion 䵤ޤ˵ϸŤꤢ뤬ѤȾ˵ϤǻߤޤäƤޤ⤦˿ʤʤΤ
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
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